Part 147

Reverting to Mr. Bradford’s original laundry, we find that although some of his latest novelties are worked there, many of the appliances which were put in the laundry when it first started are still working--a sufficient evidence of their substantial character.

At the entrance to a steam laundry should be a covered way, for the vans to stand under when loading and unloading, and the vanmen should deposit the linen in the hall when they bring it from customers, keeping each load separate. Space is also here provided for the storage of empty baskets. On one side of the hall at the laundry in question is a door, leading to the

_Receiving and Sorting_ room, where a female clerk checks the customers’ books as the goods are counted by an assistant. Books are provided by the laundry in which are printed detailed lists of ladies’, gentlemen’s, children’s, and servants’ washing, blank spaces being left for the customers to insert number of articles sent, and for any special instructions.

In several partitioned compartments young women examine the linen--each family’s being kept distinct--to see whether it is marked with the customer’s name, and to all articles not so distinguished a private coloured cotton mark is attached.

Leading from the Receiving Room is a long passage, on one side of which is a number of clothes bins, each marked with the name of the class of linen it contains. On the opposite side of this passage is a small private wash-house, intended for special work.

_The General Wash-house_ (Fig. 151) is furnished with 4 Bradford’s “Vowel” washing machines--2 large size for house linen and large quantities of work, 2 smaller size for finery, handkerchiefs, and small quantities of goods. These machines are similar in principle to those referred to in the paragraphs relating to domestic machines, but wash at one time any quantity of linen up to, say, 150 men’s shirts. Each machine is fitted with cold water and steam boiling apparatus. The water is first let into the machine, and then heated by steam to whatever temperature is required, and the requisite quantities of dissolved soap and soda are then added. Specially constructed boilers are provided, one for dissolving soap and the other for dissolving soda; and the proportions of soda and soap put into the machine are suited to the class of goods being washed. The consumption of soap in these machines is very small, owing to the moderate quantity of water used for washing; in fact it is one of the essential points that only sufficient water be employed to thoroughly saturate the clothes.

The time occupied for washing a batch of linen varies from 10 to 20 minutes, some things of course requiring longer than others. As before mentioned, there are two machines of each size. After washing in the first machine, the linen is passed between the indiarubber rollers--which wring out the dirty suds--and then placed in the second machine in clean hot water and soap for the second or clearing operation; the time occupied for this clearing is about 10 minutes. During the time the clearing is going on, steam is let steadily into the washing compartment, and in many cases the clothes are during this second operation boiled in the machine, after which cold water is let in to cool them down, so that they may be easily lifted out by hand. The suds that have been used for this seconding operation can be employed, with a little additional soap and soda, for the first washing of another batch of goods. It will be seen that the time occupied for actual washing is very short, so that in addition to the washing machine having no internal mechanism to operate deleteriously upon the clothes, the time occupied is so short that the wear upon the linen is reduced to a minimum, and the advantage of the “seconding” process is obvious to anybody as being important for thoroughly clearing the linen from discoloured water and soap suds. Although, as already stated, steam is attached to the washing machine, so that clothes can when desired be boiled in the machine, yet many articles require separate boiling, such as body-linen, and for this purpose tanks are provided.

_Boiling Tanks_ are fitted with special arrangements for steam boiling and hold a large quantity of clothes and water, the latter being very essential for the maintenance of good colour in the linen. The linen is constantly floated and turned over by pressure of steam rising through the water, keeping it in perpetual agitation.

The original system for boiling in these tanks was to drop the clothes into the water, pushing them down with a copper-stick, and, after boiling, to lift them out on to a drainer by means of the copper-stick; but Messrs. Bradford have recently introduced a new arrangement, consisting of a cage which when filled is let down into the water, and remains there until the whole batch of clothes is boiled--occupying about 10 minutes. This cage is then raised by means of pulleys and chains, which are attached to a travelling arrangement overhead, so that it may be run up to the rinsing tank and the clothes tipped into the cold rinsing water. The boiling tanks in this system are 3 or 4 in number, placed in a line with the rinsing tank at the side, so that the travelling cage may run from either one or the other to the rinsing compartment.

_Rinsing Apparatus_ (Fig. 153) consists of a large tank with 2 compartments, the first being twice as large as the second, and having an apparatus fixed in the bottom for letting the water in under pressure, which forces the scum that separates from the clothes as they are being rinsed, and carries it to one end, whence it is removed by the overflow. This operation proceeds constantly while the clothes are being washed, so that the water is ever fresh and clear, and in a continued state of agitation, sufficient to thoroughly rinse the linen without fear of injury. From this compartment the clothes are passed between rubber rollers, or lifted upon a drainer, and then put into the second or blueing compartment, from which they are passed between indiarubber wringing rollers.

