Chapter 10

How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling water?

Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose? If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for your answer.

What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?

Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?

FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.--As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called _frying_. From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which can be heated to a very high temperature without burning.

Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings and lard satisfactory.

EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--Put some suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?

EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).-- Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for frying foods?

Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for uncooked foods.

GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.--Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.

If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, _foods that are to be fried should be as dry as possible._

Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them. The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over especially when moist foods are placed in it.

Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained on paper.

When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.

Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed on the following page.

If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.

If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before grasping the handle of the kettle.

TO TRY OUT FAT.--The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:

Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a "cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.

As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.

TO CLARIFY FAT.--Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand until solid.

FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the price of oysters is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.]

Large oysters Dried bread crumbs Salt and pepper Eggs 1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg

Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth or towel (see _Cleaning Oysters_). Season with salt and pepper. Beat the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on paper, and serve.

Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley makes a pleasing garnish.

To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.--An alkaline substance such as washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show the action of washing soda on fats try the following:

EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.--Into a test tube put 1/2 teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that have contained fat?

Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not use washing soda in aluminum utensils (see _Preparing Dishes for Washing_).

QUESTIONS

What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor?

Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg.

Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that are to be fried?

LESSON XXXV

FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--FOOD FATS

FOOD FATS.--Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet, lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats. A discussion of various food fats follows:

(_a_) _Butter_ is made by churning ripened cream so as to separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is salted and usually colored before putting it on the market.

The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats. Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain growth-producing substances called _vitamines_ (see Division Seven). All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat.

Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use, therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor, for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to be combined with foods of _pronounced flavor, i.e._ foods whose flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be substituted with satisfactory results.

(_b_) _Oleomargarin_ is a combination of several different fats. It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral (_i.e._ carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the market.

The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin.

(_c_) _Nut Margarin_ is also a mixture of various fats. It usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil.

(_d_) _Meat Fats_.--The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or "rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying out the fat from around the kidneys is called _leaf lard_; ordinary lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is considered of superior quality.

Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat--cooked or uncooked--as well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials (see _Mutton_). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out.

(_e_) _Vegetable Oils_.--The oil from cottonseed, corn, and peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is disagreeable.

FAT COMBINATIONS.--Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat.

FISH BALLS

1 cupful salt codfish 4 small potatoes 1 egg 1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the potatoes. Cook the fish and the _whole_ potatoes together in gently boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls, mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls.

The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must be soaked or cooked in water.

QUESTIONS

Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before cooking?

Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are cooked?

If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying?

What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be fried?

What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure of a package?

LESSON XXXVI

FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--DIGESTION OF FAT

EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.--Pour a little corn or cottonseed oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube. Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water?

EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.--In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2 tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute. Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an emulsified condition.

BREAKING UP OF FATS.--Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote 41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote 42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid properties.] and glycerin.

During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which do not coalesce.

When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in Experiment 36.)

If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is broken up into fatty acids and glycerin.

FRYING AND DIGESTION.--Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats, but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances.

When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are absorbed by foods which are browned in fats.

It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat when sauted (_i.e._ browning in a small quantity of fat) than when fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food drained on paper.

Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in sauces, dressings, and pastry.

CROQUETTES.--Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into cones.

Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be "dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead of frying in deep fat.

Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the starch may be as stiff as possible.

POTATO CROQUETTES

1 pint mashed potatoes Celery salt 2 tablespoonfuls butter Onion juice Cayenne 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg

Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (see _Fried Oysters_). Fry in deep fat until brown.

QUESTIONS

How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite for heating fat (see _Caramelized Sugar_)?

What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see Experiment 32)?

What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried? How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"?

How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato Croquettes?

If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted?

LESSON XXXVII

FAT SAVING

BAKING _VS._ FRYING.--Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried, especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat.

Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before serving.

Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes.

Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying.

RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE

3/4 cupful rice 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt

Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils. Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water). (Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of the following ingredients:

4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt Dash pepper 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful milk

To 2/3 of the White Sauce add:

Cooked rice 1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped 1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped

(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets.

Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried Oysters.

Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with the following sauce:

Remainder of the White Sauce 3/4 cupful milk 1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces 1 pimento chopped

Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot over the cutlets.

FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.--The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food. Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial days.

The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should, however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.)

Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper does not.

Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is a saving to make soap at home.

SOAP

1 can Babbit's lye 1 quart cold water 6 pounds clarified fat 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia

Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye, the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool.

Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it. Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of suitable size.

The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap.

NOTE.--If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in the classroom. The following recipe may be used:

1 teaspoonful lye 4 teaspoonfuls cold water 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/8 teaspoonful ammonia

Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box.

QUESTIONS

How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former takes a longer time to cook than the latter (see _Polished and Unpolished Rice_).

Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for serving, while fried croquettes do not.

State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them. Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at home?

RELATED WORK

LESSON XXXVIII

DINING ROOM COURTESY

THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS

No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The basis of all good manners is tact, _i.e._ a kindly consideration of others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the pleasure of one's associates in the dining room.

Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established by custom and long usage.

SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS

THE CHAIR.--If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the chair.