The Century Handbook of Writing
Chapter 1
[Transcriber's Notes:
1. Italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with equal signs =like this=.
2. Misprints and punctuation errors were corrected. A list of corrections can be found at the end of the text.]
THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING
BY GARLAND GREEVER _AND_ EASLEY S. JONES
NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1927
Copyright, 1918, by THE CENTURY CO.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
PREFACE
This handbook treats essential matters of grammar, diction, spelling, mechanics; and develops with thoroughness the principles of sentence structure. Larger units of composition it leaves to the texts in formal rhetoric.
The book is built on a decimal plan, the material being simplified and reduced to one hundred articles. Headings of these articles are summarized on two opposite pages by a chart. Here the student can see at a glance the resources of the volume, and the instructor can find immediately the number he wishes to write in the margin of a theme. The chart and the decimal scheme together make the rules accessible for instant reference.
By a device equally efficient, the book throws upon the student the responsibility of teaching himself. Each article begins with a concise rule, which is illustrated by examples; then follows a short "parallel exercise" which the instructor may assign by adding an _x_ to the number he writes in the margin of a theme. While correcting this exercise, the student will give attention to the rule, and will acquire theory and practice at the same time. Moreover, every group of ten articles is followed by mixed exercises; these may be used for review, or imposed in the margin of a theme as a penalty for flagrant or repeated error. Thus friendly counsel is backed by discipline, and the instructor has the means of compelling the student to make rapid progress toward good English.
Although a handbook of this nature is in some ways arbitrary, the arbitrariness is always in the interest of simplicity. The book does have simplicity, permits instant reference, and provides an adequate drill which may be assigned at the stroke of a pen.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT
1. Fragments wrongly used as sentences 2. Incomplete constructions 3. Necessary words omitted 4. Comparisons not logically completed 5. Cause and reason 6. _Is when_ and _is where_ clauses 7. Undeveloped thought 8. Transitions 9. EXERCISE A. Incomplete sentences B. Incomplete constructions C. Incomplete logic D. Undeveloped thought and transitions
UNITY OF THOUGHT
10. Unrelated ideas in one sentence 11. Excessive detail 12. Stringy sentences to be broken up 13. Choppy sentences to be combined 14. Excessive coördination 15. Faulty subordination of the main thought 16. Subordination thwarted by _and_ 17. The _and which_ construction 18. The comma splice 19. EXERCISE A. The comma splice B. One thought in a sentence C. Excessive coördination D. Upside-down subordination
CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT
REFERENCE 20. Divided reference 21. Weak reference 22. Broad reference 23. Dangling participle or gerund
COHERENCE 24. General incoherence 25. Logical sequence 26. Squinting modifier 27. Misplaced word 28. Split construction 29. EXERCISE A. Reference of pronouns B. Dangling modifiers C. Coherence
PARALLEL STRUCTURE 30. Parallel structure for parallel thoughts 31. Correlatives
CONSISTENCY 32. Shift in subject or voice 33. Shift in number, person, or tense 34. Mixed constructions 35. Mixed imagery
USE OF CONNECTIVES 36. The exact connective 37. Repetition of connective with gain in clearness 38. Repetition of connective with loss in clearness 39. EXERCISE A. Parallel structure B. Shift in subject or voice C. Shift in number, person, or tense D. The exact connective E. Repetition of connectives
EMPHASIS
40. Emphasis by position 41. Emphasis by separation 42. Emphasis by subordination 43. The periodic sentence 44. Order of climax 45. The balanced sentence 46. Weak effect of the passive voice 47. Repetition effective: a Words; b Structure 48. Repetition offensive: a Words; b Structure 49. EXERCISE A. Lack of emphasis in general B. Loose structure C. Repetition
GRAMMAR
50. Case: a Nominative, especially after _than_ or _as_; b Nominative _who_ and _whoever_; c Predicate nominative; d Objective; e Objective with infinitive; f Possessive; g Possessive with gerund; h Possession by inanimate objects; i Agreement of pronouns 51. Number: a _Each_, _every one_, etc.; b _Those kind_, etc.; c Collective nouns; d _Don't_ 52. Agreement--not to be thwarted by: a Intervening nouns; b _Together with_ phrases; c _Or_ or _nor_ after subject; d _And_ in the subject; e A predicate noun; f An introductory _there_ 53. _Shall_ and _will_ 54. Principal parts. List 55. Tense, mode, auxiliaries: a Tense in dependent clauses or infinitives; b The past perfect; c Present tense for a general statement; d Mode; e Auxiliaries 56. Adjective and adverb: a Adjective misused for adverb; b Ambiguous cases; c After verbs pertaining to the senses 57. A word in a double capacity 58. List of the terms of grammar 59. EXERCISE A. Case of pronouns B. Agreement C. _Shall_ and _will_ D. _Lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise_ E. Principal parts of verbs F. General
