Chapter 11

THE KNIFE AND FORK.--There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader, is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is talking.

The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen is held.

When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in the center of the plate.

THE FORK AND SPOON--Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods, such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads, and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces before it is served.

For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer (see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side--not the tip--of the spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup, there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from, rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38).

THE FINGERS.--Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding corn served on the cob.

Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled, scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and eaten with a spoon.

THE NAPKIN.--When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if, however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding.

QUIET EATING.--Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips are kept closed while chewing.

LESSON XXXIX

COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST

Cook and serve a breakfast.

The following is a suggestive menu:

Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce Toast--Butter Coffee

Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see Lesson XXX).

LESSON XL

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cooked Fruit,--fresh or dried Creamed Toast Coffee

See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON XLI

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3 or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use, weigh it.

Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a substitute for meat.

SUGGESTED AIMS:

(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have saved by making soap at your home.

(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute sufficient to serve the family.

DIVISION SIX

ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN

LESSON XLII

EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the egg lessons came in the mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the cooking of eggs take place later in the year.]

PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.--An automobile requires not only fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another great class of foods, or foodstuffs--those included under the term _protein_--that not only give energy to the body but also build up or promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and repairing.

The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the foodstuff, protein.

Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life supporting, while still others are only life supporting.

The first type of protein is sometimes called _complete_ protein, while the two latter types are called _incomplete_ protein. In food study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete. The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain cereals contain incomplete proteins.

A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows:

EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.--Put the white of an egg in a dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat. Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat?

When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white called _albumin_ stiffens or _coagulates_. The yolk also contains a kind of protein which coagulates when heated.

EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.--Put a small portion of the broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear?

Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the tube? Explain.

EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.--Place a teaspoonful of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the water _gradually_. Note and record: (_a_) Temperature at which coagulation first appears. (_b_) Temperature at which the egg white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked?

EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.--Remove _at once_ about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment 39. Examine it and press it between the fingers.

Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and palatable?

DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.--The experiments of this lesson show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of little importance.

But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the difference in _palatability_ is worth some attention. If soft-cooked and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm, while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is raw.

STRUCTURE OF EGGS.--A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk, and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins to spoil.

CARE AND USE OF EGGS.--(_a_) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote 45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee.

(_b_) Keep eggs in a cool place.

(_c_) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by covering with cold water.

(_d_) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran, sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass.

(_e_) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest.

(_f_) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit of white clinging to the inside of the shell.

TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.--(_a_) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (_b_) Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is stale.

SOFT-COOKED EGGS

Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover, and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.

The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The time depends upon:

(_a_) Temperature of the eggs.

(_b_) Number of eggs cooked.

(_c_) Quantity of water used.

(_d_) Place on the stove.

One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce the desired results.

By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table.

HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The Hard-cooked Eggs prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs of the following lesson.]--Place eggs in cold water and heat the water gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20 minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily.

Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked, allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer.

Eggs may also be hard-cooked in the _double boiler_. Put boiling water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the top part and cook 40 minutes.

If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to chop them fine and mix them with some other food (see _Goldenrod Eggs_). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive disturbances to the normal person.

QUESTIONS

Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point? Explain your answer.

Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-_cooked_ rather than hard- or soft-_boiled_?

LESSON XLIII

EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.--It was mentioned previously that proteins are made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are called _amino acids_. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity.

When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally absorbed and carried to all parts of the body.

The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein into soluble forms.

POACHED EGG

Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water will keep hot _but not boil_. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on each yolk occasionally.

Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast, and serve at once.

An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating into pieces.

Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather than in water.

GOLDENROD EGGS

3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 6 pieces of toast Parsley

Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.

If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water before adding the sauce (see _Cream Toast_).

QUESTIONS

Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the yolks of eggs that are being poached?

Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, and _Solution and Digestion_).

LESSON XLIV

EGGS: OMELETS (A)

TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.--An egg is sometimes broken by cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and yolk.

Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg.

Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,--the Dover egg beater and the wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate.

TO BEAT AN EGG.--When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke. Egg whites are beaten _stiff_ when the impression made by the beater is retained; and they are beaten _dry_, when the gloss has disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than before beating.

TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.--Pour the beaten egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly.

EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.--Break an egg into a bowl. What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten and an unbeaten egg?

(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.)

EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH A WIRE SPOON.--Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs? Which contains the more air?

EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.--Separate an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which becomes lighter when beaten,--a whole or a separated egg? From this explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible.

(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.)

SCRAMBLED EGGS

4 eggs 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1 teaspoonful butter

Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double boiler and serve at once.

For economy, the butter may be omitted.

FOAMY OMELET

4 eggs 4 tablespoonfuls milk or water 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cook _slowly_, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately.

TO FOLD AN OMELET--Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand, placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40).

QUESTIONS

How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method given above for Scrambled Eggs.

What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet?

Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly.

What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"?

What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet?

How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs and Foamy Omelet?

LESSON XLV

EGGS: OMELETS (B)

WHITE SAUCE OMELET

3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk Pepper 4 eggs 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as Foamy Omelet.

BAKED OMELET

Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan, pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked.

MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.--Mix and cook a Foamy or White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet.

Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with either omelet.