Part 11

=Union Cloth.=--As the name implies, Union Cloths are woven with warp and weft of different fibres. They are also called "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft. Union Cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." In the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different. When light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." In some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union dyes are employed.

The principal Union Cloths met with are: Brilliantines, Glacés, and Sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft; Alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; Lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft; Italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Beatrice Twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. All authorities do not agree as to what constitutes a Union, the following definition having been met with: "Fabrics are union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending." In the Morley (Yorkshire) trade a "Union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling Broadcloth.

=Union Yarns.=--These yarns, as the name indicates, are the product of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable of being spun.

Union Yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the fibres. When the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as Carded Union Yarns. Another form of Union Yarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of different material. Some Union Yarns have the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of Angola yarn.

Union Yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour.

=Velour.=--This name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton or a combination of both. As a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse, stiff, pile variety. The name is French for Velvet, hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. As a woollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term Velour. Some manufacturers would class as Velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished Cashmere," a second as a "Saxony," with Velour slightly different from either of these.

=Velvet.=--This name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "All-silk" in this definition of Velvet applies to the pile only, for Velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that a Silk Velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as "silk backed."

=Velvet Finish.=--A finish produced upon woollen fabrics by wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance.

=Velvet of Silk mixed with other Fibres.=--This class of fabric includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of Velvet, _i.e._, have their pile shorter than that of Plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or even vegetable fibres, such as cotton. Where it is clearly stipulated that they are "Velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton.

=Velveteen.=--This name is given to the class of fabrics that in reality are but Cotton Velvets. Like true Velvets, they are woven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. Velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft threads--which are afterwards cut--additional to and on a firmly constructed woven ground texture. Weft pile can be recognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp threads. Common Velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner. Velveteens are also known as Velverets or Fustians. Standard widths for Velveteens are 19 inches, 22½ inches, 24½ inches, and 27½ or 28 inches.

=Venetians.=--A wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. As applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy, warp-face, Dress Satin (or Sateen) of strong texture and closely woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. Light weights would be sold as Sateen or Dress Sateen. Woven with about 200 to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes by mercerising the fabric. The weave is of an upright warp twill character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress Venetians were made, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave.

=Vesting (Vestings).=--A generic term embracing a wide range of fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countries for men's vests, but used in China for either men's or women's outer or inner garments. Fabrics of several combination of weaves showing fancy stripes or small checkings, and often coloured to the extent of some coloured warp threads appearing here and there on the surface and left floating (where not used) on the back of the fabric are common in this class of goods. This heading covers Welts, Piqué, Fancy Piqué, etc.

=Vigogne.=--The French form of the word "vicuña"; applied to a soft woollen dress material.

=Vigoreux.=--A worsted material, printed in the yarn so as to produce a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. This differs from Beige in that the yarns are printed before being spun, giving the finished goods the appearance of having been woven from mixed yarns.

=Viyella.=--A light cloth, largely made from cotton and wool scribbled together. It is similar to Ceylon Flannel and differs from it only in name. This fabric is one of many known under "trade-marks 'patented' or 'registered' names," which are sometimes sufficiently popular to embrace many different weaves under one head.

=Voile.=--This name is used to designate a more or less transparent light fabric made generally of cotton. Woven with a square mesh produced by plain one-over and one-under weaving, Voile averages 55 meshes per inch, with an average width of 42 inches, and generally in pieces of 60 yards.

Voile when dyed is piece-dyed and not woven from yarn which was dyed previously to being woven. The yarn used in the weaving of Voiles is a hard-twisted yarn.

Woollen Voiles are also woven, the characteristics being similar to Cotton Voile, but in weaving Voiles with worsted yarns, if the yarn is not very free from loose fibres, the fabric is finished by having its face singed or sheared very close, so as to ensure a clear-faced material.

=Wadding Pick.=--A thick weft thread of low quality inserted often without interlacing between the two fabrics in a double cloth and between the two warps in a warp-backed structure. This gives weight and solidity to the fabric. The wadding pick remains out of sight, and the appearance of the fabric is not affected thereby.

=Wale.=--This term has the same meaning as "warp welt," or "welt," and is used to describe a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals.

