Chapter 10

Chapter 103,753 wordsPublic domain

Alum and iron alum will act as efficient coagulents where organic matter is present in the water. Iron alum has not only this property but also that of reducing oil discharged from surface condensers to a condition in which it may be readily removed by filtration.

Corrosion--Where there is a corrosive action because of the presence of acid in the water or of oil containing fatty acids which will decompose and cause pitting wherever the sludge can find a resting place, it may be overcome by the neutralization of the water by carbonate of soda. Such neutralization should be carried to the point where the water will just turn red litmus paper blue. As a preventative of such action arising from the presence of the oil, only the highest grades of hydrocarbon oils should be used.

Acidity will occur where sea water is present in a boiler. There is the possibility of such an occurrence in marine practice and in stationary plants using sea water for condensing, due to leaky condenser tubes, priming in the evaporators, etc. Such acidity is caused through the dissociation of magnesium chloride into hydrochloride acid and magnesia under high temperatures. The acid in contact with the metal forms an iron salt which immediately upon its formation is neutralized by the free magnesia in the water, thereby precipitating iron oxide and reforming magnesium chloride. The preventive for corrosion arising from such acidity is the keeping tight of the condenser. Where it is unavoidable that some sea water should find its way into a boiler, the acidity resulting should be neutralized by soda ash. This will convert the magnesium chloride into magnesium carbonate and sodium chloride, neither of which is corrosive but both of which are scale-forming.

The presence of air in the feed water which is sucked in by the feed pump is a well recognized cause of corrosion. Air bubbles form below the water line and attack the metal of the boiler, the oxygen of the air causing oxidization of the boiler metal and the formation of rust. The particle of rust thus formed is swept away by the circulation or is dislodged by expansion and the minute pit thus left forms an ideal resting place for other air bubbles and the continuation of the oxidization process. The prevention is, of course, the removing of the air from the feed water. In marine practice, where there has been experienced the most difficulty from this source, it has been found to be advantageous to pump the water from the hot well to a filter tank placed above the feed pump suction valves. In this way the air is liberated from the surface of the tank and a head is assured for the suction end of the pump. In this same class of work, the corrosive action of air is reduced by introducing the feed through a spray nozzle into the steam space above the water line.

Galvanic action, resulting in the eating away of the boiler metal through electrolysis was formerly considered practically the sole cause of corrosion. But little is known of such action aside from the fact that it does take place in certain instances. The means adopted as a remedy is usually the installation of zinc plates within the boiler, which must have positive metallic contact with the boiler metal. In this way, local electrolytic effects are overcome by a still greater electrolytic action at the expense of the more positive zinc. The positive contact necessary is difficult to maintain and it is questionable just what efficacy such plates have except for a short period after their installation when the contact is known to be positive. Aside from protection from such electrolytic action, however, the zinc plates have a distinct use where there is the liability of air in the feed, as they offer a substance much more readily oxidized by such air than the metal of the boiler.

Foaming--Where foaming is caused by organic matter in suspension, it may be largely overcome by filtration or by the use of a coagulent in connection with filtration, the latter combination having come recently into considerable favor. Alum, or potash alum, and iron alum, which in reality contains no alumina and should rather be called potassia-ferric, are the coagulents generally used in connection with filtration. Such matter as is not removed by filtration may, under certain conditions, be handled by surface blowing. In some instances, settling tanks are used for the removal of matter in suspension, but where large quantities of water are required, filtration is ordinarily substituted on account of the time element and the large area necessary in settling tanks.

Where foaming occurs as the result of overtreatment of the feed water, the obvious remedy is a change in such treatment.

Priming--Where priming is caused by excessive concentration of salts within a boiler, it may be overcome largely by frequent blowing down. The degree of concentration allowable before priming will take place varies widely with conditions of operation and may be definitely determined only by experience with each individual set of conditions. It is the presence of the salts that cause priming that may result in the absolute unfitness of water for boiler feed purposes. Where these salts exist in such quantities that the amount of blowing down necessary to keep the degree of concentration below the priming point results in excessive losses, the only remedy is the securing of another supply of feed, and the results will warrant the change almost regardless of the expense. In some few instances, the impurities may be taken care of by some method of water treatment but such water should be submitted to an authority on the subject before any treatment apparatus is installed.

