Part 146

When an apparatus is being fitted up, it must be borne in mind that the most perfect arrangement would be to place the tank immediately over the boiler, and carry the pipes in a vertical line between them; this can rarely, in fact, never be done, so it should be arranged and carried in a manner as near this as possible; every angle and every piece of horizontal pipe is objectionable, but regard must be had for positions where the pipes or casings would be unsightly. Where pipes _must_ be run laterally, they should if possible be given a rise towards the cylinder or tank if only 1 in. in 5 ft., but more if possible; these remarks only apply to circulating pipes.

The “flow” pipe should always proceed from the top of the boiler, never from the sides or back (although this is often done), as it will be understood that the heated water, wanting to rise, much objects to starting along a horizontal pipe however short, and another reason is that an air chamber will be formed in the top of the boiler, and cause much annoyance already alluded to.

In No. 1 system the cylinder and circulating pipes cannot well be placed in a cold position, but with No. 2 system ingenuity must be exercised to carry the pipes and place the tank in as warm positions as possible near to chimneys and not on outside walls, &c., if possible; it is time well invested to cover the pipes and tank with a non-conducting covering in any case for the reasons already stated. Pipes should on no account be let into the wall and cemented over, as, with the best work, investigation may at some time be needed, and this would necessitate serious damage to the decoration of the wall in question. On no account sanction the idea of carrying circulating pipes outside the building, however well or carefully they are to be cased or covered. These remarks apply also to the cold-supply pipe to prevent failure in supply by frost. It is also necessary to see that neither circulating pipe comes in contact with a cold-water pipe or a soil (w.c.) pipe.

It will be noticed in the illustrations that before the cold supply enters the tank or cylinder, it descends below its entrance level a short distance, about 12 in., and rises up to the tank or cylinder; this dip in the pipe is called a “syphon,” and prevents the hot water rising up this pipe, as it must be understood that hot water _will not_ circulate downwards.

The cold supply is usually of lead pipe ¾ in. internal diameter, but lead pipe is quite unsuited for soft or pure water (distilled). The same applies to lead cisterns, as this water attacks (oxidises) lead vigorously, and lead pipe is not looked upon with favour for many reasons. Iron is now often used for the whole apparatus, including cistern, tank, &c. (excepting where copper is used for boiler or cylinder). There is a marked advantage if the cold-supply pipe is 1 in. instead of ¾ in., for this reason, if two or three ¾ in. (usual size) taps are opened at once, as commonly occurs, the flow of water must be reduced at each of them if only a ¾ in. supply exists.

The advantages of draw-off services being “returned” have already been explained, and cocks or taps have been treated upon. There are numberless good cocks in the market, but of course the best are subject to wear and tear; those with lever handles, known as plug cocks, have to have the plugs reground in occasionally, and with the screw-down cocks the sealing, generally of prepared indiarubber, has to be renewed periodically; but money is well invested in really good quality taps.

If after the apparatus is fitted and finished there are any leaks noticeable, the purchaser should insist upon these being remedied before the workmen finally leave; there is a common saying amongst workmen that small leaks or “weeps” pick themselves up, i.e. the aperture rusts up; very small leaks will pick themselves up sometimes, but no reliance can be placed in this unworkmanlike way of finishing, and it is commonly necessary to have the men in the house a second time to remedy one or more obdurate “weeps,” which are really defective joints.

Baths and lavatories are of very numerous variety; but a good feature with a bath is to have the hot-water inlet near the bottom, so that when the taps are opened this inlet quickly becomes below the water level, and this prevents the steam rising as the water is discharged, rendering the room unbearable if small; but this inlet _must not_ be in any way connected with the waste outlet as it often is, as when the water runs in it will bring back a portion of the last bather’s soapsuds. A good feature in a lavatory basin is a flushing rim: the rim of the basin is hollow and provided with a fine slit or aperture which extends all round its lower edge. When the tap is turned, the water is discharged into this rim, and from there flows into the basin, through this aperture around the whole of its circumference; this is of especial use to wash away sediment from the sides of the basin after use.

Both baths and lavatories should have large supplies (hot and cold) and large wastes, to fill and empty rapidly.

No. 2 system can, when desired, be converted into No. 1 system at a moderate expense (about one-third the cost of a new apparatus); and a range can be fitted with a high-pressure boiler in such a manner that it can be used for low-pressure purposes first, and when the high-pressure apparatus is fitted up it can be connected and started to work upon the latter principle in 2 or 3 hours.

If two ranges are in proximity they can both be provided with high-pressure boilers and the two services united, flow to flow and return to return, and work the one tank or cylinder and apparatus, either assisting each other or working independently. This is oftentimes a very great convenience; the union of the services should be as near the boilers as possible; no stop taps are needed (avoid these whenever possible).