=Warp.=--Warp is the name given to that set of threads that runs lengthways of a piece of cloth. When the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the warp thread, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick."

=Warp Pile.=--Warp pile can be recognised by simply withdrawing from the fabric being examined a few "picks," or weft threads. If the material is a warp-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" remain entangled or looped and adhering to some of the drawn weft threads. This can be easily seen if a common Velvet ribbon is experimented with, when, upon drawing out the weft threads separately from selvedge to selvedge, it will invariably be seen that each alternate weft thread will have the loose bits of "cut warp pile" attached. Where the material is extra closely woven it is possible for every weft thread that is withdrawn to have the loose bits attached in the manner described.

Warp-pile fabrics include two varieties, the "uncut pile," such as Turkish or Terry Towels and Towelling, Brussels Carpets, Patent Tapestry Carpets, etc., and "cut pile," like warp-pile Plushes, Velvets, ribbons, etc.

=Warp Print.=--A fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps prior to weaving, appears somewhat faintly and in an indefinite outline. _See_ Chiné.

=Warp Ribs.=--The term "warp ribs" is used to designate a warp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a number of weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in which the warp threads are on the face of the fabric. Poplin is a typical warp-ribbed fabric.

=Warp Sateen.=--A common form of Cotton Sateen cloth is that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threads appearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of the weft threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object of weaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Warp Sateen will be much closer in the warp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger in that direction.

=Warp Welt.=--A fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals, as in the case of Bedford Cords and Piqués. In cotton goods, when the cords run lengthways of the piece, the fabric is known as a "warp welt." Sometimes called "wale."

=Warp-faced Cloth.=--A fabric which shows on its face a greater number of warp threads than "picks," or weft threads.

=Waste and Condenser Wefts.=--These are made from certain waste cotton which accumulates in certain parts of the machinery during the process of spinning yarn. This waste is treated by special machinery, which spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in weaving Sheetings.

=Waste and Flocks.=--Cotton mill waste is the by-product derived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill. Each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average 15 per cent. visible and invisible waste. The visible waste is of two kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made on spinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slight twist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejected by all machines up to the spinning frame. The invisible waste is equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cotton during the process of manufacture. Flocks are short fibres removed from cloth during the process of napping.

=Waste Cloths.=--Cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns, generally plain woven and of low grade. The weft thread is coarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton.

=Watering.=--As a textile term, it is used to designate the process whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on the face of plain-woven fabrics--especially silks. The process of giving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by either passing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which, bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal, making it reflect light differently. The same result is obtained by pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarser weft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentations on the face of the fabric it is pressed against. A fabric is said to be "watered" when ornamented by either of the above processes. The principle of this operation is that two fabrics of precisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water" each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of the threads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficiently marked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "To tabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective "tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streaked with wavy lines.

=Weaving.=--Every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp and the filling (this latter is also known as weft), which are interlaced with each other to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling, or weft, threads run across from side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling interlace with each other constitutes the weave. The term "end" in weaving is used to designate the warp thread, while each weft or filling thread is called a "pick." The fineness of a cloth is expressed by saying that it has so many "ends" and "picks" to the inch. The character of the weave offers the best basis for classification of woven goods, and nearly all varieties of cloth may be classified under the following weaves:--

Plain weave. Twill weave. Satin weave. Figure weave. Double-cloth weave. Pile weave. Gauze weave. Lappet weave.

=Web.=--Web is the name given to a piece of cloth at the moment it is taken from the loom and previous to its having been treated to produce the special feature of the class of cloth the web belongs to.

=Weft.=--When the word "weft" is used in connexion with weaving or woven fabrics, it always signifies the filling threads, each of which is also called a "pick." Weft threads run across the width of the fabric.

=Weft Pile.=--Weft pile can be recognised by withdrawing from the fabric under examination a few "picks," or weft threads. If the material is a weft-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" are not entangled or looped round or adhering to the weft thread that has been drawn out, but that they remain entangled among the warp threads.

If, however, a few warp threads are withdrawn separately, it will be found that every alternate warp thread, as a rule, will have the loose bits of "cut weft pile" attached or looped round.