Boiler Compounds--The method of treatment of feed water by far the most generally used is by the use of some of the so-called boiler compounds. There are many reliable concerns handling such compounds who unquestionably secure the promised results, but there is a great tendency toward looking on the compound as a "cure all" for any water difficulties and care should be taken to deal only with reputable concerns.

The composition of these compounds is almost invariably based on soda with certain tannic substances and in some instances a gelatinous substance which is presumed to encircle scale particles and prevent their adhering to the boiler surfaces. The action of these compounds is ordinarily to reduce the calcium sulphate in the water by means of carbonate of soda and to precipitate it as a muddy form of calcium carbonate which may be blown off. The tannic compounds are used in connection with the soda with the idea of introducing organic matter into any scale already formed. When it has penetrated to the boiler metal, decomposition of the scale sets in, causing a disruptive effect which breaks the scale from the metal sometimes in large slabs. It is this effect of boiler compounds that is to be most carefully guarded against or inevitable trouble will result from the presence of loose scale with the consequent danger of tube losses through burning.

When proper care is taken to suit the compound to the water in use, the results secured are fairly effective. In general, however, the use of compounds may only be recommended for the prevention of scale rather than with the view to removing scale which has already formed, that is, the compounds should be introduced with the feed water only when the boiler has been thoroughly cleaned.

FEED WATER HEATING AND METHODS OF FEEDING

Before water fed into a boiler can be converted into steam, it must be first heated to a temperature corresponding to the pressure within the boiler. Steam at 160 pounds gauge pressure has a temperature of approximately 371 degrees Fahrenheit. If water is fed to the boiler at 60 degrees Fahrenheit, each pound must have 311 B. t. u. added to it to increase its temperature 371 degrees, which increase must take place before the water can be converted into steam. As it requires 1167.8 B. t. u. to raise one pound of water from 60 to 371 degrees and to convert it into steam at 160 pounds gauge pressure, the 311 degrees required simply to raise the temperature of the water from 60 to 371 degrees will be approximately 27 per cent of the total. If, therefore, the temperature of the water can be increased from 60 to 371 degrees before it is introduced into a boiler by the utilization of heat from some source that would otherwise be wasted, there will be a saving in the fuel required of 311 ÷ 1167.8 = 27 per cent, and there will be a net saving, provided the cost of maintaining and operating the apparatus for securing this saving is less than the value of the heat thus saved.

The saving in the fuel due to the heating of feed water by means of heat that would otherwise be wasted may be computed from the formula:

100 (t - t_{i}) Fuel saving per cent = --------------- (1) H + 32 - t_{i}

where, t = temperature of feed water after heating, t_{i} = temperature of feed water before heating, and H = total heat above 32 degrees per pound of steam at the boiler pressure. Values of H may be found in Table 23. Table 17 has been computed from this formula to show the fuel saving under the conditions assumed with the boiler operating at 180 pounds gauge pressure.

