Part 8

More than 300 successful or abortive attempts at revolution are recorded during the stormy life of Mexican independence. A confusion of empires, republics, dictatorships and military usurpations have succeeded each other with bewildering rapidity. Between 1821 and 1868 the form of government was changed ten times, over fifty persons succeeding each other as presidents, dictators or emperors. And the end is not yet in sight. The curse of anarchy and military dictatorship hangs over the land like a pall. Murder, assassination, execution, rapine, the wanton destruction of property and the complete paralysis of the commerce of the nation make us ask how long can this continue? It is safe to assume that when some man is found strong enough to take up the frayed fragments of this people, and bring order out of chaos, a republican form of government will again be established.

Its constitution, based after ours, calls for a federal form of government, the various states being free to regulate their internal affairs; the executive power is vested in a President and Vice-President elected for six years each, with a legislative body of two branches, namely, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.

Mexico, including the islands along its coast and Southern California, extends over an area of 767,097 square miles. Its northern boundary is the United States, a coast line of 4574 miles on the Pacific Ocean marks its western and southern limit, in connection with a portion of Guatemala and British Honduras, while a little section of Guatemala, 1400 miles of the Gulf of Mexico and 327 miles on the Caribbean Sea form its eastern confines.

Two mountain systems traverse the entire country between which are a series of plateaus of various altitudes and many fertile valleys. An evidence of the extent of these elevated table-lands may be formulated when one realizes that Mexico has fifty-three cities located above an altitude of 4000 feet. Mexico City in the valley of Anahuac is 7850 feet above sea level. The mountains have many high peaks and extinct volcanoes, always covered with snow, the chief ones being Popocatepetl, 17,748 feet, Ixtaccihuatl, 16,176 feet, and Ajusco, 13,628 feet.

Owing to the location of the country partly in the Temperate and partially in the Torrid Zones, the climate is diversified, the varying altitudes tempering extreme heat, except, of course, along the low lands near both coasts. There are two seasons—the wet and the dry, the times for the rains being materially governed by the altitude and location, but generally corresponding respectively to our winter months.

The present population is about 14,000,000 although it was estimated to be 15,063,207 in 1910. The greater number of these people are unlettered Indians, and mixed breeds. There are some negroes about the coastal regions. Most of the business of the country is in the hands of the foreigners, Americans predominating, with many English, Spanish, French and Germans.

There are about 16,000 miles of railway in Mexico in actual operation, with 1000 more contemplated. The Mexican government owns 8612 miles of road, while the remainder is controlled by private interests. These roads form a network in the interior, and lead from both coasts and the United States toward Mexico City.

Mexico has no large rivers suitable for the navigation of ocean-going vessels to any great distance. She has, however, much available water power, which is going to waste, and possesses thirty-four deep water ports on her eastern shore and thirty-one on the Pacific.

The chief wealth of Mexico is in her mines, although agricultural products and the raising of cattle add much to her source of revenue, the annual value being estimated at more than $200,000,000.

The soil is exceptionally productive, yielding coffee, henequen, corn, cocoa, tobacco, fruits, beans and cotton. At one time much rubber was exported and there are to-day many estates of cultivated rubber unable to ship their products.

The forests have valuable woods and have been but little exploited. In the north are excellent pine forests, while cedar, mahogany, dye and many cabinet woods abound in the south.

Henequen-growing, from which rope is made, is a prosperous and profitable industry in southern Mexico. Chicle, the gum from a resinous tree, is found throughout the tropical forests of the country, while guayule, a sort of bastard rubber, is being grown extensively. Owing to the troubled condition of Mexico for the past few years, it has been impossible to get authentic data as to the quantities exported in these various lines.

Over $700,000,000 is invested in mining in Mexico, of which sum $500,000,000 is American, $90,000,000 English, $10,000,000 French and $30,000,000 Mexican.

The leading minerals exported in 1912, the latest records available, were:

Silver $44,784,177 Gold 24,952,558 Copper 13,285,192 Lead 3,009,060 Antimony 859,876 Zinc 441,897

The production of petroleum is rapidly increasing, in 1912 over 17,000,000 barrels being the output from the wells.

Mexico has been dependent upon Europe and the United States for her coal supply, her yearly requirements being about 5,000,000 tons of which she produced from local mines almost 1,000,000 tons. There are, however, enormous deposits of this commodity and under proper development Mexico could supply her own needs in this line as well as become an exporter.

The local industries comprise paper mills, cotton-mills, cigarette factories, woolen-mills, breweries, sugar refineries, shoe, furniture and match factories. They produce only sufficient for home consumption.