Twin boilers can sometimes be fitted to a range, and each used for a different purpose, viz. one for hot-water supply, and one for steam cooking, &c.

Fig. 133 represents the common form of self-supply or self-filling apparatus as attached to low-pressure boilers in kitchen ranges. By the term “low pressure” is meant open top or closed boilers that are not usually filled quite full, and the draw-off is below the water-level within them. _A_ represents the small supply cistern, which is supplied from the general cold supply of the house; the quantity and level of the water in this small cistern is regulated by a ball valve _D_, as shown; this cistern is connected with the boiler _B_ by a supply pipe _C_, usually of lead and ¾ inch internal diameter, and provided with a “syphon” as shown, and for the purpose described in cold supply to tanks, &c.; this supply proceeds from the bottom of the supply cistern _A_ to the bottom or near the bottom of the boiler _B_. There is a very common error in arranging the apparatus so that the boiler fills up to about 4 in. from the top; this is not high enough, it should fill up to within about 1½ in., this is ample room for expansion and boiling; if a 4 in. space is left it means 4 in. for the flame and heat to act upon without having water to protect it, and consequently it becomes destroyed. This does not always produce a leakage, but it permits the smoke and soot to enter and discolour the water. There is another still more common form of error in this description of apparatus, and that is, failing to draw from the upper part of the boiler where the hottest water is, and where it first becomes hot; it will be understood from Fig. 133 that when the tap (if placed near the bottom of the boiler as usual) is opened, a portion of the contents of the boiler flows out and a supply of cold immediately flows in, to make good the loss. Now the hot water being lightest, remains at the top of the boiler, so it can readily be seen that it cannot be drawn, for it will not descend, and the inflow of cold is right opposite the tap, therefore when the tap is opened a small quantity of hot water is drawn, and then there sets in a flow of cold water from the cistern, across the bottom of the boiler, and out at the tap almost without disturbing the hot water in the upper part of the boiler. There are two remedies; one is to have the tap inserted in the upper part of the boiler (by the manufacturer) when purchasing it; another is with existing ranges to screw an elbow on to the end of the tap _inside_ the boiler, and into this elbow to screw a short length of pipe to stand up to about 4 in. below the water-level, as in Fig. 134; this elbow and pipe can be fitted by any one, as no jointing is required, and to fit it the tap does not require to be moved in any way. The reason that it is necessary to keep the end of the pipe so much below the water-level is, that the ball valve by which the cold water is supplied is smaller than the tap from which the water is taken, or, in other words, the inlet is smaller than the outlet, and the level of the water sinks or becomes lower in the boiler and cistern as you draw.

It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the reader that good work executed by a good firm, although the expense is increased, is a source of comfort and many advantages, and is “the cheapest in the end.”

Preventing Frost in Pipes.--The common practice is to leave a tap slightly open, so as to maintain a constant current through the pipe. This plan is wasteful, and is not always successful. Perhaps the safest course is to empty the pipes and cisterns, and only to allow water to flow in from the main as it is wanted for consumption. To do this an outside stop-cock is required on the service pipe, and a drawing-off cock at the lowest point in the course of the pipe inside the building. It also requires more intelligence and attention than domestic servants usually display. Another way is to empty the pipes only. For this, a valve of special make is screwed to the end of the house main service pipe in the cistern, and a piece of wire is connected with it to any convenient place. When frost is expected, the spring must be unhooked, when the valve falls into its seat, and air being admitted through the small pipe which rises above the surface of the water, the pipes can be emptied by turning on the taps in the usual manner, and the water in the cistern is thus saved. To prevent the effects of forgetfulness on the part of servants, electricity has been employed. Again, a means of emptying the pipes as soon as the water is turned off at the main, so as to leave none to freeze, is to perforate the supply pipe by a mere pin-hole aperture just behind the ball-cock of the lowest cistern on the premises, so as to allow the water contained in the pipe to drain into the cistern when the supply ceases. It is obvious that the puncture must be in the most dependent part of the pipes, otherwise the water would not entirely escape, and that other punctures will be required if the lowest one does not drain the pipes of other cisterns. This plan can only be adopted where the supply is intermittent. Where the supply is constant, a small warming apparatus may be placed at the lowest level the pipe reaches, so as to circulate a current of warmed water throughout the whole length of the pipe. This might be either separate from it, as a cylinder through which the pipe might pass, or simply an enlargement of the pipe itself, on which the gas flame could play. Considering the enormous injury done annually by frost bursting the pipes in houses, the small outlay that would be required would soon be repaid in security from such disasters; for if the warming apparatus were placed over a gas flame used for ordinary illumination, a very small additional consumption of gas would keep the vessel warm when the light was no longer required. If gas were not available, the water-pipe might be arranged to pass through a vessel connected with the kitchen boiler, and so obtain the required heat. But failing these, the pipes might still be supplied at night after turning off the water, even where the supply is constant. Thus the chance of its freezing would be reduced to a minimum.