=Weft Ribs.=--The only difference between these and warp ribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. The term "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to the grouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribs running lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face of the fabric.

=Weft Sateen.=--A Weft Sateen is woven on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the weft threads appearing on the surface of the fabric, and therefore four-fifths of the warp threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object of weaving on this principle is similar to that aimed at when weaving a Warp Sateen, that is to say, it is done to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Weft Sateen will be closer in the weft threads (or picks) than in the warp threads, and therefore stronger in that direction.

=Weft-faced Cloth.=--A fabric which shows on its face a greater number of "picks," or weft threads, than warp threads.

=Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths.=--The accepted standard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is--

_For Ladies' Wear_:--

4 ounces per yard represents a "very thin" cloth. 8 " " " "thin" cloth.

_For Men's Wear_:--

12 ounces per yard represents a "thin, or "tropical," cloth. 16 " " " "thin medium" cloth. 20 " " " "medium" cloth. 30 " " " "thick" cloth. 40 " " " "very thick" cloth.

Naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with the composition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly" makes of 20 ounces being very thick.

=Weighting.=--The process of adding to the natural weight of a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances.

Cotton fabrics are generally weighted by subjecting them to a process which causes them to absorb either zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, starch, or alkali silicate. Woollens and worsteds are generally weighted with zinc chloride. Silk is generally weighted with muriate of tin, and few of the silks on the market are free from weighting. Modern methods make it possible to increase the weight of pure boiled silk to five or six times its original weight. Hooper, in his book on "Silk," states: "It was early found that silk would absorb about one-third its own weight of water without feeling wet to the touch. The dyer found that it would absorb other things besides water, muriate of tin amongst them. As a matter of fact, it may be, and indeed it is, made by the dyer to take up, with the dye, so much of that metal that 12 ounces of boiled silk can be increased in weight to 80 ounces, and yet look like very bright silk."

The term "weighting" has the same value as "filling" or "loading."

=Welt.=--The double thick portion or wide hem at top of plain hose.

=Whip Thread.=--The crossing thread in a gauze fabric.

=Whipcord.=--This name is given to hard-twisted worsted twills in either solid or mixed colours. The twill or diagonal in this class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhat resembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip.

=White.=--As a textile term, this word is applied to fabrics which are not in their loom state, _i.e._, in the grey, but which have been bleached and rendered white.

=White Brocades.=--Under this name would be classed bleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weave in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design. Soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of Brocades and other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better the figure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. White Brocades are all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. Lappet and swivel figured fabrics would not come under the heading "Brocades"; such style of figuring is not brocaded.

=White Cambric.=--Cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabric of light weight and soft finish. Cotton Cambric, in which the yarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. It is woven without a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of 120 yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. In plain white, a Cambric is finer than a Lawn. Cambric of French origin is generally finer in texture than the Manchester Cambric. Cambric varies in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. The finer qualities are made from hard-twisted cotton. The warp yarn is often of a different thickness to that used for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. The term Cambric is also commonly applied to Muslins. White Cambric is a bleached material.

=White Drills, or Drilling.=--White Drills are, when not otherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), which have been bleached but not dyed or printed. The better qualities of warp-faced sateen-weave Drills are known as Satin Drill, and these are extensively exported to the Far East; their distinctive features lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, and finish.

=White Goods.=--A generic term covering a great variety of bleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combination of weaves.

=White Irishes.=--The term Irishes originally was applied to linen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around Belfast. It is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weave similar to white cotton Calico. Generally in pieces 36 inches wide and 42 yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish.

=White Italian.=--The name White Italian is not generally applied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an Italian. Such a fabric is a White Mercerised Sateen; however, occasionally an invoice covering Coloured Italians will be found to include so-called White Italians. In such cases the colour assortment list (which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, the invoice) will show the number of white pieces included in the shipment. The ordinary Italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyed material, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade, considered to be a colour, a White Italian cannot be considered as coming under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

=White Jean.=--A White Jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-end twill, similar in weave to a Grey Jean, but which has been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into what is known as a "market white" fabric. The process of bleaching proper is always preceded by a series of operations that have for their object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removing loose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeing the surface so as to free it from all "nap." The distinctive weave of this fabric is given under "Grey Jeans," which is the class of Jean most often met with.