CHAPTER II

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

(7) Combustion.

The phenomenon called combustion by which we obtain the heat energy necessary for the operation of the internal combustion engine is a chemical combination of the air with the fuel. This process results in heat and some light which is equal in quantity to the energy required to separate the fuel compound into its elements or to build it up in its present form from the original elements. If the process is comparatively slow, the compound is called a fuel, if it is instantaneous it is called an explosive. Some substances produce mechanical force through an instant, without the evolution of much heat, due to the disintegration of an unstable compound. The effect of the latter type of which dynamite is an example is static, that is to say, it is not capable of producing power, but only pressure. For this reason, compounds having an instantaneous effect without the ability to produce the pressure through a distance, or an expansion, are not considered as suitable fuels for a heat engine.

A fuel is essentially a substance which is capable of generating heat, which is a form of energy, and not static pressure. The heat engine is an instrument which transforms this energy into power which is again dissipated into heat through the friction of the engine itself and by the load that it drives. This is an illustration of the physical law that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed,” that is, the heat energy developed by the fuel is converted into mechanical energy which is again transformed into heat energy through friction.

It should be understood that fuel belongs to that class of substances that will not burn nor evolve energy under any temperature, pressure, or shock, without an outside supply of oxygen. This is the characteristic property of all fuels used with the internal combustion engine. Each element, such as carbon and hydrogen, in a compound fuel, develops a certain definite amount of heat during their complete combustion, and at the close of the process certain compounds are formed that represent the lowest chemical form of the compound. To restore the products of combustion to their original form as fuel would require an expenditure of energy equal to that given out in the combustion.

While all substances that are capable of oxydization or combustion can be made to liberate heat energy, it does not follow that all of them can be successfully used as fuels. A fuel suitable for the production of power must be cheap, accessible and of small bulk, and must burn rapidly. Such fuels must also be products of nature that require no expenditure of energy in their preparation or completion.

In practical work, the natural fuels are coal, mineral oils, natural gas, and wood, which are compounds of the elements carbon and hydrogen. When these fuels are burned to their lowest forms the products of combustion consist of carbon dioxide and water, the first being the result of the oxydization of carbon, and the latter a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In solid fuels, such as coal, a portion of the compound consists of free carbon and the remainder of a compound of carbon and hydrogen known as a =HYDROCARBON=. In liquid fuels there is little, if any, free carbon, the greater proportion being in the form of a hydrocarbon compound. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon compound.

It should be noted that a definite amount of oxygen is required for the complete combustion of the fuel elements, and that a smaller amount of oxygen than that called for by the fuel element results in incomplete combustion, which produces a product of higher form than that produced by the complete reduction. The product of incomplete combustion represents a smaller evolution of heat than that of the complete process, but if reburned in a fresh supply of oxygen the sum of the second combustion together with that of the first will equal the heat of the complete oxydization. When pure carbon is incompletely burned the product is carbon monoxide (CO) instead of carbon dioxide (CO_{2}).

Carbon completely burned to carbon dioxide produces 14,500 British thermal units per pound of carbon, while the incomplete combustion to carbon monoxide evolves only 4,452 British thermal units, or less than one-third of the heat produced by the complete combustion. Theoretically one pound of carbon requires 2.66 pounds of oxygen to burn it to carbon dioxide. On supplying additional oxygen, the carbon monoxide may be burned to carbon dioxide and the remainder of the heat may be recovered, or 10,048 British thermal units. When a hydrocarbon, either solid, liquid or gaseous is burned with insufficient oxygen, solid carbon is precipitated together with lower hydrocarbons, and tar. In an internal combustion engine the precipitated solid carbon is evident in the form of smoke.

Since the carbon and hydrogen elements of a fuel exist in many different proportions and conditions in coal and oil, different amounts of oxygen are required for the consumption of different fuels. It should also be borne in mind that a greater quantity of air is required for the combustion of a fuel than oxygen, as the air is greatly diluted by an inert gas, nitrogen, which will not support combustion. Because of the impossibility of obtaining perfectly homogenous mixtures of air and the fuel, a greater quantity of air is used in practice than is theoretically required.

In a steam engine the fuel can be used in any form, solid, liquid, or gaseous, but in an internal combustion, it must be in the form of a gas no matter what may have been the form of the primary fuel. Fortunately there is no fuel which may not be transformed into a gas by some process if not already in a gaseous state. The petroleum products are vaporized by either the heat of the atmosphere or by spraying them on a hot surface. Coal is converted into a gas by distilling it in a retort or by incomplete combustion. The heat energy developed by a gas when burning in the open air depends on its chemical combustion, but its mechanical equivalent in power when burned in the cylinder of the engine depends not only upon its composition but upon the conditions under which it is burned as stated in the chapter devoted to the subject of heat engines.

(8) Gaseous Fuels.

While the calorific values of the different gases given in the accompanying table are approximately correct for gases burning in the open air at atmospheric pressure they develop widely different values in the cylinder of an engine because of the effects of compression and preheating. The table serves, however, as an index to the relative values of the fuels under ordinary conditions without compression. While natural gas has nearly eight times the calorific value of producer gas in the open air, its actual heat value in the cylinder is only about 45 per cent greater. While acetylene has an exceedingly high calorific value and explodes five times as fast as gasoline gas, it develops only 20 per cent more power in the same cylinder. Another item affecting the value of a gas is the rate at which it burns, which is in part a characteristic of the fuel and partly a factor of the conditions under which it is burnt. This subject is treated of in the chapter devoted to the heat engine.

The calorific value of a gas may either be computed from its chemical composition or by burning it in an instrument known as a =calorimeter=. A gas calorimeter consists of a small boiler or heating tank which is carefully covered with some non-conducting material so as to prevent a loss of heat to the atmosphere. The gas under test is burned in the boiler whose extended surface catches as much of the heat as possible and transfers it to the water in the boiler. The weight of the water heated and its temperature are taken when a certain amount of the gas has been burned (say 100 cubic feet), and from this data, the heat units per cubic foot of gas are computed.

FUEL GASES.