DICTION
60. Wordiness 61. Triteness 62. The exact word 63. Concreteness 64. Sound 65. Subtle violations of good use: a Faulty idiom; b Colloquialism 66. Gross violations of good use: a Barbarisms; b Improprieties; c Slang 67. Words often confused in meaning. List 68. Glossary of faulty diction 69. EXERCISE A. Wordiness B. The exact word C. Words sometimes confused in meaning D. Colloquialisms, slang, faulty idioms
SPELLING
70. Recording errors 71. Pronouncing accurately 72. Logical kinship in words 73. Superficial resemblances. List 74. Words in _ei_ and _ie_ 75. Doubling a final consonant 76. Dropping final _e_ 77. Plurals: a Plurals in _s_ or _es_; b Nouns ending in _y_; c Compound nouns; d Letters, figures, and signs; e Old plurals; f Foreign plurals 78. Compounds: a Compound adjectives; b Compound nouns; c Numbers; d Words written solid; e General principle 79. SPELLING LIST (500 words, 200 in bold-face type)
MISCELLANEOUS
80. Manuscript: a Titles; b Spacing; c Handwriting 81. Capitals: a To begin a sentence or a quotation; b Proper names; c Proper adjectives; d In titles of books or themes; e Miscellaneous uses 82. Italics: a Titles of books; b Foreign words; c Names of ships; d Words taken out of context; e For emphasis 83. Abbreviations: a In ordinary writing; b In business writing 84. Numbers: a Dates and street numbers; b Long figures; Sums of money, etc. 85. Syllabication: a Position of hyphen; b Division between syllables; c Monosyllabic words not divided; d One consonant between syllables; e Two consonants between syllables; f Prefixes and suffixes; g Short words; h Misleading division 86. Outlines: a Topic Outline; b Sentence Outline; c Paragraph Outline; d Indention; e Parallel form; f Faulty coördination; g Too detailed subordination 87. Letters: a Heading; b Inside address and greeting; c Body, Language; d Close; e Outside address; f Miscellaneous directions; g Model business letter; h Formal notes 88. Paragraphs: a Indention; b Length; c Dialogue 89. EXERCISE Capitals, numbers, abbreviations, etc.
PUNCTUATION
90. The Period: a After sentences; b But not after fragments of sentences; c After abbreviations 91. The Comma: a Between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_; b But NOT to splice clauses not joined by a conjunction; c After a subordinate clause preceding a main clause; d To set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases; e To set off parenthetical elements; f Between adjectives; g Between words in a series; h Before a quotation; i To compel a pause for clearness; j Superfluous uses 92. The Semicolon: a Between coördinate clauses not joined by a conjunction; b Between long coördinate clauses; c Before a formal conjunctive adverb; d But not before a quotation 93. The Colon: a To introduce a formal series or quotation; b Before concrete illustrations of a previous general statement 94. The Dash: a To enclose a parenthetical statement; b To mark a breaking-off in thought; c Before a summarizing statement; d But not to be used in place of a period; e Not to be confused with the hyphen 95. Parenthesis Marks: a Uses; b With other marks; c Confirmatory symbols; d Not used to cancel words; e Brackets 96. Quotation Marks: a With quotations; b With paragraphs; c In dialogue; d With slang, etc.; e With words set apart; f Quotation within a quotation; g Together with other marks; h Quotation interrupted by _he said_; i Omission from a quotation; j Unnecessary in the title of a theme, or as a label for humor or irony 97. The Apostrophe: a In contractions; b To form the possessive; c To form the possessive of nouns ending in _s_; d Not used with personal possessive pronouns; e To form the plural of certain signs and letters 98. The Question Mark: a After a direct question; b Not followed by a comma within a sentence; c In parentheses to express uncertainty; d Not used to label irony; e The Exclamation Point 99. EXERCISE 100. GENERAL EXERCISE
TO THE STUDENT
When a number is written in the margin of your theme, you are to turn to the article which corresponds to the number. Read the rule (printed in bold-face type), and study the examples. When an _r_ follows the number on your theme, you are, in addition, to copy the rule. When an _x_ follows the number, you are, besides acquainting yourself with the rule, to write the exercise of five sentences, to correct your own faulty sentence, and to hand in the six on theme paper. If the number ends in 9 (9, 19, 29, etc.), you will find, not a rule, but a long exercise which you are to write and hand in on theme paper. In the absence of special instructions from your teacher, you are invariably to proceed as this paragraph requires.