To thaw a frozen pipe, the simplest and safest way is to pour hot water upon it, or apply cloths dipped in hot water to those points where the pipe is most exposed. The freezing will generally be found to have taken place near a window, or near the eaves of the roof, or at a bend. If pipes are frozen and a thaw is expected, care should be taken to close all stop-cocks as a precaution against flooding. To prevent kitchen boilers exploding, it is necessary to see that they always contain water, and that there is no stoppage in the pipes connected with them.

F. Dye.

See also p. 1009.

_THE LAUNDRY._

DOMESTIC WASHING.

The great cost of having household and personal linen washed at a laundry drives many housewives to have their washing done at home. The methods of cleansing clothes &c., have been already described in another chapter; it remains to say a few words about the apparatus.

Certainly the most common form of washing apparatus is the familiar “copper,” a large metallic pot set in brickwork, as shown in Fig. 135. The point to be aimed at in setting this pot is that the flame shall pass as nearly as possible all round it. Care must be taken to cut off all communication with the fire except at the outlet shown, and to erect a brick-on-edge stop _a_. The flues _b_ should be not less than 3 in. wide, and 3 courses deep; _c_ is the fire-place, _d_ the ashpit, and _e_ the chimney.

The boiling, scrubbing, and emptying incidental to this plan of washing should be sufficient to condemn it everywhere; it entails much labour, is wasteful of fuel and water, and most destructive to the articles, which are only partially washed after all.

A most useful improvement on this crude system is the little steam washer introduced by J. Greenall, 120 Portland Street, Manchester, of which two forms are shown in Figs. 136 and 137, heated respectively by gas and stove. It entirely abolishes all rubbing and brushing of the clothes, thus saving a great amount of work and wear and tear. The set copper or boiler is dispensed with, and not half the usual quantity of soap is required. It will wash a fortnight’s washing for a family of 8 persons in 2 hours, and can be easily worked by a child. It improves the colour of the linen, keeps it as white as snow, and does not injure, or wear in the least, the most delicate fabric. The cost of gas used is very trifling, being only ½_d._ per hour (16 cub. ft.). Being made of copper throughout (with the inside parts coated with block tin) it cannot rust and ironmould the linen; is very strong and durable, cannot get out of order, and there is no offensive smell from the gas. It may also be heated by coal or charcoal stove, oil lamp, or in the case of specially large machines, by steam pipe from boiler if desired. The clothes only need steeping in water for a few hours, or overnight; then wring them out, soap well, put them in the cylinder, and when the water in the machine boils, turn slowly for 10 minutes, then turn them out and rinse thoroughly, blue, and wring out, and they are ready for drying,--without any rubbing, brushing, peggying, or boiling in the ordinary boiler. The water (3 in. deep in machine and 1 in. in cylinder) is made to boil, and is kept boiling by gas-burner or coal-stove on which the machine rests; thus steam is continually rising and passing through the articles which have been placed in the cylinder; the dirt is carried off by the expansion of the cold water with which they were saturated, and, as the cylinder revolves, the clothes are always changing position, and the dirt is washed out and got rid off. The clothes are washed in steam, and will be found cleaner, whiter, and purer than when washed by any other process. It is made in various sizes and at corresponding prices.