══════════════╤══════╤═════════════════════════╤═══════════╤══════ GAS │B.T.U.│ Cubic Feet of Air │ Usual │Ratio │ per │Required to Burn 1 Cubic │Compression│of Gas │Cubic │ Foot of Gas │ Lbs. per │to Air │ Foot │ │ Sq. Inch │ │ │ │ │ ──────────────┼──────┼────────────┬────────────┼───────────┼────── │ │ Actual │Theoretical │ │ ──────────────┼──────┼────────────┼────────────┼───────────┼────── Natural Gas │ 1000.│ 12.60│ 9 │ 130│1–12.6 Natural Gas │ 1000.│ │ │ 110│1–6 Coal Gas │ 650.│ 9.00│ 5.85 │ 80│1–9 Producer │ 140.│ 1.20│ 1.85 │ 160│1–1.2 Anthracite │ │ │ │ │ Producer │ 160.│ 3.20│ 2.20 │ │ Bituminous │ │ │ │ │ Water Gas │ 290.│ 3.60│ 2.20 │ │ (Uncarb.) │ │ │ │ │ Water Gas │ 500.│ 8.50│ 5.15 │ │1.8 (Carb.) │ │ │ │ │ Blast Furnace │ 94.│ 1.10│ 0.70 │ 170│ Gas │ │ │ │ │ Acetylene │ 1500.│ 20.00│ 12.60 │ │ Gasolene Vapor│ 520.│See Table of Liquid Fuels│ 70│1.12 Gasolene Vapor│ 520.│See Table of Liquid Fuels│ 70│1.8 Gasolene Vapor│ 520.│See Table of Liquid Fuels│ 70│1.6 Kerosene Vapor│ │See Table of Liquid Fuels│ 60│1.8 Coke Oven Gas │ 520.│ 7.│ 5.4 │ │ Alcohol │ │ │ │ 180│ ──────────────┴──────┴────────────┴────────────┴───────────┴──────

══════════════╤═════════╤═══════════╤═══════════╤══════╤══════╤═════════ GAS │Explosion│Temperature│ Ignition │Weight│Candle│ Mean │Pressure │ of │Temperature│ per │Power │Effective │ in Lbs. │Combustion │ F° │Cubic │ │Pressure │ per Sq. │ F° │ │Foot, │ │ │ In. │ │ │ Lbs. │ │ ──────────────┼─────────┼───────────┼───────────┼──────┼──────┼───────── │ │ │ │ │ │ ──────────────┼─────────┼───────────┼───────────┼──────┼──────┼───────── Natural Gas │ 375│ │ 1100│.0459 │ │ 94.00 Natural Gas │ 245│ │ 1000│ │ │ 72.00 Coal Gas │ 285│ │ 1200│.035 │ 18.00│ 85.00 Producer │ 360│ │ 1450│.065 │ │ 88.00 Anthracite │ │ │ │ │ │ Producer │ │ │ 1350│ │ │ Bituminous │ │ │ │ │ │ Water Gas │ │ │ │.044 │ │ (Uncarb.) │ │ │ │ │ │ Water Gas │ │ │ │ │ 22.00│ (Carb.) │ │ │ │ │ │ Blast Furnace │ │ │ 1560│.080 │ │ 77.5 Gas │ │ │ │ │ │ Acetylene │ │ │ │ │ │ Gasolene Vapor│ 245│ 1865│ 1550│ │ │ 79.00 Gasolene Vapor│ 360│ 2950│ 925│ │ │ 82.00 Gasolene Vapor│ 410│ 3160│ 910│ │ │ 84.50 Kerosene Vapor│ 285│ │ 945│ │ │ 85.00 Coke Oven Gas │ │ │ │.042 │ │ Alcohol │ 450│ │ │ │ │ ──────────────┴─────────┴───────────┴───────────┴──────┴──────┴─────────

As a British thermal unit is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through one Fahrenheit degree (at about 39.1° F.), the total heat per cubic foot of gas as observed by the calorimeter is equal to the weight of the water multiplied by its rise in temperature in degrees, divided by the number of cubic feet of gas burned in the calorimeter. Since a British thermal unit is equal to 778 foot pounds in mechanical energy, its mechanical equivalent is equal to the number of British thermal units multiplied by 778.

Another difference between the actual and theoretical results obtained is that due the perfect combustion in the calorimeter and the imperfect combustion in the engine. Since some gases require more air for their combustion than others, less of the first gas will be taken into the cylinder on a charge than the latter, which tends still further to balance the heating effect of rich and lean gases in the cylinder.

(9) Gasifying Coal.

=Coal Gas= or =Illuminating Gas= is generated by baking the coal in a closed retort or chamber out of contact with the air so that no combustion takes place either complete or incomplete. The hydrocarbon gases and tars are set free from the coal as permanent gases and are then piped to a gas holder after going through various purifying processes to remove the tars, oils, moisture and dust. The free or solid part of the coal remains in the retort in the form of =coke=, which is again burned for fuel.

Because of its high carbon content, coal gas burns with a yellowish-white flame and is extensively used for lighting purposes, hence the name =illuminating gas=. In many ways coal gas is an ideal fuel for power purposes as it has a high calorific value (650–750 B.T.U. per cubic ft.), is supplied by the illuminating company at practically a constant pressure, and is uniform in quality. Its only drawback is its comparatively high cost.

This gas is always obtained from the city service mains as its preparation is too expensive and complicated for the gas engine owner. Because of its cost, the use of coal gas is restricted to small engines.

(10) Water Gas.

Water gas is made by blowing air through a thick bed of some coal that is low in hydrocarbons until the coal becomes incandescent, the gases that are formed are allowed to escape to the atmosphere. At this point a jet of steam is blown into the incandescent bed, which is broken up into its elements, oxygen and hydrogen, by the heat of the fuel. As there is no air present the oxygen combines with the carbon of the fuel to form carbon monoxide while the hydrogen goes free. Both of these gases, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, are collected and supplied to the engine. The production of water gas is intermittent, as the steam blast cools down the fuel bed, and requires further blowing before more steam can be passed. While this gas has a lower heating value than coal gas, it is much cheaper to make and all of the coal is consumed in the process.

Water gas is high in hydrogen and is too “snappy” for gas engines; the hydrogen places a limit on the allowable compression.

For each thousand feet of =water gas= generated, approximately 24 pounds of water are required.

By the introduction of hydrocarbons or vaporized oil, illuminating value is given to water gas, this process is called =carburetion=. Carbureted gas is not usually used for power, as it is expensive, and is not proportionately high in heating value.

(11) Blast Furnace Gas.

Many steel companies are utilizing the unconsumed gas of the blast furnaces for power.

Blast furnace gas is of very low calorific value, rarely if ever, exceeding 85 B.T.U. per cubic foot. This allows of very high compression, which greatly increases the actual power delivered by the engine.

A smelter produces approximately 88,000 cubic feet of gas per ton of iron smelted.

Blast furnace gas is so lean that it cannot be burned satisfactorily under a boiler; the high compression of the gas engine makes its use possible.

(12) Producer Gas.

Producer gas which is generated by the incomplete combustion of fuels in a deep bed is the most commonly used gas for engines having a capacity of 50 horsepower and over, because of the simplicity and economy of its production. While producer gas has been obtained from practically every solid fuel, of which coal, coke, wood, lignite, peat, and charcoal are examples, the fuel most generally used is either coal or coke. While producer gas is much lower in calorific value than either natural or illuminating gas it gives admirable results in the gas engine and is a much cheaper fuel than coal gas in units above 50 horse-power capacity. The fuel is completely burned to ash in the producer without the intermediate coke product that exists in the manufacture of coke.

A producer consists of three independent elements as shown by Fig. F-6; the =PRODUCER= or generator (A), the steam boiler (B), and the =SCRUBBER= or purifier (C). The incandescent fuel (F) in the form of a cone lies on the grate bars (G) at the lower end of the producer. Above the burning fuel is a deep bed of coal (D) which reaches to the top of the producer at which point it is admitted to the bed through the charging valve or gate (H). The gas resulting from the combustion in the producer is drawn out of the tank through the gas outlet pipe (E) by the suction of the engine. The air for the combustion is drawn up through an opening in the ash pit (J) by the engine.

