Part 11
Few of this tribe have anything like true woody texture, except their highest order, the ferns, which form some of the most beautiful objects in the vegetable world. Few of the family of acrogens are of much direct use to man, the mushroom tribes are very generally eaten where they abound, the lichens of the arctic regions form the food of the reindeer (the greatest friend of man in these cold climes) as well as, in part, the food of man himself; but although these lowly plants serve man but little, directly, there is not a shadow of doubt that they have as important an office to fulfil as any other family or tribe of organised creatures, whose purpose may meet the eye more plainly. For all the members of creation form, as it were, the links of one great chain, and were but one removed, though it might perchance be only some poor weed or lowly moss, yet might it cause the whole to be annihilated; for certain earthy matters enter into the structure of all plants, and it appears to be the wonderful office of some of these lowest tribes of plants to prepare this earthy matter for its reception into the systems of higher organisms, for as silica is one of the primitive rocks of the earth and is only found in fragments, from the largest to the sand on the sea-shore, which is nothing but a collection of minute fragments of quartz worn small by attrition, yet a grain of sand is a gigantic mass of rock in comparison with the thin porous hollow shells of the Diatomaceæ, &c., and by far too large to be absorbed or dissolved so as to be taken into the systems of other plants that may require it, which plants would cease to exist if this earth were not thus prepared for them; now these are the corn-bearing plants, the most useful to the animal world, and upon which it in reality depends for existence. Moreover the whole of the mould in which the higher orders of plants grow, is formed by the decomposition of the more humble grades, especially the lichens, which first take possession of the surface of bare rocks and stones, and furnish by their death food fit for the sustenance of those which follow them. Like the higher orders of vegetation, these minute plants excrete oxygen, and thus in the ocean may supply this vital element for the respiration of the various corresponding minute animal organisms which inhabit the depths of the sea and which cannot come to the surface to get it, so that the two thus supporting each other, form food for all the higher marine animals, which are finally eaten by man. So that upon some of these minute and apparently useless creatures hang the lives and well-being of many of the most important vegetables and animals.
Dr. Lindley divides the acrogens into the following orders:--
1. ALGÆ (Algals), including Sea-weeds, &c.
The Algæ include the lowest of all the vegetative organisms, the "Protophytes" (first plants). These have no individual parts, but consist of living cells, propagating by sub-division or by the union of two cells into one, causing the formation of "nuclei" or smaller cells within them, each of which becomes a parent cell after the rupture of the cell-membrane which contained them.
Dr. Carpenter, in his "History of the Microscope," says:--"The life-history of one of these uni-cellular plants in its most simple form, can scarcely be better exemplified than in the _Palmogloea macrococca_, one of those humble forms of vegetation which spreads itself as a green slime over damp stones, walls, &c. When this slime is examined with the microscope, it is found to consist of a multitude of green cells, each surrounded by a gelatinous envelope; the cell, which does not seem to have any distinct membranous wall, is filled with granular particles of a green colour, and a 'nucleus' may sometimes be distinguished through the midst of these. When treated with tincture of iodine, however, the green contents of the cell are turned to a brownish hue, and a dark-brown nucleus is distinctly shown. Other cells are seen, which are considerably elongated, some of them beginning to present a sort of hour-glass contraction across the middle; in these is commencing that curious _multiplication by duplicative subdivision_ which is the mode in which increase nearly always takes place throughout the vegetable kingdom."
The higher tribes of Algæ embrace the sea-weeds; these are for the most part broad, leaf-like expansions of "thallus," composed of cellular tissue, they sometimes grow to an enormous length. Humboldt mentions the sea-grass as extending for miles, and forming continuous extensions of two or three hundred feet, and the _Macrocystis pyrifera_ attains to the length of more than a thousand. The common Bladder-wrack (_Fucus vesiculosus_) was formerly much used to procure soda from, its ashes containing a considerable quantity, it is also used for manure; the _Laminaria digitata_ is eaten under the name of "tangle," and a nutritious jelly is made from the "Carigeen moss" (_Chondrus crispus_).