A hydro-extractor (Fig. 154) will extract more water than can be done by any other means. The clothes are placed in a wire basket which revolves at a high speed, being driven by gearing worked by a strap, or by direct action of a steam engine attached to the machine. Hand-power hydro-extractors are also recommended for hand laundries where a large quantity of work has to be done.

_Drying Closet._--After leaving the hydro-extractor, the clothes are taken to the drying closet (Fig. 155), which consists of a number of horses running upon wheels in and out of a chamber, which is heated by means of a steam coil underneath the horses; and by a special arrangement, fresh air is constantly let into the underside of this heating coil, and, rising amongst the clothes, extracts all the moisture, which is effectually carried off by means of a ventilating apparatus. Of course when weather will permit, drying is done out of doors, for which a spacious open drying ground is provided.

_Starching._--Such goods as require starching are taken to the starching machine, collars and cuffs to one kind of machine-which is specially fitted for rubbing the starch into the linen--and dresses, petticoats, aprons, &c., to the trough, in which is a specially prepared starch, and which has a wringing machine with rubber starching rollers.

_Mangling, Calendering, and Ironing._--The first machine in the finishing and ironing department (Fig. 155A) is a “Premier” box mangle, which is used for mangling all plain household linen, and next to this is a “Crescent” ironing machine (Fig. 155B), which iron in a superior manner table linen, pillow cases, pocket handkerchiefs, and plain body-linen. The ironing surface of this machine is concave and made in sections, under which a roller revolves. The chief advantage of the “sections” in the ironing surface is that during the process of ironing the moisture from the articles is carried off through the apertures between the sections, thereby retaining a good colour in the linen and drying it quickly. The roller besides having a forward has also a lateral motion, worked by a very ingenious but simple contrivance in the driving gear, and by this lateral action the polish upon the surface of the articles is produced.

The advantage of this machine in ironing body-linen is that when the skirt or plain part of the garment has been “taken in” as far as the gathers, the roller can be instantly lowered by pressing the foot upon a treadle close behind the operator, and the article withdrawn, so that the gathered portion may be finished by hand. The ease with which the pressure can be regulated is a very excellent feature of the machine. A special arrangement is provided with this machine for finishing lace and muslin curtains.

Messrs. Bradford have recently introduced the “Invert Crescent” ironing machine (Fig. 155C), the ironing surface of which is a concave plate of bright polished iron, made in sections similar to the “Crescent” above described, the ventilation being equally efficient in both machines, and is, indeed, an important patented feature in these ironers. This machine is specially adapted for plain ironing, such as table linen, bed linen, and other straightforward work. The roller is heated by steam, which also adds to the efficiency of the machine, as it keeps the flannel upon the roller constantly dry, thereby reducing the wear and tear of ironing flannel.

Special facilities are afforded for raising or lowering the roller.

The Endless Band Calender (Fig. 155D) is in constant use ironing body-linen, pocket handkerchiefs, and other small and plain articles.

The _Collar Ironing Machine_ (Fig. 155E) is worked by a girl (as in fact are all the previously mentioned ironing machines); it is capable of ironing 90 to 100 dozen collars and cuffs per diem. It is fitted with 2 rollers or cylinders--the bottom one (the feeder) being of large diameter, and the top one, made of polished metal, much smaller--and heated by gas mixed with air to produce perfect combustion. The collars, taken straight from the starching machine, are stretched upon a board, which is by an automatic arrangement continually sliding backwards and forwards between the 2 rollers, the pressure being regulated by means of a spiral spring. A very high finish is imparted to the surface of the collars. This machine is also made as a combined collar, cuff, and shirt-front ironer.

The “Pagoda” _Iron Heating Stove_ is placed on one side of the ironing room; and on either side of it is fixed a “Radial” drying or airing horse. The stove heats at one time 54 irons. The advantage of the radial horse on each side of the stove is that the heat is utilised for airing and stiffening the ironed articles, a large quantity of which can be hung upon the radial arms.

In some steam laundries gas irons are now employed; where these are used exclusively, it is necessary to provide a steam-heated airing closet for airing and stiffening the finished work before it is taken to the packing room.