When the oxygen of the air strikes the incandescent fuel on the grate it combines with a portion of it forming carbon dioxide (CO_{2}) which is an incombustible gas, but on passing through the burning fuel above this point, one atom of the oxygen in the CO_{2} recombines with the fuel forming the combustible gas—carbon monoxide (CO). Because of the distilling effect of the heat in the bed, the volatile hydrocarbons of the coal are set free and mingle with the CO formed by the combustion. The producer gas consists, therefore, principally of CO, with a certain proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons of the coal such as marsh gas, ethylene, and some oil vapor.

Since the hydrocarbons are easily condensed on coming into contact with the coal walls of the piping, to form trouble making tars and oils, they must either be washed out of the gas in the purifier or passed again through the high temperature zone to convert them into permanent gases. In the usual producer, the hydrocarbons are reheated, as they form a considerable percentage of the heat of the gas. After the volatile constituents are reheated, the gases pass through the boiler (B), which absorbs the heat of the gas in generating steam, and from this point the gases enter the scrubber where the dust and the residual tars are removed. The scrubber, which is a sort of filter, is an important factor in the generating plant, for if the dust and dirt were allowed to pass into the cylinder of the engine it would only be a question of a short time until the valves and cylinder would be ground to pieces.

When the steam from the boiler is allowed to flow into the ash pit of the producer and up through the incandescent fuel, the heat separates the water vapor into its two elements, oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen set free combines with the carbon in the coal forming more carbon monoxide, while the hydrogen which is unaffected by the combustion adds to the heat value of the gas. The last additions to the combustion due to the disassociation of the steam are really what is known as “water gas.” A limited amount of steam may be admitted continuously in this manner without lowering the temperature of the fuel below the gasifying point, and its presence is beneficial for it not only provides more CO and hydrogen but produces it without introducing atmospheric nitrogen. The steam is also a great aid in preventing the formation of clinkers on the grate bars. Since the air used in burning the fuel in the first reaction contains about 79 per cent of nitrogen, which is an inert gas, the producer gas is greatly diluted by this unavoidable admixture, which accounts for its low calorific value.

While the air required for the combustion of the fuel is drawn through the producer by the suction of the engine in the example shown (=SUCTION PRODUCER=), there is a type in common use called a =PRESSURE PRODUCER= in which the air is supplied under pressure to the ash pit by a small blower, which causes a continuous flow of gas above atmospheric pressure.

Gas producers are divided into two classes: suction producers and pressure producers. The suction producer presents the following advantages:

1. The pipe line is always less than atmospheric pressure, hence no leaks of gas to the air are possible.

2. The regulation of the gas supply is automatic.

3. No gas storage tank is required.

4. The production of gas begins and stops with the engine.

5. Uniform quality of gas.

The suction producer is limited to power application and cannot be used where the gas is to be used for heating, as in furnaces, ovens, etc., or where the engine is at a distance from the producer, unless pumped to its destination.

The pressure producer does not yield a uniform quality of gas, hence requires a storage tank where low quality gas will blend with gas of higher calorific values and produce a gas of fairly uniform quality.

The pressure producer is adapted to the use of all grades of fuels, such as bituminous coal and lignite.

Anthracite coal contains little volatile matter and is an ideal fuel for the manufacture of producer gas, while bituminous coal with its high percentage of volatile matter and tar, requires more efficient scrubbing, as these substances must be removed from the gas.

On starting the producer shown by Fig. 6, the producer is filled with the proper amount of kindling and coal, and a blast of air is sent into the ash pit by a small blower, the products of combustion being sent through the by-pass stack (K) until the escaping gas becomes of the quality required for the operation of the engine. The by-pass valve is now closed, and the gas is forced through the scrubber to the engine until the entire system is filled with gas. When good gas appears at the engine test cock the engine is started, and the blower stopped, the gas now being circulated by the engine piston. The volume of gas generated by the producer is always equal to that required by the engine so that no gas receiver or reservoir is required. Because of the friction of the gas in passing through the fuel, scrubber and piping, its pressure at the engine is always considerably below that of the atmosphere, which of course reduces the amount of charge taken into the cylinder. Because of the weak gas and the low pressure in the piping, it is necessary to carry a much higher compression with producer gas than with natural or illuminating gas.

The efficiency of a producer is from 75 to 85 per cent, that is, the producer will furnish gas that has a calorific value of an average of 80 per cent of the calorific value of the fuel from which it is made, the remaining 15 to 20 per cent being consumed in performing the combustion. This is far above the efficiency of the furnace in a steam boiler, as an almost theoretically exact amount of air can be supplied in the producer to effect the combustion, while in the boiler furnace about ten times the theoretical amount is passed through the fuel bed to burn it. Heating up this enormous volume of air to the temperature of the products of combustion consumes a large amount of fuel and reduces the efficiency of the furnace considerably. Because of the reduction in the air supply, a gas fired furnace is always more efficient than one fired with coal. Producer gas with 300,000 British thermal units per thousand cubic feet, and oil having 130,000 British thermal units per gallon will result in 1,000 cubic feet of gas being equal to about 2.30 gallons of fuel oil.

If the gas is to be used for heating ovens or furnaces in connection with the generation of power, the character of the fuel will be determined to a great extent by the requirements of the ovens and by the type of producer used, as each fuel will give the gas certain properties. Thus gas used for firing crockery will not be suitable for use in open hearth steel furnaces, as the impurities in the various fuels may have an injurious effect on the manufactured product. The cost of the fuel, cost of transportation, heat value, purity, and ease of handling are all factors in the selection of a fuel.

The size and condition of a fuel is also of importance. Exceedingly large lumps and fine dust are both objectionable.

Wet fuel reduces the efficiency of the producer, as the water must be evaporated, this causing a serious heat loss.

With careful attention a producer gas engine will develop a horse-power hour on from 1 to 1¼ pounds of anthracite pea coal, and in many instances the consumption has been less than this figure. The efficiency in dropping from full load to half load varies by little, one test showing a consumption of 1.1 pounds of coal per horse-power hour at full load and 1.6 pounds of coal at half load. Producer gas power is nearly as cheap as water power, in fact the producer gas engine has displaced at least two water plants to the writer’s knowledge. According to an estimate made by a well known authority, Mr. Bingham, it is possible for a producer gas engine to generate power for only .1 of one cent more per K.W. hour than it is generated at Niagara Falls.

According to the United States Bureau of Mines,

“The tests in the gas producer have shown that many fuels of so low grade as to be practically valueless for steaming purposes, such as slack coal, bone coal and lignite, may be economically converted into producer gas and may thus generate sufficient power to render them of high commercial value.

“It is estimated that on an average each coal tested in the producer-gas plant developed two and one-half times the power that it would develop in the ordinary steam-boiler plant.

“It was found that the low-grade lignite of North Dakota developed as much power when converted into producer gas as did the best West Virginia bituminous coals burned under the steam boiler.