2. CHARACEÆ (Charas).
These are a kind of fresh-water Algæ, composed of tubes of cellular tissue; they are peculiar, from the fact that the spores of the plant have cilia, giving to them the powers of motion and enabling them to swim away and spread the plant afar off. It is in the Charas that the peculiar circulation of the granules of "endochrome" called "cyclosis" is best seen.
3. FUNGI (Fungals), including Mushrooms, &c.
The Fungi comprise a great variety of vegetable growths, from the mould which grows on any animal or vegetable substance, to the mushroom. Some of the moulds or mildews found on various decaying substances are peculiar to them, and in many cases exceedingly destructive. The microscopic fungus _Puccinea graminis_, is the parasite which fixes itself to corn and produces the disease known as mildew, and the _Uredo segetum_ (another microscopic fungus) causes the "smut;" the "bunt" is caused by the _Uredo foetida_, and the "spur," or "ergot," which attacks rye, is caused by the _Acinula clavis_. These fungi completely destroy the grain of corn, in which they form, and propagate in the most rapid manner; the ergot is moreover a dangerous poison to those who eat the bread made of rye infected by it. The Truffle (_Tuber cibarium_) is a kind of underground fungus, and is esteemed a dainty. Mushrooms are also fungi, and several species are sufficiently wholesome; these are the Field Mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_) and the Fairy-ring Mushroom (_Agaricus pratensis_).
4. LICHENES (Lichens),
Are those dry scaly growths forming grey, green, or yellow spots on the barks of trees and in various other places, and they grow in a sort of leaf or scale called a "thallus." They are used as articles of food and as "dye-stuffs;" the _Cetraria Icelandica_ is the "Iceland Moss" used here for making a sort of nutritious drink or jelly, the natives of Iceland, however, use it as common food; the _Cladonia rangifarina_, or Reindeer Moss, is the chief food of that useful creature which forms the whole property of the Laplander; and the _Roccella tinctoria_ is the substance from which the dye called "archil" is procured.
5. FILICES (Ferns).
The Ferns are a very numerous order of acrogenous plants, growing in the temperate regions from a rhizome or underground stalk (commonly called its root), which throws up "fronds" or leaves with a strong midrib; this midrib is commonly called its stalk, but in tropical countries the fern stalk rises above ground to the height of 30 or 40 feet, and then it is seen that the ordinary stalks are but the midribs of the fronds. There are between two and three thousand species of fern. The fronds open in a peculiar manner, unwinding as it were from a round ball. The "sorri" or seed-cases are situated at the back of the fronds in little brown spots, each of which is found to consist of a heap or collection of round capsules, and if these be placed under the microscope they have the appearance of little membraneous cases covered with net-like markings, and at the upper part a striated band of a brown colour, which after a time stretches out into a nearly straight line, tearing open the bag or capsule, and a number of seeds escape. Ferns grow best in damp and shady situations, and will thrive well in damp mould under a glass case.
6. MARCHANTIACEÆ (Liver-worts).
These Liver-worts are much like Lichens, growing between and upon stones near springs and moist places, and forming a broad thallus or root from which grow cup-shaped sporangia or seed-cases. The _Marchanta polymorpha_ is one of its chief members.
7. JUNGERMANNIACEÆ (Scale-mosses).
The Scale-mosses grow in moist places and under the stems of trees and plants. Their appearance is scaly, and they have a sort of stalk.
8. BRYACEÆ (Urn-mosses).
Urn-mosses comprise the most ordinary of the mosses, the "Brium," which grows on the ground everywhere, forming tufts; its fructification resembles an urn, and hence its name.
9. LYCOPODIACEÆ (Club-mosses).
These are very beautiful mosses, of a bright green colour, growing in moist places. There are about 200 species of club-mosses known. The common Lycopodium is its most characteristic member. It grows well with ferns under a glass case.