TABLE 17

SAVING IN FUEL, IN PER CENT, BY HEATING FEED WATER GAUGE PRESSURE 180 POUNDS

+-----------+-----------------------------------------+ | Initial | Final Temperature--Degrees Fahrenheit | |Temperature|-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----| | Fahrenheit| 120 | 140 | 160 | 180 | 200 | 250 | 300 | +-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 32 | 7.35| 9.02|10.69|12.36|14.04|18.20|22.38| | 35 | 7.12| 8.79|10.46|12.14|13.82|18.00|22.18| | 40 | 6.72| 8.41|10.09|11.77|13.45|17.65|21.86| | 45 | 6.33| 8.02| 9.71|11.40|13.08|17.30|21.52| | 50 | 5.93| 7.63| 9.32|11.02|12.72|16.95|21.19| | 55 | 5.53| 7.24| 8.94|10.64|12.34|16.60|20.86| | 60 | 5.13| 6.84| 8.55|10.27|11.97|16.24|20.52| | 65 | 4.72| 6.44| 8.16| 9.87|11.59|15.88|20.18| | 70 | 4.31| 6.04| 7.77| 9.48|11.21|15.52|19.83| | 75 | 3.90| 5.64| 7.36| 9.09|10.82|15.16|19.48| | 80 | 3.48| 5.22| 6.96| 8.70|10.44|14.79|19.13| | 85 | 3.06| 4.80| 6.55| 8.30|10.05|14.41|18.78| | 90 | 2.63| 4.39| 6.14| 7.89| 9.65|14.04|18.43| | 95 | 2.20| 3.97| 5.73| 7.49| 9.25|13.66|18.07| | 100 | 1.77| 3.54| 5.31| 7.08| 8.85|13.28|17.70| | 110 | .89| 2.68| 4.47| 6.25| 8.04|12.50|16.97| | 120 | .00| 1.80| 3.61| 5.41| 7.21|11.71|16.22| | 130 | | .91| 2.73| 4.55| 6.37|10.91|15.46| | 140 | | .00| 1.84| 3.67| 5.51|10.09|14.68| | 150 | | | .93| 2.78| 4.63| 9.26|13.89| | 160 | | | .00| 1.87| 3.74| 8.41|13.09| | 170 | | | | .94| 2.83| 7.55|12.27| | 180 | | | | .00| 1.91| 6.67|11.43| | 190 | | | | | .96| 5.77|10.58| | 200 | | | | | .00| 4.86| 9.71| | 210 | | | | | | 3.92| 8.82| +-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

Besides the saving in fuel effected by the use of feed water heaters, other advantages are secured. The time required for the conversion of water into steam is diminished and the steam capacity of the boiler thereby increased. Further, the feeding of cold water into a boiler has a tendency toward the setting up of temperature strains, which are diminished in proportion as the temperature of the feed approaches that of the steam. An important additional advantage of heating feed water is that in certain types of heaters a large portion of the scale forming ingredients are precipitated before entering the boiler, with a consequent saving in cleaning and losses through decreased efficiency and capacity.

In general, feed water heaters may be divided into closed heaters, open heaters and economizers; the first two depend for their heat upon exhaust, or in some cases live steam, while the last class utilizes the heat of the waste flue gases to secure the same result. The question of the type of apparatus to be installed is dependent upon the conditions attached to each individual case.

In closed heaters the feed water and the exhaust steam do not come into actual contact with each other. Either the steam or the water passes through tubes surrounded by the other medium, as the heater is of the steam-tube or water-tube type. A closed heater is best suited for water free from scale-forming matter, as such matter soon clogs the passages. Cleaning such heaters is costly and the efficiency drops off rapidly as scale forms. A closed heater is not advisable where the engines work intermittently, as is the case with mine hoisting engines. In this class of work the frequent coolings between operating periods and the sudden heatings when operation commences will tend to loosen the tubes or even pull them apart. For this reason, an open heater, or economizer, will give more satisfactory service with intermittently operating apparatus.

Open heaters are best suited for waters containing scale-forming matter. Much of the temporary hardness may be precipitated in the heater and the sediment easily removed. Such heaters are frequently used with a reagent for precipitating permanent hardness in the combined heat and chemical treatment of feed water. The so-called live steam purifiers are open heaters, the water being raised to the boiling temperature and the carbonates and a portion of the sulphates being precipitated. The disadvantage of this class of apparatus is that some of the sulphates remain in solution to be precipitated as scale when concentrated in the boiler. Sufficient concentration to have such an effect, however, may often be prevented by frequent blowing down.

Economizers find their largest field where the design of the boiler is such that the maximum possible amount of heat is not extracted from the gases of combustion. The more wasteful the boiler, the greater the saving effected by the use of the economizer, and it is sometimes possible to raise the temperature of the feed water to that of high pressure steam by the installation of such an apparatus, the saving amounting in some cases to as much as 20 per cent. The fuel used bears directly on the question of the advisability of an economizer installation, for when oil is the fuel a boiler efficiency of 80 per cent or over is frequently realized, an efficiency which would leave a small opportunity for a commercial gain through the addition of an economizer.

From the standpoint of space requirements, economizers are at a disadvantage in that they are bulky and require a considerable increase over space occupied by a heater of the exhaust type. They also require additional brickwork or a metal casing, which increases the cost. Sometimes, too, the frictional resistance of the gases through an economizer make its adaptability questionable because of the draft conditions. When figuring the net return on economizer investment, all of these factors must be considered.