“Investigations into the waste of coal in mining have shown that it probably aggregates 250,000,000 to 300,000,000 tons yearly, of which at least one-half might be saved. It has been demonstrated that the low-grade coals, high in sulphur and ash, now left underground, can be used economically in the gas producer for the ultimate production of power, heat and light, and should, therefore, be mined at the same time as the high-grade coal.

“As a smoke preventer, the gas producer is one of the most efficient devices on the market, and furthermore, it reduces the fuel consumption not 10 to 15 per cent, as claimed for the ordinary smoke preventing device offered for use in steam plants, but 50 to 60 per cent.”

(13) Producer Gas From Peat.

The production of gas from peat having a low water content (up to about 20 per cent) for use in suction gas engines has already met with considerable success in Germany, but for a number of years efforts have been made to utilize peat with a water content as high as 50 to 60 per cent and thus eliminate the costly process of drying the raw material.

Difficulties have been encountered in preventing a loss of heat through radiation and other causes, and in getting rid of the dust and tar vapors carried over by the gases to the engine; but great strides have been made recently in overcoming these obstacles. Peat with a water content up to 60 per cent has been found to be a suitable fuel. Owing to its great porosity and low specific gravity it presents a large combustion surface in the generator, so that the oxygen in the air used as a draft can easily unite with the carbon of the peat.

One of the great difficulties is to eliminate the tar vapors that clog up many of the working parts of the engine. The passing of the gas through the wet coke washers and dry sawdust cleansers does not appear to have thoroughly remedied the evil. Efforts were therefore made to remove the tar-forming particles of the gas in the generator itself or to render them harmless. That of the Aktien-Gesellschaft Gorlitzer Maschinenbau Ansalt und Eissengiesserei of Gorlitz, was displayed at the exposition at Posen in 1911. The gas from the generating plant was employed in a gas suction engine of 300 horse-power used to drive a dynamo for developing the electric energy for the exposition. The fuel used was peat with a water content of about 40 per cent. The efficiency and economy results obtained were very promising.

The advantages claimed for the Gorlitz engine are that the sulphurous gases and those containing great quantities of tar products are drawn down by the suction of the engine through burning masses of peat and thus rid of their deleterious constituents. The air for the combustion purposes is well heated before entering the combustion chamber, thereby producing economical results. It is claimed also that the gas produced by its system is so free from impurities that the cleaning and drying apparatus may be of the simplest kind.

In _Stahl und Eisen_, an abstract is given of a paper by Carl Heinz describing a peat gas producer, built by the Goerlitzer Maschinenbauanstalt. We are indebted to _Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering_ for the translation of this paper:

Air and fuel enter the producer at the top, and the gas exit is in the center of the bottom so that the air is forced to pass through the center of the producer, decomposing the volatile matter into gases of calorific value. The moisture which is present in the peat fuel in considerable quantities must be taken into consideration. For its decomposition which passing through the hot-fire zone only a certain amount of heat is available. It is, therefore, important that the heat from the gasification be fully utilized.

There are two kinds of heat losses in a gas producer, due to radiation and to the sensible heat of escaping gases. Both these amounts of heat, however, are utilized according to the special design of this producer. The air circulates first through the lower conduit and comes so in contact with the warm scrubber water. A part of the air which has been preheated is carried upwards through the pipe =A= in the center of the producer where it is thoroughly preheated by the hot gases and enters then the air superheater =B= in which the temperature rises to a still higher degree.

The other part of the air passes through the feet of the producer into an air jacket which envelops the whole shell of the producer and enters finally the producer by the reversing valve =C= on top of the producer. In this way the outer surface of the producer is maintained at a temperature hardly higher than that of the surrounding air. The escaping gases are cooled down so far that the gas outlet into the scrubber may be touched by hand. All ordinary heat losses are thus made use of in the gasification process.

If there is a large excess of moisture in peat, the process is somewhat modified by regulating both air supplies in such a way that the gasification in the upper part of the fuel-bed takes place in two directions, one downwards and the other upwards.

It seems that a content of 80 per cent moisture and 20 per cent dry fuel in the peat is about the limit permitting evaporation of the water, but it is, of course, impossible to obtain in this case a gas of calorific value.

The modification of the process for very wet fuel is as follows:

When the fire on top of the fuel bed appears to disappear, the heater opens the stack and valve =D=. Valve =C= is then closed, to prevent air from entering on top. The preheated air enters by =D= causing a down draft combustion due to the suction of the gas engine and an upward combustion due to the draft in the stack. The moisture is evaporated and escapes through the stack. When the fire has burned through at the top, the valve is switched over. The bad smelling gases rising from the scrubber enter the producer together with air and are there consumed.

In commercial use at the exhibition in Posen the whole plant worked continuously day and night and cleaning of the gas engines was necessary only every three months. Slagging of ashes is done during the operation of the producer, without any nuisance from dust.

The highest percentage of moisture in peat gasified was 50 per cent. The fuel consumption per horse-power hour is 2.2 lb. (1 kg.) of peat. Careful tests made by Prof. Baer, of Breslau, showed that with a cost of peat of $1 per ton the kw-hour at the switchboard costs 0.15 cent.

(14) Crude Oil Producers.

The development of the crude oil gas producer, for which there is great demand, in oil regions remote from the coal field, has been exceedingly slow but it is believed that definite progress has recently been made along this line. The most recent notes on this subject relate to the Grine oil producer. In this type steam spray is used for atomizing the oil which is introduced into the upper part of the generator where partial combustion takes place. The downdraft principle is then applied and the hydrocarbon broken up and the tar fixed by passing through a bed of incandescent coke. Mr. Grine reports that a power plant using one of these producers has been in operation a year in California. With crude oil as a fuel costing 95 cents per barrel, or 2.3 cents per gallon, the plant is reported to develop the same amount of power per gallon of crude as is ordinarily developed by the standard internal combustion engine operating on distillates at 7 cents per gallon. Including the cost of fuel, labor, supplies, interest, depreciation and taxes, Mr. Grine states the cost per b.h.p. hour to be 0.76 cents for a plant of 100 h.p. rating.

(15) Operation of Producers.

A good producer operator is simply a good fireman, he must know how to keep a uniform bed of coal and how to draw the fire. While there are many thousands of men running producer plants without previous mechanical training, there are now but few steam engineers running steam engines of the same capacity but what have had at least two years’ training and sufficient mechanical knowledge to pass an examination and obtain a license. While a considerable amount of skill is necessary to obtain the best efficiency from a producer, it is a knack that is easily acquired in a short time by “sticking around” the plant. Skill in operating a producer consists chiefly in keeping the right sort of a fire without damage to the lining by poking down ashes and clinkers. When a new plant is installed, the manufacturer generally sends an instructor to operate the plant for a short time so that with a few days running in his hands any man with ordinary intelligence can overcome the difficulties which arise from time to time.