Try to grasp the principle which underlies the rule. In many places in this book the reason for the existence of the rule is clearly stated. Thus under 20, the reason for the rule on parallel structure is explained in a prologue. In other instances, as in the rule on divided reference (20), the reason becomes clear the moment you read the examples. In certain other instances the rule may appear arbitrary and without a basis in reason. But there is a basis in reason, as you will observe in the following illustration.
Suppose you write, "He is twenty one years old." The instructor asks you to put a hyphen in _twenty-one_, and refers you to 78. You cannot see why a hyphen is necessary, since the meaning is clear without it. But tomorrow you may write. "I will send you twenty five dollar bills." The reader cannot tell whether you mean twenty five-dollar bills or twenty-five dollar bills. In the first sentence the use of the hyphen in _twenty-one_ did not make much difference. In the second sentence the hyphen makes seventy-five dollars' worth of difference. Thus the instructor, in asking you to write, "He is twenty-one years old," is helping you to form a habit that will save you from serious error in other sentences. Whenever you cannot understand the reason for a rule, ask yourself whether the usage of many clear-thinking men for long years past may not be protecting you from difficulties which you do not foresee. Instructors and writers of text books (impressive as is the evidence to the contrary) are human, and do not invent rules to puzzle you. They do not, in fact, invent rules at all, but only make convenient applications of principles which generations of writers have found to be wisest and best.
THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING SENTENCE STRUCTURE
COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT
The first thing to make certain is that the thought of a sentence is complete. A fragment which has no meaning when read alone, or a sentence from which is omitted a necessary word, phrase, or idea, violates an elementary principle of writing.
=Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences=
=1. Do not write a subordinate part of a sentence as if it were a complete sentence.=
Wrong: He stopped short. Hearing some one approach.
Right: He stopped short, hearing some one approach. [Or] Hearing some one approach, he stopped short.
Wrong: The winters are cold. Although the summers are pleasant.
Right: Although the summers are pleasant, the winters are cold.
Wrong: The hunter tried to move the stone. Which he found very heavy.
Right: The hunter tried to move the stone, which he found very heavy. [Or] The hunter tried to move the stone. He found it very heavy.
Note.--A sentence must in itself express a complete thought. Phrases or subordinate clauses, if used alone, carry only an incomplete meaning. They must therefore be attached to a sentence, or restated in independent form. Elliptical expressions used in conversation may be regarded as exceptions: Where? At what time? Ten o'clock. By no means. Certainly. Go.
Exercise:
1. My next experience was in a grain elevator. Where I worked for two summers.
2. The parts of a fountain pen are: first, the point. This is gold. Second, the body.
3. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced when the concrete is thrown in.
4. There are several reasons to account for the swarming of bees. One of these having already been mentioned.
5. Since June the company has increased its trade three per cent. Since August, five per cent.
=Incomplete Constructions=
=2. Do not leave uncompleted a construction which you have begun.=
Wrong: You remember that in his speech in which he said he would oppose the bill.
Right: You remember that in his speech he said he would oppose the bill. [Or] You remember the speech in which he said he would oppose the bill.
Wrong: He was a young man who, coming from the country, with ignorance of city ways, but with plenty of determination to succeed.
Right: He was a young man who, coming from the country, was ignorant of city ways, but had plenty of determination to succeed.
Wrong: From the window of the train I perceived one of those unsightly structures.
Right: From the window of the train I perceived one of those unsightly structures which are always to be seen near a station.
Exercise:
1. As far as his having been deceived, there is a difference of opinion on that matter.
2. The fact that he was always in trouble, his parents wondered whether he should remain in school or not.
3. People who go back to the scenes of their childhood everything looks strangely small.
4. It was the custom that whenever a political party came into office, for the incoming men to discharge all employees of the opposite party.
5. Although the average man, if asked whether he could shoot a rabbit, would answer in the affirmative, even though he had never hunted rabbits, would find himself badly mistaken.
=Necessary Words Omitted=
=3. Do not omit a word or a phrase which is necessary to an immediate understanding of a sentence.=
Ambiguous: I consulted the secretary and president. [Did the speaker consult one man or two?]
Right: I consulted the secretary and the president. [Or] I consulted the man who was president and secretary.
Ambiguous: Water passes through the cement as well as the bricks.
Right: Water passes through the cement as well as through the bricks.
Wrong: I have had experience in every phase of the automobile.
Right: I have had experience in every phase of automobile driving and repairing.
Wrong: About him were men whom he could not tell whether they were friends or foes.
Right: About him were men regarding whom he could not tell whether they were friends or foes. [Or, better] About him were men who might have been either friends or foes.