The packing department (Fig. 155F) has on all sides convenient latticed wooden racks or compartments, ranged in various sizes for different sized washings, the name, address, and mark in coloured ink (representing the coloured cotton mark on the goods) of each customer being placed over each rack. Body-linen, shirts, collars, and finery are all sorted in the racks, but house linen, which is of course much heavier, is sorted on separate shelves, dresses and other starched work being hung upon rails overhead, in close proximity to the racks to which they belong.

In the centre of the room is a hot table or closet with open shelves, in which is a steam coil. This is used for airing the house linen and other things before they are sorted away. There is also round the room and underneath the racking a steam coil for warming the room. The linen is conveyed from room to room as required, by means of clothes wagons and barrows running upon rubber tyred wheels.

On emerging from the packing room we found ourselves in the entrance hall, immediately opposite the door leading to the sorting room, showing that we had made a tour of the laundry, from one department to the other, without going over any part of the ground twice. The different doors we then noticed had each a name upon its outside, as “sorting,” “receiving,” and “marking” room, next “general wash-house,” next “ironing room,” and, upon the door through which we had just passed, “packing and delivery room.”

The offices, private and general, are placed at the back of this entrance hall, and command a view of the reception and dispatch of all work and of the entrance or departure of visitors or workpeople. A general sight is also obtained from here over the working departments (with the exception of the private wash-house).

The building generally is lofty and well ventilated; and we were pleased to note that the proprietors, in addition to having well considered the arrangement of workrooms, have provided a spacious dining and recreation room, fitted with cookery range and every convenience for the use of the workpeople. This is on the first floor, over the entrance hall.

_Public Institution Laundries._--Most of the large public institutions, such as hospitals, workhouses, infirmaries, and asylums throughout the country, are fitted with Bradford’s “Vowel” washing machines, and for hospital purposes the washing compartments are made of metal, and can be used for special cases where desirable.

One of the first important washing plants constructed by Messrs. Bradford was fixed in the London Hospital, Whitechapel Road, London, in 1867, and it is still working in this institution.

Architects and others interested in steam laundry apparatus will do well to consult Messrs. Bradford & Co. when arranging their plans.

_THE SCHOOLROOM._

_The Room._--Provided that the room fulfil all the ordinary conditions of sanitation, the foremost question then for decision is the lighting of the room. As remarked by Dr. Power, the amount of light, both day and artificial, supplied in schools is a matter of great importance, for the feebler the light the closer is the object instinctively brought to the observer to be recognised, and amongst the various suggestions of a practical nature that have been made is one by Hoffmann, of Wiesbaden, that in every schoolroom a set of Snellen’s test types should be suspended, and as soon as they are no longer legible by the healthy at a normal distance the school should close. In school buildings the windows should, if possible, look to the south or east, a much greater amount of light entering with equal window space from those directions, especially in the earlier hours of the day, than from the north, whilst type of a given size is read at a much greater distance with south than with north light. Cohn and Javal alike think that it is almost impossible to get too much light in a schoolroom, the latter maintaining that there should be sufficient light in the darkest part of the room to read easily and well even on dark days. The size of the window must manifestly exert a great influence upon the amount of light admitted, and Cohn has laid down the rule that there should be at least 1 sq. ft. of window pane for every 5 sq. ft. of flooring, and in some recent Parisian models there is actually 1 ft. of window to each foot of flooring. The height of the window from the floor is of importance, since a room is always dark with high windows, owing to the obliquity of the entering rays and the loss by reflection; the sill of the window should not be lower than 1 ft. from the ground. The light should enter from the left hand, since it enables the letter that has just been formed in writing to be distinctly seen; whereas, if the light enter from the right, the last written letters are in the dark. The total area being the same, 3 windows are better than 2, for since the illumination obtained from a given light diminishes as the square of the distance, more light will be obtained in the remoter parts of the room with 3 than with 2 lights.

_Desks and Benches._--The form of the desks and school furniture is a point that has been almost entirely neglected in England. The slope of the table is of importance. If a book be placed vertically in front of us, we can see well, and no inclination of the head is required. If it be placed at such an inclination as to form an angle of 45° with the horizon, we can still, by turning the eyes down, read well without inclining the head; but if the book is placed horizontally, the head is naturally bent downwards to relieve the exertion of turning the eyes strongly downwards, and this tends to congest the vessels of the head. Hence the desk should be inclined, and not flat; but an angle of 45° would be too much, the books, &c., would slide off. A rise of 2 in. for each 12 in. of table breadth is sufficient. Fahrner considers that the first movement of the child in leaving the normal position consists in inclining his head forward and to the left, and that this apparently unimportant movement is the root of the whole evil; for it in the first place causes the centre of gravity of the head to fall in front of the vertebral column. The muscles of the neck are consequently called into play; they soon, however, become fatigued, and transfer the work to the muscles of the back, and thus at the expiration of a few minutes the head sinks upon the left arm, and the eyes are brought into very close proximity with the paper. All physicians are now agreed that the desk should be a little higher than the elbows when hanging naturally, and that the size of the child should be taken into consideration.