While there are many types of producers, the main difference will be found in the character of the draft, that is whether it is up, down, or crossways. Down draft producers are generally used with bituminous coals, as the tars and oils that emanate from the coal are drawn through the fire which converts them into a permanent gas, and avoids the difficulty of removing great quantities of the tar from the producer. An up draft producer will not do this as the gas is drawn directly into the mains without coming into contact with the fire. This would result in considerable expense due to the frequent cleaning. Anthracite coal which does not contain much tar can be used successfully in an up draft producer.

A compromise between the up draft and down draft producer is had in the =DOUBLE ZONE= producer, which “burns the candle at both ends” as it were, a fire being at both the top and bottom of the producer. Nearly any class of fuel may be used with this type.

It should be remembered that a hot fire and fuel are required for the manufacture of gas, and that the ash pit and grate must be kept clear of the ashes and clinkers that not only reduce the temperature of the fire, but also reduce the gas available at the cylinder by increasing the friction. Shaking down and cleaning out will in nearly every instance start a bucking producer into operation.

When operating under full load a much hotter fire is required than when operating under a reduced load, or the producer will not furnish the necessary gas. According to the size of the producer, the depth of the incandescent fuel will run from 30 inches in the large sizes to 15 inches in the smaller. After being charged up, suction producers will continue to give gas in sufficient quantities with the bed at half this depth. This is only possible with a hot producer, and when no fuel is being fed, as the feeding of a cold charge will reduce the output. A steady depth of fire should be kept to maintain a uniform quality of gas.

In suction producers careful watch should be kept for leaks, as the gas being below atmospheric pressure gives no outward signs of dilution. If water seals are used in the system they should be given careful attention. When using coals that are rich in tar or hydrocarbons, or with fuels that have much fine dust, considerable trouble is had with some types of producers due to “caking” or to the adhesion of the coal particles to the walls of the producers or to their adhesion to one another. In the latter case the “stickiness” of the fuel prevent the proper feed. This difficulty may often be overcome by a change in the rate of feeding or by regulating the depth of the incandescent bed.

Porosity of the fuel, and the rate at which the air is supplied to the producer determines the depth of the incandescent bed. Particular care should be taken that the blast or draft occurs evenly over the fire surface, and that no holes occur in the fire which will cause more rapid combustion in one spot than in another. Neglect of this precaution not only causes a waste of fuel but often results in the fuel “arching” and preventing further feed. The producer should be so proportioned that at full load, the rate of combustion does not exceed 24 pounds of fuel per square foot of producer area per hour.

In his researches, Professor Bone (Iron and Steel Institute, May, 1907) has shown that up to 0.32 lbs. of steam per lb. of coal can be completely decomposed in a producer, but that, from 0.45 lbs. to 0.55 lbs. should be used, approximately 80% more.

Now, in considering the question of the proper proportion of steam for the production of gas for power purposes we must bear in mind that as much heat as possible should be utilized in the producer itself. Some manufacturers of plant go so far as to state that as much as 1 lb. of steam per lb. of coal should be used, but we are safe in saying that 0.5 lb. to 0.7 lb. should be the figure for a power plant. The common practice is to use a blast saturation of 55% whenever the clinkering character of the coal renders it possible. This figure corresponds to about .57 of steam per lb. of coal gasified.

It is of the utmost importance that the proportion of steam and air should be constant, and the best figure being determined, it should not be varied to any degree. It is equally important that the fuel depth should be left constant. By this I mean that not only should the coal in the producer be kept at a specific level, but the position of the fire on the ash bed should be kept as near as possible a fixed point. Ashes should be drawn at regular intervals, or, if desired, continuously by mechanical means.

Further, the supply of air and steam should be regularly distributed, so that the velocity of the gases through the fuel shall be as nearly as possible regular across its whole area.

In some cases the by-products of a producer, such as ammonia, tar, etc., have a commercial value, and if a large amount of gas is generated it will sometimes pay to select a fuel that is rich in these particular substances.

(16) Coal.

Coal which is the basis of producer gas, is composed generally speaking of the combustible matter, moisture, ash and sulphur. The combustible element may be subdivided into the =HYDROCARBONS, OR VOLATILES=, and the solid fixed carbon. The exact composition of coal is generally given by what is known as =PROXIMATE= analysis, which analysis divides the constituents of the coal into five groups, viz.: =MOISTURE=, =VOLATILES=, =FIXED CARBON=, =ASH=, and =SULPHUR=. Ultimate analysis resolves the coal into its ultimate chemical elements, such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, etc., and being a difficult and tedious process it is not much used.

The proximate analysis gives all the necessary information and takes less time to perform.

VALUES OF COAL

══════════════════╤══════════════════════════════════════════╤═════════ Location of Mine │ PROXIMATE ANALYSIS │Calorific │ │Value in │ │ B.T.U. │ │ per Lb. │ │ of Coal ──────────────────┼────────┬────────┬───────┬───────┬────────┼───────── │Moisture│Volatile│ Fixed │ Ash │Sulphur │ │ │ Matter │Carbon │ │ │ ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── =ANTHRACITE= │ │ │ │ │ │ Northern Pa. │ 3.39│ 4.41│ 83.30│ 8.17│ .73│ 13,200 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Eastern Pa. │ 3.70│ 3.07│ 86.42│ 6.18│ .63│ 13,440 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Western Pa. │ 3.12│ 3.76│ 81.60│ 10.61│ .53│ 12,875 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── =SEMI-ANTHRACITE= │ 1.25│ 8.15│ 83.30│ 6.27│ 1.63│ 13,900 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── =SEMI-BITUMINOUS= │ │ │ │ │ │ Pennsylvania │ .80│ 15.60│ 77.40│ 5.35│ .85│ 14,900 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Pennsylvania │ 1.55│ 16.45│ 71.50│ 8.63│ 1.87│ 14,200 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Pocahontas Va. │ 1.00│ 21.00│ 24.40│ 3.02│ .58│ 15,100 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── West Virginia │ .90│ 17.83│ 77.70│ 3.30│ .27│ 15,230 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── =BITUMINOUS= │ │ │ │ │ │ Youghiogheny Pa. │ 1.00│ 36.50│ 59.00│ 2.59│ .86│ 14,400 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Sample No. 2 │ 1.20│ 30.18│ 59.00│ 8.84│ .78│ 14,400 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Hocking Valley │ 6.5│ 35.06│ 48.80│ 8.05│ 1.59│ 12,100 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Kentucky │ 4.00│ 34.00│ 54.70│ 7.00│ .03│ 12,800 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Indiana │ 8.00│ 30.20│ 54.20│ 7.60│ │ 12,500 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Illinois │ 10.50│ 36.15│ 37.00│ 12.90│ 3.45│ 10,500 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── Colorado │ 6.00│ 38.01│ 47.90│ 8.09│ │ 12,200 ──────────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────── =LIGNITE= │ 9.00│ 42.26│ 44.30│ 3.27│ 1.18│ 11,000 ──────────────────┴────────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴─────────

The =CALORIFIC VALUE= of a fuel may be calculated from its analysis, or may be determined by means of the =CALORIMETER= from a sample of the coal; the latter method is the most reliable. Table gives approximately the calorific values, and the proximate analysis of several representative coals from various sections of the country. The values given in the table are not exact, as the coal from each locality varies considerably in quality, but the figures will indicate what may be expected from each type of coal.