When the feed water is such that scale will quickly encrust the economizer and throw it out of service for cleaning during an excessive portion of the time, it will be necessary to purify water before introducing it into an economizer to make it earn a profit on the investment.

From the foregoing, it is clearly indicated that it is impossible to make a definite statement as to the relative saving by heating feed water in any of the three types. Each case must be worked out independently and a decision can be reached only after an exhaustive study of all the conditions affecting the case, including the time the plant will be in service and probable growth of the plant. When, as a result of such study, the possible methods for handling the problem have been determined, the solution of the best apparatus can be made easily by the balancing of the saving possible by each method against its first cost, depreciation, maintenance and cost of operation.

Feeding of Water--The choice of methods to be used in introducing feed water into a boiler lies between an injector and a pump. In most plants, an injector would not be economical, as the water fed by such means must be cold, a fact which makes impossible the use of a heater before the water enters the injector. Such a heater might be installed between the injector and the boiler but as heat is added to the water in the injector, the heater could not properly fulfill its function.

TABLE 18

The injector, considered only in the light of a combined heater and pump, is claimed to have a thermal efficiency of 100 per cent, since all of the heat in the steam used is returned to the boiler with the water. This claim leads to an erroneous idea. If a pump is used in feeding the water to a boiler and the heat in the exhaust from the pump is imparted to the feed water, the pump has as high a thermal efficiency as the injector. The pump has the further advantage that it uses so much less steam for the forcing of a given quantity of water into the boiler that it makes possible a greater saving through the use of the exhaust from other auxiliaries for heating the feed, which exhaust, if an injector were used, would be wasted, as has been pointed out.

In locomotive practice, injectors are used because there is no exhaust steam available for heating the feed, this being utilized in producing a forced draft, and because of space requirements. In power plant work, however, pumps are universally used for regular operation, though injectors are sometimes installed as an auxiliary method of feeding.

Table 18 shows the relative value of injectors, direct-acting steam pumps and pumps driven from the engine, the data having been obtained from actual experiment. It will be noted that when feeding cold water direct to the boilers, the injector has a slightly greater economy but when feeding through a heater, the pump is by far the more economical.

Auxiliaries--It is the general impression that auxiliaries will take less steam if the exhaust is turned into the condensers, in this way reducing the back pressure. As a matter of fact, vacuum is rarely registered on an indicator card taken from the cylinders of certain types of auxiliaries unless the exhaust connection is short and without bends, as long pipes and many angles offset the effect of the condenser. On the other hand, if the exhaust steam from the auxiliaries can be used for heating the feed water, all of the latent heat less only the loss due to radiation is returned to the boiler and is saved instead of being lost in the condensing water or wasted with the free exhaust. Taking into consideration the plant as a whole, it would appear that the auxiliary machinery, under such conditions, is more efficient than the main engines.

STEAM

When a given weight of a perfect gas is compressed or expanded at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume is a constant. Vapors, which are liquids in aeriform condition, on the other hand, can exist only at a definite pressure corresponding to each temperature if in the saturated state, that is, the pressure is a function of the temperature only. Steam is water vapor, and at a pressure of, say, 150 pounds absolute per square inch saturated steam can exist only at a temperature 358 degrees Fahrenheit. Hence if the pressure of saturated steam be fixed, its temperature is also fixed, and _vice versa_.

Saturated steam is water vapor in the condition in which it is generated from water with which it is in contact. Or it is steam which is at the maximum pressure and density possible at its temperature. If any change be made in the temperature or pressure of steam, there will be a corresponding change in its condition. If the pressure be increased or the temperature decreased, a portion of the steam will be condensed. If the temperature be increased or the pressure decreased, a portion of the water with which the steam is in contact will be evaporated into steam. Steam will remain saturated just so long as it is of the same pressure and temperature as the water with which it can remain in contact without a gain or loss of heat. Moreover, saturated steam cannot have its temperature lowered without a lowering of its pressure, any loss of heat being made up by the latent heat of such portion as will be condensed. Nor can the temperature of saturated steam be increased except when accompanied by a corresponding increase in pressure, any added heat being expended in the evaporation into steam of a portion of the water with which it is in contact.