The distance between the edge of the desk and the front edge of his seat must be 0, or they must even somewhat overlap each other; the difference in height between the bench and the desk must be as great as the distance of the elbow from the bench when the arm is hanging freely down 1 or 2¼ in.; every school bench must have a proper back, which must not be the back of the desk behind. There is much difference of opinion amongst high authorities as to the best form of back, some preferring a high back, others a T-back of moderate height, and others again a low back. The high back supports the lower part of the dorsal region of the spine, and thus relieves the lumbar (or loins) region of part of the superincumbent weight. The moderately high T-back supports the sacrum or the lower lumbar vertebræ, fixes the pelvis, and renders the sitting position one of rest. The low back fits into the curvature of the loins, and fulfils the purposes of both the other forms partially. It is the form which is generally regarded as being the best. It is on the whole best that each seat should have its own back, since with continuous backs, overcrowding, which should be religiously avoided, may occur. The back should be curved to suit the form of the body, and be firmly and solidly constructed.

The bench on which the scholar sits should be hollowed out continuously with the back, and be either flat or a little raised in front. Its breadth should be, in accordance with the size of the child, 9-13¼ in. The height of the bench should be such that the knee is bent at right angles to the well-supported and resting thigh, and that the soles of the feet may be planted flat on the ground or on a foot-board. The table-top must be broad enough to support books and papers, and to allow them to be pushed forward so far that they do not interfere with writing: 12½-15½ in. are the right dimensions. The desk-top must, moreover, form an inclined plane; nothing conduces so much to stooping as a flat desk. The limit is that the ink should not flow back in the pen; but this is much too great, since books and papers would slide off unless prevented by a raised edge at the bottom of the desk, and such edges are objectionable, since they hurt the arm in writing. An inclination of 2 in. in 12 is about right. For reading, the desk inclination may be as steep as possible, but this is not easy to manage in school desks. The height of the desk is from a medical point of view secondarily determined as soon as the height of the bench and the difference between the bench and the desk is determined. If the feet are to rest on the ground, the height of the desk will have to be different, according to the size of the child, which may be inconvenient to the teacher. The difficulty may be overcome by having a movable latticework for the feet to rest on. The desk lastly should be sufficiently broad (19½-23½ in.) for each child. Arrangements require to be made to allow of standing as well as sitting. A typical form (Varrentrapp’s) of school desk and seat is shown in Fig. 156. The dotted lines of the seat give the position and dimensions suitable for older scholars. The distances _a b_ (14 in.) and _c b_ (2¾ in.) remain the same for all children; the difference _b d_ is slightly increased with the age.

_Type of Books._--Much attention has lately been directed to various points in printing, shown to exert an influence on the vision. First, in regard to the letters themselves. No one can compare the Gothic with the modern Roman letters without being struck with the superior legibility of the Roman type. The flourishes of some of the letters, the close similarity to one another of others, as of the “h” and “k,” the “f” and “s,” the “u” and the “n,” all render a closer examination of the print requisite in the one case than in the other. Javal, to whom we are indebted for much interesting observation on this subject, says that the increased number of myopes (shortsighted persons) noticed in Elsass since the annexation consequent on the war of 1870 is due to the introduction of German type and writing into that province. Weber considers that the absence of fine upstrokes in the Roman form of type is a distinct advantage, and, further, that the arched, instead of the pointed, shape of the letters in the Roman type renders them more easy to read, and therefore require less earnest fixation. Weber maintains that a child 8 years of age who has read and worked with Latin or Roman type for 3 months is in advance of a child who has read the Gothic type for 2 years. The size of the short letters, such as “m” or “n,” should not be less than 1·5 mm. and the interspaces between two words should be somewhat greater, 2 mm. or 2·5 mm. It is considered that letters smaller than this are injurious. The leader of the _Times_ has a height of short letters of this size, and that is a very legible print to the ordinary eye at a distance of 12-15 in., while much smaller type can be seen.