Connellsville, Pa., Coke has a calorific value of approximately 13,000 B.T.U.’s per pound, contains no volatile matter, and has an approximate content of 10% ash. Coke is a valuable fuel for the gas producer, but is rather expensive. It is clean and the absence of volatile matter reduces the “scrubbing” problem to a minimum.

Small coal such as buckwheat and pea contain a much higher percentage of moisture than given in the table, running from 5% to 10% higher than the given values.

Bituminous coal is high in hydrocarbons or volatiles which condense easily and form tar. If the tar is not removed or converted into a permanent gas, it will clog the passages of the producer and the engine and cause trouble.

The removal of the tar and ash from a gas is called =SCRUBBING=, and is performed by a device much resembling a filter. Anthracite coal and coke are low in volatiles or hydrocarbons, and therefore do not cause trouble with tar deposits.

A high percentage of volatile matter also causes trouble by the tar cementing the particles of fuel together. This interferes with the proper action of the producer.

Fuels having a high percentage of ash call for perfect filtering or “scrubbing” as such fuels will fill the gas passages with dust. Dust should be kept out of the engine at all costs, for the dust even in a quantity will cause wear in the cylinder.

Depending on the quality of the fuel, bituminous coal will produce about 4½ pounds of ammonia and 12 gallons of tar with about 5% of sulphur.

Anthracite coal will produce approximately six pounds of tar, and two pounds of ammonia with traces of sulphur.

Loose Anthracite coal requires approximately 40 cubic feet of storage space per ton of 2240 pounds and weighs about 56 pounds per cubic foot (market sizes).

Loose Bituminous coal requires approximately 45 cubic feet of storage space per ton of 2240 pounds, and weighs about 52 pounds per cubic foot in market sizes.

Dry coke requires approximately 85 cubic feet of storage space per ton of 2240 pounds, and weighs about 26 pounds per cubic foot.

(17) Fuel Oils.

Crude oil, a natural product, is the base of the fuels most commonly used in internal combustion engines, especially in the smaller sizes. From this compound the following derivatives are obtained by the process of distillation, a separation possible because of the different boiling points of the various oils. As each derivative or =DISTILLATE= has a different boiling point, the temperature of the crude oil is maintained at the boiling point of that product that is desired, and the resulting vapor is condensed. The following list is not anywhere near complete for there are several hundred distinctly different distillates, but it contains those that are of the most interest to the engine man.

1. Crude Oil. 2. Gasoline. 3. Naphtha. 4. Solar Oil. 5. Kerosene.

The specific gravity of the crude oil as obtained in the field will range from 12° to 56° Beaumé scale. The crude from Pennsylvania will average 40° Beaumé while that from Texas will average 20°. The accompanying table will give the calorific values and general properties of the principle liquid fuels. It should be noted that the weight or density of the liquids is given in terms of specific gravity or Beaumé scale, in which the =SPECIFIC GRAVITY= of the fuel is the ratio of its weight per unit volume to the weight of an equivalent volume of water. The specific gravity of a liquid is generally determined by an instrument known as a =HYDROMETER= which consists of a glass tube sealed at both ends carrying a graduated scale on the upper portion of the stem, and a ballast weight of shot or mercury at the bottom.

The hydrometer is floated in the liquid to be tested, and the lower the specific gravity, the lower the hydrometer sinks, and vice versa. The specific gravity of the liquid is read directly from the graduation on the stem that are on a level with the surface of the liquid under test. As in the case of thermometers, hydrometers are all graduated in two different scales, the specific gravity scale and the Beaumé scale. The specific gravity scale reads at 1.00 when floated on distilled water, and the Beaumé at 10.00 when floated on the same liquid.

A difference in temperature affects the density of a liquid, hence all hydrometers are graduated for a standard temperature of 60°F unless otherwise specified. For a difference of 10°F there is a variation of one degree gravity in the Beaumé scale, and for a difference of 20°F in temperature there is a change of one degree on the specific gravity scale. If the temperature differs from 60°F, the corresponding correction should be made in the reading.

To convert the Beaumé reading (B) to terms of the specific gravity scale (S) use the following formula:

140 S = ——————— = specific gravity. 130 + B

140 B = ——— = Beaumé scale. S

PROPERTIES OF OILS

Degrees Specific Weight B.T.U.’S B.T.U.’S Beaumé Gravity per gal. per lb. per gal. Gasoline 67.2 .7125 5.932 21120 125,284 Heavy naphtha 64.6 .7216 6.011 20527 123,388 Kerosene 48.8 .7848 6.538 20018 130,877 W. Virginia crude 40.0 .8251 6.874 19766 135,871 Penn. fuel oil 31.9 .8660 7.215 19656 141,818 Kansas crude 29.0 .8816 7.345 19435 142,750 Fuel oil 22.7 .9176 7.645 19103 146,042 California crude 22.5 .9248 7.710 18779 144,786 California crude 15.2 .9646 8.036 18589 149,381 Alcohol, 95% 41.9 .816 6.798 10500 71,380

It will be noted that the petroleum products contain an enormous amount of heat energy, nearly 25% more than that of the same weight of pure carbon. It will also be noted that the lighter products such as gasoline, kerosene, etc., have more heat per pound but less per gallon than the heavier oils. This is rather confusing at first, but as will be seen after deliberation that the heavier fuel is the most economical since the least is used per horse-power, and is bought by the gallon. The calorific values given in the table are obtained by a calorimeter, and are burnt in the open air, and consequently have a different heating value when under compression in the cylinder of the engine.

In all cases the liquids are vaporized before being introduced in the cylinder, the more volatile liquids such as gasoline being converted into vapor at atmospheric temperature, and the heavier non-volatiles by being sprayed into a heated vessel or preheated air. The percentage of liquid fuel contained in a cubic foot of air vapor mixture depends on the temperature, the boiling point of the liquid and upon the pressure and humidity.

Gasoline consists principally of compounds of the methane series, the one representative of gasoline being Hexane (C_{6}H_{14}). It requires 15.5 pounds of air for combustion theoretically and about 10 per cent. more in practice. The formation of gasoline vapor produces a drop in temperature of 50°F, and should be heated 100°F above the atmosphere for the best results. The volume of air required for the combustion is about 192 cubic feet. With alcohol at 20 cents per gallon and gasoline at 12½ cents the number of B.T.U.’s for one cent in the case of alcohol is 3594 and 9265 in the case of gasoline. In the engine the difference is not so great owing to the difference in compression pressures.

(18) Tar for Fuel.

Because of the increasing interest in the Diesel type engine and the low grade fuels that it has made possible, we quote the specifications laid down by Dr. Rudolph Diesel, the inventor, before the English Institution of Engineers.

(1.) Tar-oils should not contain more than a trace of constituents insoluble in xylol. The test on this is performed as follows:—25 grammes (0.88 oz. av.) of oil are mixed with 25 cm.^3 (1.525 cub. in.) of xylol, shaken and filtered. The filter-paper before being used is dried and weighed, and after filtration has taken place it is thoroughly washed with hot xylol. After re-drying the weight should not be increased by more than 0.1 gr.