Mexico exported goods to the value of $150,202,808 in 1913, while during the same period her imports reached the sum of $97,886,169, the United States buying and selling the greater portion thereof.

The following table shows the relative amounts of exports and imports credited to the leading mercantile nations.

_Country_ _Imports from Mexico_ _Exports to Mexico_ United States $48,643,778 $116,017,854 United Kingdom 12,950,046 15,573,551 Germany 12,610,384 8,219,009 France 9,168,977 3,575,509

The monetary system of Mexico to-day is completely disorganized, owing to the issuance of paper money by the many revolutionary leaders. Mexico is nominally on a gold exchange standard basis, the _peso_ having a value in American gold of 49.846 cents. Prior to the present unrest in this country, there were direct banking connections between Europe and the United States.

Some of the states and municipalities charged commercial travelers’ taxes, while others did not. As a rule these fees can be evaded.

Under ordinary conditions travel accommodations in Mexico are not bad and the hotels passable.

The following are the leading cities:

_Population_ City of Mexico 500,000 Guadalajara 120,000 Pueblo 100,000 Monterey 65,000 San Luis Potosi 61,000 Vera Cruz 60,000 Merida 50,000 Guanajuanto 42,000 Aguas Caliente 40,000 Morelia 40,000 Queretero 40,000 Zacatecas 36,000 Chihuahua 35,000 Orizaba 35,000 Toluca 30,000 Jalapa 25,000 Saltillo 25,000 Tampico 25,000 Torreon 25,000 Colima 21,000 Campeche 20,000 Irapuato 20,000 Mazatlan 20,000 Cuernavaca 15,000 Manzanillo 12,000

Mexico may be entered by rail from the United States at Nogales, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Ciudad Juarez and Laredo. There are many lines of steamships from Europe, New York and Gulf ports, plying to the larger eastern coast cities. Its western coast is reached by direct steamship lines from San Francisco, Canada and one line every two weeks from Japan, calling en route at China, Hong Kong and Hawaii, and proceeding down the west coast of South America, touching at all the leading ports to and including Coronel, Chile.

XIV CUBA

Cuba is so near to us and our commercial and political relations with it are so intimate that it is worthy of careful study. It was discovered by Columbus on his first trip to America October 28, 1498, and in 1511 Diego Velasquez was appointed its first Spanish governor. His principal task was the subduing of the warlike Carib Indians. In 1762 when Spain was fighting England and France, Havana was captured by the English who, when peace was finally declared, returned it to Spain.

Many sporadic attempts at independence were made, the earliest dating from the beginning of the last century when all of Spain’s colonies in this hemisphere revolted. None was successful, however, until American intervention in 1898 when Cuba became free and in May 1902 inaugurated her first president.

Cuba, situated in the Atlantic Ocean, but a few hours sail from Florida, is 760 miles long, slightly over 90 miles in width at its eastern end and about 20 miles at its western extremity with about 2000 miles of coast line containing many deep water harbors. Its area covers 45,881 square miles. Situated 38 miles off the southern coast of Cuba is the Isle of Pines, containing 1214 square miles, with a population of 3500, including many American colonists engaged in raising citrus fruits. The island is governed by Cuba.

The chief topographical features of Cuba are the many mountain ranges which cross and intersect each other, the eastern end being particularly mountainous, with one peak 8600 feet high. Between the mountains are many fertile, healthful and beautiful valleys and plateaus.

The climate varies from the tropical warmth of the coast to cool on the plateaus and on the mountain sides. The trade winds do much to modify the heat and add to the agreeableness of the temperature. There are two seasons, the wet and the dry, the first lasting from May to October, and the dry the remainder of the year, the average rainfall being fifty-four inches. The thermometer ranges from 60° to 92° Fahrenheit. Since the American invasion when its various cities were cleaned up and made sanitary Cuba claims to be the second healthiest country in the world, with a death rate of 12.69 per thousand as against Australia’s 12.00 per thousand.

Cuba’s population is 2,457,990, about half of whom are white and the remainder black or mulattoes. The larger percentage of her foreign inhabitants are Spaniards, who elected to remain after the close of the war, and Americans.

Her government is of the republican representative type, consisting of a President and Vice-President, elected for four years, and a Senate and House of Representatives, the Constitution being based on that of the United States.

Cuba has 2360 miles of steam railways, over 200 miles of electric systems, and 1246 miles of excellent macadamized roads, which are probably unsurpassed anywhere in the world, and are ideal for automobiling, being over sixteen feet wide.

Most of the rivers of Cuba are short, with currents too swift for navigation. Some of them can be used for short distances by shallow draft boats, a favorite means of getting sugar to ports. The Cauto is navigable for 50 miles and the Sagua la Grande for 20 miles.