Exercise:
1. When still a small boy, my family moved to Centerville.
2. Constantly in conversation with some one broadens our ideas and our vocabulary.
3. It was a trick which opposing teams were sure to be baffled.
4. They departed for the battle front with the knowledge they might never return.
5. At the banquet were all classes of people; I met a banker and plumber.
=Comparisons=
=4. Comparisons must be completed logically.=
Wrong: His speed was equal to a racehorse.
Wrong: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer.
Wrong: The shells which are used in quail hunting are different than in rabbit hunting.
Compare a thing with another thing, an abstraction with another abstraction. Do not carelessly compare a thing with a part or quality of another thing. Always ask yourself: What is compared with what?
Right: His speed was equal to that of a racehorse.
Right: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer's.
Right: The shells used in quail hunting are different from those used in rabbit hunting.
Self-contradictory: Chicago is larger than any city in Illinois.
Right: Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois.
Impossible: Chicago is the largest of any other city in Illinois.
Right: Chicago is the largest of all the cities in Illinois. [Or] Chicago is the largest city in Illinois.
Note.--After a comparative, the subject of the comparison should be excluded from the class with which it is compared; after a superlative, the subject of the comparison should be included within the class.
Wrong: {taller of all the girls. {tallest of any girl.
Right: {taller than any other girl [comparative]. {tallest of all the girls [superlative].
Exercise:
1. The climate of America helps her athletes to become superior to other countries.
2. This tobacco is the best of any other on the market.
3. You men are paid three dollars more than any other factory in the city.
4. I thought I was best fitted for an engineering course than any other.
5. Care should be taken not to turn in more cattle than the grass in the pasture.
=Cause and Reason=
=5. A simple statement of fact may be completed by a _because_ clause.=
Right: I am late because I was sick.
=But a statement containing _the reason is_ must be completed by a _that_ clause.=
Wrong: The reason I am late is because I was sick. [The "reason" is not a "because"; the "reason" is the fact of sickness.]
Right: The reason I am late is that I was sick.
=_Because_, the conjunction, may introduce an adverbial clause only.=
Wrong: Because a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is poor. [A _because_ clause cannot be the subject of _is_.]
Right: The fact that a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is poor. [Or] The wearing of old clothes is not proof that a man is poor.
Note.--_Because of_, _owing to_, _on account of_, introduce adverbial phrases only. _Due to_ and _caused by_ introduce adjectival phrases only.
Wrong: He failed, due to weak eyes. [Due is an adjective; it cannot modify a verb.]
Right: His failure was {due to } weak eyes {caused by}
{because of } Right: He failed {owing to } weak eyes. {on account of}
Exercise:
1. The reason why I would not buy a Ford car is because it is too light.
2. My second reason for coming here is because of social advantages.
3. Because John is rich does not make him happier than I.
4. Because I like farming is the reason I chose it.
5. The only reason why vegetation does not grow here is because of the lack of water.
=_is when_ or _is where_ Clauses=
=6. Do not use a _when_ or _where_ clause as a predicate noun. Do not define a word by saying it is a "when" or a "where". Define a noun by another noun, a verb by another verb, etc.=
Wrong: The great event is when the train arrives.
Right: The great event is the arrival of the train.
Wrong: Immigration is where foreigners come into a country.
Right: Immigration is the entering of foreigners into a country.
Wrong: A simile is when one object is compared with another.
Right: A simile is a figure of speech in which one object is compared with another.
Note.--A definition of a term is a statement which (1) names the class to which the term belongs, and (2) distinguishes it from other members of the class. Example. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four sides and four angles. To test a definition ask whether it separates the term defined from all other things. If the definition does not do this, it is incomplete. Define _California_ (so as to exclude other states), _window_ (so as to exclude _door_), _star_ (exclude _moon_), _night_, _rain_, _circle_, _Bible_, _metal_, _mile_, _rectangle_.
Exercise:
1. The pistol shot is when the race begins.
2. A snob is when a man treats others as inferior socially.
3. The wireless telegraph is where messages are sent a long distance through the air.
4. The definition of usury is where one charges interest higher than the legal rate.
5. Biology is when one studies plant and animal life.
=Undeveloped Thought=
=7. Do not halfway express an idea. If the idea is important, develop it. If it is not important, omit it.=
Incomplete: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, and Jack said he had a business engagement that night.
Better: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, a fact which was all the more annoying as Jack said he had a business engagement that night.
Puzzling: Since McAndrew had inherited money, his suitcase was plastered with labels.
Right: Since McAndrew had inherited money, he had traveled extensively. His suitcase was plastered with the labels of foreign hotels.
Careless: In looking for gasoline troubles, we forgot to see whether the tank was supplied.
Right: In looking for the cause of the trouble, we forgot to see whether the tank was supplied with gasoline.
Note.--In giving information about books, do not confuse the title with the contents or some part of the contents. Be accurate in referring to the time, scene, action, plot, or characters.