_Bradford’s Domestic Laundry Fittings._--When for economy and convenience it is desirable to do “washing” at home, the first consideration is a suitable copper for providing hot water for washing, and for boiling the clothes in after they are washed. A copper boiler seated in brickwork is generally adopted, but where there is no room for seating such a copper, a galvanised iron or copper pan, self contained in an iron frame and fitted with furnace, is recommended. This can be easily connected by means of an iron flue-pipe to an existing flue. After having provided for hot water, the most important appliance in the laundry is the washing machine, of which several kinds have been made, but the most popular and the one that has stood the longest test is Bradford’s “Vowel” machine, of which, we are told, the sale is increasing every year. It is made in sizes to suit the various requirements of households. It may be desirable that we should here state the principle of this machine. It is an octagonal box, with internal fixed ribs and a midfeather collecting and delivery board. The machine is turned slowly, so that the clothes turn from the different ribs and angles, rubbing one article against the other, and at each revolution collecting them by the fixed midfeather boards and raising them to a point, when they slip from the board on to the first rib, where the rubbing is again taken up. There being no movable internal machinery, it is obvious there can be no injury to the finest articles washed; in fact, lace articles, muslin curtains, and delicate fabrics are washed in this machine without any injury whatever. For a small household of, say, six or eight persons, and where space is somewhat limited, the “Vowel A 1” combined washing, wringing, and mangling machine (Fig. 139) is recommended, and for a larger household of, say, 12 to 16 persons, a “Vowel E” combined washing, wringing, and mangling machine (Fig. 140). Where, however, in addition to the wash-house there is a convenient room that may be used for the laundry, separate machines will be found most desirable, as follows: for the small household, Bradford’s “Vowel Y” combined washer and wringer (Fig. 141), the washing compartment of which is equal to that of the “Vowel A 1,” and will wash at one time a quantity of clothes equivalent to about 8 shirts, 3 or 4 large sheets, or a large double blanket or counterpane--and a rinsing and blueing trough, fitted with “Acorn C” or “CC” rubber wringer. The best blue is Keen’s Oxford blue, which is used in many of the largest laundries, and always gives satisfaction. The blueing trough is furnished with two compartments, one for first rinse or “sudding” water, and a second for blueing, a movable board being provided, which can be placed on either side to catch the things as they fall from the wringing rollers. This trough and wringer can be subsequently used for wringing starched goods. In addition to the above a mangle will be needed, and the “Reciprocal” is the most popular (Fig. 142). The No. 79 with 21″ rollers, or No. 80 with 24″ rollers, is a very suitable size for working in conjunction with the washer and wringer before named.

For a large family requiring separate machines, the “Vowel A,” with “Acorn” rubber wringer, is advised (Fig. 143). The washing compartment of this machine is equal to that of the “Vowel E” combined machine, the capacity of which is 12 to 15 shirts, 3 pairs of sheets, 2 large counterpanes or double blankets, or other articles in proportion. The rinsing and blueing trough (Fig. 144) is also required, together with a larger sized mangle--No. 81 “Reciprocal,” or No. 1 or No. 2 lever and weight machine (Fig. 145). In the larger sizes of these two-roller mangles the lever and weight machine is preferable--the advantage is that the pressure is self-regulating.

Amongst other articles for the laundry is the ironing stove, and Messrs. Bradford and Co. have recently introduced a novelty in this respect, viz. the “Pagoda.” This stove is made in many sizes, but the No. 12 is large enough for family purposes (Fig. 146). It requires very little fuel, but every part of it is heated, and in addition to heating about 12 flat-irons it throws off a regular heat in the laundry for drying or airing. It is well known that for the maintenance of good colour in the linen it is always desirable as far as possible to dry out of doors, but in this uncertain climate of ours fine weather is not to be depended upon, and for convenience in drying in wet weather a frame or rack fitted with rails is provided. This rack is raised to the ceiling or lowered for filling, by means of lines and pulleys. It should not be fixed immediately over the stove, but sufficiently aside that, when lowered, articles hung on the rails will not touch the stove.

This racking is also useful for airing linen after it is mangled or ironed.

For all other laundry sundries, such as flat-irons and stands, goffering tongs, clothes baskets, &c., &c., we recommend our readers to do as we have done, viz. pay a visit to Messrs. Bradford’s Show-rooms, 140 to 143, High Holborn, where they will find everything, from a hot-water boiler to a linen press.

Having described the appliances adapted for small and medium sized families, we now come to larger establishments, such as mansions, schools, hotels, &c. For such establishments similar machines will be required, but of larger sizes, and instead of the two-roller mangle a “Premier” box mangle (Fig. 147) is recommended; and for drying, a “Radial” or “Draw-out” drying closet (Figs. 148, 149). The “reversible” stove in these closets is so constructed that it serves for heating flat-irons as well as for drying or airing the clothes. Messrs. Bradford have also recently introduced a new ironing machine (“The Little Marvel”), the price of which is 10_l._ 10_s._ (Fig. 150). This machine consists of a concave heated plate, under which is fixed gas heating apparatus, or a furnace for fuel. The roller, obtaining the requisite pressure by means of weights fixed upon the ends of levers, works in this heated plate, and draws the articles to be ironed over its surface, producing a finish much superior to that obtainable by hand, and in considerably less time. The machine can be worked by a girl.

STEAM LAUNDRIES.

In connection with steam laundry machinery for use in large institutions, hotels, and public steam laundries, we cannot do better than describe one of the many successful laundries that Messrs. Bradford have fitted up during the last 25 years, and which contains every appliance and a system likely to be conducive to good and successful work.

We cannot, however, pass on without briefly referring to the first important steam laundry started by Mr. Bradford at Upper Norwood in 1865, and which is still working with the most gratifying results. Ever since, and especially during the last few years, the development of this branch of industry has been simply remarkable, adding not only to the convenience of the public but also to the means of employment of girls, women, boys, and men in very large numbers.