Sugar is king in Cuba, the 1914 crop being worth $240,000,000, with only 4 per cent. of the available soil under cultivation, and but 172 estates growing and grinding cane.

Tobacco ranks next in importance, the annual production averaging $32,000,000. This industry is centered in the Province of Pinar del Rio which grows the famous Vuelta Abajo leaf. Much of this tobacco is made into cigars and cigarettes in the country, the local factories exporting in 1913 $13,878,436 worth while leaf tobacco amounting to $17,604,299 was shipped abroad in the same time.

Although the groves are young and have not reached full bearing yet, citrus fruits and vegetables to the extent of $10,000,000 were shipped in 1913. Pineapples, henequen, cedar, mahogany, bananas, mangoes, figs, cocoanuts, tamarinds, guavas, and honey valued at $8,000,000 are annually exported.

In 1911, there were 1074 mines registered with the government, including iron, copper, gold, mercury, lead, zinc, antimony, coal, asbestos, asphalt and manganese, the total production of which in 1913 amounted to $5,068,449, iron being the chief metal exported, valued at over $4,000,000.

Excellent opportunities exist for truck-farming, bee-culture, lumbering, and cattle-raising. Good markets for all these products prevail throughout Cuba and also in the United States.

Nearly $400,000 worth of sponges and $50,000 worth of tortoise shell are annually exported.

In 1913 Cuba exported goods valued at $165,135,059; her imports in the same year being $143,826,829. Her export trade has increased 140 per cent. in ten years and her imports 82 per cent. Since Cuba has been a republic her foreign commerce has increased 250 per cent.

The United States takes 85 per cent. of Cuba’s exports, and supplies her with about 60 per cent. of her requirements; the United Kingdom receiving 11 per cent., Germany 2 per cent., France 1 per cent., and Spain which formerly controlled this trade but four-tenths of one per cent. England exports 13 per cent., Spain 8 per cent., Germany 7 per cent. and France 6 per cent. of Cuba’s imports.

Cuba requires foodstuffs, textiles, shoes, machinery, tools, hardware, chemicals, drugs, toilet and paper materials. The main articles of import, and their value, last year were:

Potatoes $ 1,897,066 Condensed Milk 2,165,766 Flour 4,327,806 Lard 6,148,827 Hams 735,918 Wines and Liquors 1,473,391 Cotton Goods 12,648,470 Shoes 4,980,055

Cuba has just established its own coinage. Its monetary system is on a gold basis. The unit is the gold _peso_, worth exactly one dollar, United States money. A silver fractional currency, with subsidiary coins resembling our nickel, two and one cent pieces, is employed, these also being the equivalent in value of American money of the same denomination. Formerly American currency was in use, and the possibilities are that it will continue to be accepted at its face value through the island.

Banking houses in close association with American financial institutions are numerous here and every modern facility in this connection is afforded. American capital is largely invested in various enterprises; England and Canada are also well represented here.

Commercial travellers pay no tax in Cuba, and samples are admitted duty free.

Travel is convenient and comfortable and the hotels fairly good, especially in the cities.

The following places should be visited:

_Population_ Havana 350,000 Matanzas 75,000 Cienfuegos 75,000 Camaqüey 70,000 Manzanillo. 56,000 Santiago 55,000 Pinar del Rio 53,000 Santa Clara 48,000 Guantanamo 45,000 Trinidad 31,000 Cardenas 30,000 Guanabacoa 27,000

Cuba may be reached by rail or water routes, it now being possible owing to an ocean ferry via Florida to land in Havana in the sleeper in which one left New York.

There are 22 steamers a week from the leading ports of the United States for Cuba, in addition to others regularly from Europe and Mexico. There are weekly ships from New York, Boston, New Orleans, Mobile and Galveston to Havana. There is also direct daily service between Tampa, Florida and Havana.

XV SANTO DOMINGO

The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern and larger section of the island known as Santo Domingo or Haiti.

This island was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage December 6, 1492. The peaceable aborigines whom he found on landing were so abused under the Spanish rule, that by the year 1500 fully 90 per cent. had died and the colonists turned to Africa for slaves to work their estates, 4000 being brought here in 1517.

French, Dutch and English buccaneers made this island their rendezvous owing to its favorable location. France recognized them as constituting a state in 1630 and gave them the protection of the home government. In 1697 France secured control over the western half of the island, and in 1795 obtained by treaty the remaining portion.