(2.) The water contents should not exceed 1 per cent. The testing of the water contents is made by the well-known xylol method.

(3.) The residue of the coke should not exceed 3 per cent.

(4.) When performing the boiling analysis, at least 60 per cent. by volume of the oil should be distilled on heating up to 300° C. The boiling and analysis should be carried out according to the rules laid down by the Trust. (German Tar Production Trust on Essen-Ruhr.)

(5.) The minimum calorific power must not be less than 8,800 cal. per kg. For oils of less calorific power the purchaser has the right of deducting 2 per cent of the net price of the delivered oil, for each 100 cal. below this minimum.

(6.) The flash-point, as determined in an open crucible by Von Holde’s method for lubricating oils, must not be below 65° C.

(7.) The oil must be quite fluid at 15° C. The purchaser has not the right to reject oils on the ground that emulsions appear after five minutes’ stirring when the oil is cooled to 8°.

Purchasers should be urged to fit their oil-storing tanks and oil-pipes with warming arrangements to redissolve emulsions by the temperature falling below 15° C.

(8.) If emulsions have been caused by the cooling of the oils in the tank during transport, the purchaser must redissolve them by means of this apparatus.

Insoluble residues may be deducted from the weight of oil supplied.

Coal tar oil is the distillate of the tar obtained from gas works, from which all valuable commercial materials such as aniline have been removed. Coal oil tar is also known as creosote oil and anthracene oil, the heat value of which is not quite 16,000 B.T.U. per pound.

(19) Residual Oils.

Residual oil is the residue left after the lighter oils have been distilled from the petroleum, which before the advent of the Diesel engine were useless. Residual oil which was hardly fluid at ordinary temperatures has been successfully used in the Diesel and semi-Diesel types of engines, by preheating it before admission to the inlet valves. The enormously increased demand for gasoline has resulted in a great increase of the formerly useless residual oil so that it is possible that the demand for gasoline will make the production of the residual great enough so that it can be seriously considered as a fuel.

(20) Gasoline.

Gasoline is by the far the most widely used fuel for internal combustion engines because of its great volatility and the ease with which it forms inflammable mixtures with the air at ordinary temperatures. Another point in its favor is the fact that it burns with a minimum of sooty or tarry deposits, without a disagreeable smell with moderate compression pressures and without preheating through a wide range of air ratios. Gasoline is a product of crude oil from which it is obtained by a process of distillation, and as it forms but a small percentage of the crude oil it is rapidly becoming more and more expensive as the demand increases. Some Pennsylvania crude oils will yield as much as 20 per cent of their weight in gasoline, while the low grade Texas and California crudes very seldom contain more than 3 per cent.

When considered as a term applying to some specific product, the word “Gasoline” is a very flexible expression as it covers a wide range of specific gravities, boiling points, and compositions, the latter items depending on the demand for the fuel and the taste of the manufacturer. Since the specific gravity of gasoline is a factor that determines its suitability for the engine, at least in regard to its evaporating power or volatility, it is graded according to its density in Beaumé degrees as determined by the hydrometer. According to this scale gasoline will range from 85° to 60° Beaumé, and even lower, although 60° is supposed to mark the lowest limit and to form the dividing line between gasoline and naphtha.

The density of the gasoline in Beaumé degrees is an index to the volatility, for the higher the degree as indicated on the hydrometer, the higher is the volatility at a given temperature, consequently a high degree gasoline will give a better mixture at a low temperature than one of a low degree. In cold weather all gasoline should be tested with a hydrometer when purchased to insure a grade that will be volatile enough for easy starting when the engine is cold. In cold weather the gasoline should not be lower than 68°, and for the best results should be above 72°, at least for starting the engine. Good gasoline should evaporate rapidly and should produce quite a degree of cold when a small amount is spread on the palm of the hand, and it should leave neither a greasy feeling nor a disagreeable odor after its evaporation.

The high gravity gasoline is of course the most expensive, as there is less of it in a gallon of the crude oil from which it is made; gasoline of 76° Beaumé being approximately 15c. per gallon in carload lots, while naphtha of 58° Beaumé brings 8½c. per gallon.

The calorific value of gasoline increases as the gravity Beaumé decreases per gallon; 85° gasoline having approximately 113,000 B.T.U. per gallon while 58° naphtha has an approximate value of 122,000 B.T.U. per gallon. The calorific value remains nearly constant per pound for all gravities.

It should be remembered that heat is absorbed in evaporating gasoline as well as in evaporating water, and that effects of cold weather are greatly increased by the amount of heat absorbed, (or cold produced) by the vaporization of the fuel. While the heat absorbed by evaporating a given quantity of gasoline is only .45 per cent of that absorbed by an equal amount of water, it is a fact that this heat must be supplied from some source to prevent a reduction in the vapor density. In starting the engine, the heat of evaporation is supplied by the atmosphere, and should the temperature of the air be below that required for a given vapor density, the engine will refuse to start.

By the use of two tanks and a three way valve, it is possible to use two grades of fuel: one tank containing high gravity gasoline, and the other low gravity; the high gravity being used for starting the engine in cold weather, and the cheaper, low gravity, being used for continuous running after the engine is warmed up—the change of fuels being made by throwing over the three way valve.

The =VAPOR DENSITY= of gasoline vapor is the ratio of the weight of the vapor compared with the weight of an equal volume of dry air at the same temperature. If the weight of a cubic foot of gasoline vapor is divided by the weight of a cubic foot of air at the same temperature the result will be the vapor density of the gasoline vapor. Compared to air, the gasoline vapor is quite heavy so that if a small quantity of gasoline is poured on the top of a table, the vapor will flow over the edge of the table and drop to the floor where it will remain until it has united with the air by the process of diffusion. Experiments have shown that pure, dry gasoline vapor has a density of about 3.28, or in other words weighs 3.28 times as much as an equal volume of dry air. This weight of course is the weight of pure vapor which is considerably heavier than the mixture of vapor and air that is used in the cylinder of the engine.

Dampness, or the presence of water vapor in the air reduces the quantity of gasoline vapor taken up by the air, but only by a small amount, the maximum difference being only about 2 per cent. Since it is very likely that the water vapor is broken up into its original elements, oxygen and hydrogen, by the heat of the combustion it is likely that there is no heat loss due to the vapor passing out through the exhaust. The principal trouble due to dampness is the mixture of water and liquid gasoline caused by the condensation of the water vapor.

All gasolines and oils contain water to a more or less degree, hence provision should be made for the draining of the water which collects in the bottom of the tank. Water in liquid fuels is the cause of much trouble.

Water in gasoline may be detected by dropping scrapings from an indelible pencil into a sample of the suspected fluid. If water is present in any quantity the gasoline will assume a violet color.

In filling a supply tank with gasoline, a chamois filter or chamois lined funnel should always be used, as the chamois skin allows the gasoline to pass but retains the water and impurities contained therein. There are many funnels of this type now on the market.