In 1809 Spain and France were at war, and Spanish rule was again established on the island. The Spanish-speaking section of this territory declared its independence of Spain in 1821 and in 1822 the Haitians acquired control of the entire island, governing it until 1844, when as the result of a rebellion in 1846 Santo Domingo became independent, remaining so until 1861 when again fearing conquest she petitioned Spain to direct her destinies. Following a revolution in 1863, Spanish rule terminated in 1865, the country since being known as the Dominican Republic. Uprisings and revolutions followed each other and foreign debts accumulated to such an extent that European invasion was threatened. In 1907 the United States undertook to administer the affairs of the government through American officials, cancelling each year from the revenues of the country a portion of its foreign debt, using another portion for internal national improvements.

The present constitution provides for a President as an executive and a Senate and Chamber of Deputies for legislative purposes.

The island of Santo Domingo, or Haiti, is about 400 miles long and 160 wide, its shores possessing numerous deep-water bays and inlets. Four almost parallel mountain-ranges exist within its boundaries, one peak, Mt. Tina, being 10,300 feet in altitude. These mountains form an excellent watershed, resulting in many creeks and streams, but few navigable and those only for very light draft boats.

Along the coast and in the lowlands, the heat is extreme, Haiti being much warmer than Santo Domingo. The high lands of the interior and the plateaus between the mountains are pleasant and healthful. Continuous sea breezes add materially to the comfort of the inhabitants.

The Dominican Republic has an area of 19,325 square miles and a population of 673,611, mostly blacks or mulattoes. There is a small white foreign population, numbering perhaps 10,000.

There are 160 miles of railway, partially under government ownership, and 250 miles of railway privately owned and used in connection with the larger sugar estates.

There exist exceptional opportunities for cattle and goat raising. Lumbering of hard, dye and cabinet woods could be profitably developed. Gold is washed from the rivers in small quantities and some copper, iron and silver are found.

Cane is extensively grown throughout the island, the amount exported in 1912 being $5,841,357. Cocoa is largely raised, the crop last year yielding $4,248,724. Tobacco, coffee, beeswax, honey, bananas, lignum-vitae, dye woods, mahogany, gums, resins, hides and copra form the other leading items of its exports which in 1913 amounted to $12,385,248.

In the same period her imports were $8,217,898, consisting of cotton goods valued at $2,000,000, iron and steel, $1,400,000, meat and butter $660,000, flour $450,000, drugs $225,000, paper $125,000, and soap $100,000. Last year this country used 16,221,141 pounds of rice, 94.5 per cent. of which came from Germany, a land that does not grow a pound of this cereal.

The United States takes considerably more than 50 per cent. of this country’s exports, and ships it about 70 per cent. of its requirements, Germany ranking next, followed by England and France.

Santo Domingo has no currency of its own, but uses American money. An American bank in Santo Domingo City exists, being the only financial institution in the country, and affords every facility in monetary matters. Credits are fairly good and detailed information will be supplied by the bank.

Travelers pay no tax and samples are admitted duty free.

The chief cities are:

_Population_ Santo Domingo 30,000 Santiago 15,000 Puerto Plata 10,000 San Pedro de Macoris 7,000 Sanchez 5,000

The Clyde S. S. Company (American) maintains a semi-monthly service from New York touching all the ports of the Republic. There are many European lines calling at the various ports also.

XVI HAITI

Much of the history of Haiti is associated with its neighbor, Santo Domingo, and need not be again told. After the French had established their government in this island they imported negroes from Africa as slaves. These revolted in 1791 and in 1801 declared their independence, finally expelling the French in 1804. This land has been the scene of much bloodshed and lacks stability in its government, as it always will until taken under the control of some strong power.

Its geography and climatic conditions are the same as those of Santo Domingo, its area of 10,200 square miles supporting a population estimated at 2,000,000, French or a “patois” being the language spoken. Perhaps 95 per cent. of its inhabitants are negroes, or have negro blood. The country is backward. But few attempts have been made to modernize it and it is to-day one of the most hopeless nations of this hemisphere. About 75 miles of railways are in operation. No navigable streams exist. There are no roads, travel in the interior being over trails. The natives are ignorant, uneducated and in some portions of the land are supposed to practice cannibalism. There are two seasons—a rainy and a dry—the rainy lasting from April to November.

Haiti’s chief products are coffee, 40,000 tons of which were exported last year, cocoa, dye woods and cabinet woods, medicinal gums, rubber, castor oil bean and bark for tanning. Her exports of $17,300,000 for 1913 were divided as follows:

France $8,500,000 Germany 6,400,000 United Kingdom 1,300,000 United States 1,100,000

while her imports for the same period amounted to $8,700,000, credited to the following nations:

United States $6,500,000 France 800,000 United Kingdom 630,000 Germany 530,000 Others 240,000

Her requirements are for flour, rice, foodstuffs, candles, oil, cotton goods, shoes, hats, and tools.