The rate at which gasoline burns depends on the amount of surface presented to the air by the fluid, for a given quantity of gasoline burns faster in a wide shallow vessel than in a deep jar. Since a spray of minute particles presents an enormously greater surface than the liquid its burning speed is correspondingly greater, and as a true vapor has an almost limitless area, its speed is much greater than that of the spray, the combustion under the latter condition being almost instantaneous. Besides the question of subdivision of the liquid, the rate of combustion also depends on the intimacy of contact of the vapor with the air and on the pressure applied to the vapor as previously explained under the head of “=COMPRESSION=” in another chapter.

=CARBURETING AIR=, or producing an explosive mixture of gasoline vapor and air is accomplished by two different methods, first by passing the air over the surface of the liquid, or by passing it through the liquid in bubbles; second by spraying the liquid into the air. The latter is the method most generally in use at the present time, the spray being formed by the suction of the intake air upon the open end of the spray nozzle. The vapor density of the mixture thus formed depends on the suction of the air and upon the nozzle opening, either of which may be varied in the modern carburetor to vary the richness of the mixture.

As a suggestion to the users of gasoline we append the following remarks.

Gasoline vapor will readily combine with air to form explosive mixtures, at ordinary temperature. This property at once makes it the most suitable fuel and the most dangerous to handle.

Never fill tanks or expose gasoline to the air in the presence of an open flame, or do not attempt to determine the amount of gasoline in a tank with the aid of a match. There are a number of people who have successfully accomplished this feat, and a very great number who have not.

Be very sparing in the use of matches around a gasoline engine; there are such things as =leaks=.

Always carefully replace the stopper or filler cap in a gasoline tank after filling. Never use the same funnel for water and gasoline, and avoid any possibility of water finding its way into the tank.

If you do succeed in igniting a quantity of free gasoline, do not attempt to extinguish the fire with water. Pouring water on burning gasoline spreads the fire. Extinguish it with earth or sand, or by the use of one of the dry powder extinguishers now on the market.

Water may be removed from gasoline by placing a few lumps of desiccated calcium chloride in the tank, the amount depending on the quantity of water.

Calcium chloride, has a great capacity for absorbing water, and in a short space of time will absorb all of the moisture contained in the tank.

The best way to introduce the chloride is to wrap the lumps in a sheet of wire gauze and lower into tank with a wire, the wire allowing it to be easily removed when saturated with water.

(21) Benzol.

Benzol has been used to some extent in Europe as a fuel, its use being due to the rapidly increasing cost of gasoline.

Benzol is a distillate of coal tar, and is a by-product of the coke industry. In England benzol brings approximately the same price as gasoline (called petrol), but benzol proves economical for the reason that it develops more power per gallon.

Benzol is not as volatile as gasoline, but is sufficiently volatile to allow of easy motor starting.

Benzol is also used for denaturing alcohol.

(22) Alcohol.

Alcohol is of vegetable origin, being the result of the destructive distillation of various kinds of starchy plants or vegetables. Starch is the base of alcohol.

As a fuel, alcohol has much in its favor, as it causes no carbon deposit, has smokeless and odorless exhaust, can stand high compression, and requires less cooling water than gasoline, as the heat loss is less through the cylinder walls, and for this reason it is more efficient fuel than gasoline.

At the present time the price of alcohol prohibits its general use. In order that alcohol equal gasoline in price per horse-power hour, it should sell for 10c. per gallon, the price of gasoline being 15c. per gallon.

Alcohol can be used in any ordinary gasoline engine with readjustment of carburetor and the compression.

The nozzle in the carburetor has to be of larger bore for alcohol than for gasoline, and the compression for alcohol in the neighborhood of 180 pounds per square inch.

The inlet air should be heated to about 280°F for alcohol fuel; approximately 6% of the heat of the alcohol is required for its vaporization. Alcohol is much safer to handle than gasoline owing to its low volatility.

90% alcohol has a calorific value of 10,100 B.T.U. per pound, its specific gravity being .815.

=WOOD=, or =METHYL= alcohol is made by distilling the starch contained in the fibres of some species of wood (Poisonous).

=GRAIN=, or =ETHYL= alcohol is the result of the distillation of the starch contained in grains, potatoes, molasses, etc. =ETHYL=, or =GRAIN= alcohol rendered unfit for drinking by the addition of certain substances, is called =DENATURED ALCOHOL=. The process of denaturing does not affect the calorific value of alcohol to any extent.

(23) Kerosene Oil.

Kerosene is a fractional distillate of crude oil which has a considerably higher vaporizing temperature than gasoline. It does not form an inflammable mixture with the air at ordinary temperatures, but is vaporized in practice by spraying it into a chamber heated to above 200°F. Kerosene forms a greater percentage of crude oil than gasoline and as there has been less demand for it up to the present time it is much cheaper. Pennsylvania crude oil produces only 20 per cent of gasoline while the kerosene contents will average nearly 42 per cent according to figures at hand.

Kerosene has a very high calorific value per gallon, 8.5 gallons of kerosene having the same heating effect as 10 gallons of gasoline. Because of its high calorific value and its low cost per gallon, many types of engines have been developed for its use during the last few years, several of which have been very successful. Before the advent of the modern kerosene engine much difficulty was experienced with the fuel because of its high vaporizing temperature and its tendency to carbonize in the cylinder, but as the price of gasoline continued to rise, the inventive genius of the gas engine builder overcame these troubles so that the kerosene engine is now as reliable as any form of prime mover.

Any gasoline engine will run on kerosene, after a manner, if the engine is thoroughly heated to insure the vaporization of the kerosene, and if the fuel is heated in the carburetor. Such an arrangement is make-shift, however, and is not productive of good results in continuous service. If kerosene is to be used as a regular fuel, a kerosene engine should be used to avoid vaporizing and carbonizing difficulties as well as the sooty, offensive exhaust, and the loss of fuel represented by the soot.

Many kerosene engines are arranged to start on gasoline, and, after becoming heated, have the running feed of kerosene admitted through a three way valve. The gasoline feed is then stopped.

The above arrangement admits of easy starting in all weathers and temperatures.

In the Diesel engine there is no evaporating of fuel, and no deposits of carbon because of the high temperature of the combustion chamber. With engines that draw the mixture of vapor and air into the cylinder there are several methods of applying heat to the liquid, and the combustion of the vapor thus formed is perfected by the injection of water into the combustion chamber. It has been found by experiment that a small amount of water vapor introduced into the cylinder of a kerosene engine makes the engine run more smoothly and prevents a smoky exhaust and carbon deposits in the cylinder. The water is introduced into the cylinder through an atomizer in the form of a mist or fog, the particles of water being in a very finely subdivided state.

The deposits of free carbon (soot) caused by the “cracking” or decomposition of the kerosene vapor before ignition, due to the high temperature of the cylinder, are burnt to carbon dioxide by the oxygen of the water which is also set free by the heat of the cylinder. This produces an odorless gas (CO_{2}) which indicates complete combustion. Besides the increase of fuel efficiency due to the water vapor, the cylinder is more thoroughly cooled and is more efficiently lubricated because of the reduction in temperature.