10. EQUISETACEÆ (Horsetails).
The Equisetaceæ are the highest of the Acrogens, and nearly resemble the Endogens; they grow in ditches and pools, have a hollow stem with joints at regular intervals from each of which a whorl of green modified leaves arises; they are very full of earthy matter (silica), and one kind (_Equisetum Hyemale_), called Dutch Rush, is so rough with it that it is used for polishing and scraping many articles.
The second division of the vegetable kingdom are the Endogenæ, which are those plants growing from a central bud only, as the palms, bamboos, and canes of all kinds, the grasses and all graminiferous or grain-bearing plants, as wheat, barley, &c. They have but one cotyledon in the seed and have no bark, but in place thereof a kind of natural varnish or thin coating of silica; this varnish or external polish is seen in the stalks of corn and on canes. Their leaves are often of great size, the veins run parallel to each other (fig. 8), they often grow from an expanded base which surrounds the stalk as in corn, and branch off at regular intervals making knobs or joints, as may be seen in the bamboo cane (figs. 9 and 10), in other cases they branch off spirally, and when fallen form a sort of trellis-work on the stem (as in some of the palms) but always in a regular manner. The wood of this family of vegetables has the same porous structure as cane (figs. 11, 12, 13,14), and is often hollow in the centre, becoming more and more solid according to the age of the tree. The stems of these plants are limited in growth and soon acquire their full size, which never exceeds eighteen or twenty inches in diameter although some of the palms are nearly 150 feet high. When the stem has acquired its full size, the continual production of more woody fibres makes it impossible that these (like the exogenæ) can have a very extended period of existence, for when every part of the stem is full of woody matter, the plant ceases to grow from obstruction to the circulation of the juices. The stems of some of this family are always hollow like the stalks of corn; this arrangement allows of great elevations without bending, and is found to be the form which gives the greatest strength from a given quantity of material--one of those beautiful mechanical perfections of nature which man first admired and then endeavoured to imitate.
Some of the palms and other endogenæ are of a most beautiful form, and are moreover quite as useful as beautiful, furnishing food to the inhabitants of many regions, especially the Arabs of the Desert, who carry the dried fruit of the Date-palm with them, on crossing these vast plains of sand, as their chief food. The Plantain (_Musa sapientum_) forms a most beautiful and graceful object, with its enormous leaves springing up from the ground by their midrib in clusters, and extending upwards for 20 or more feet in graceful curves, affording a shady and cool retreat beneath them from the burning rays of the sun; the fruit is also one of the necessaries of life in the regions where they abound. The Fan-palm is another beautiful specimen, from the fan-like leaves of which the punkahs or Indian fans are made. The Palmyra palm furnishes leaves which are used to thatch houses, the sap is drunk as a refreshing beverage, and when evaporated yields a kind of sugar called "juggery," from which palm-wine is made.
The palms were amongst the first trees created, their fossil stems being constantly found; they were even then associated with the elephant and rhinoceros, and although these are found chiefly in the northern parts of Europe, yet it is much more reasonable to suppose that the climate of these parts has changed, than that these two favourites of the sunny regions should have had their natures changed.
Among the useful members of the endogenæ may be mentioned the Maranta Arundinaceæ, or Arrow-root plant, which is thus described by Dr. Baird:--"It is a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging to the natural order Cannaceæ or Marantaceæ, and composed of herbs which have a well-developed rhizome or tuberous root containing a large quantity of fecula or starch. The species are natives for the most part, of tropical America, a few being also found in India. The structure of the flowers is remarkable, and the fruit fleshy. The most important species is the Maranta Arundinaceæ, a plant which is extensively cultivated in the West Indies, the southern parts of the United States, and in the Isle of France, for the sake of its root, which affords the substance so well-known as Arrow-root. This root consists of a tuber of a peculiar form, and contains a large proportion of fecula; the stem is upwards of three feet high, and the flowers are white, delicate, and small. In Cayenne the tubers are eaten by the natives, roasted, as a cure for intermittent fevers, and when bruised, are applied by them to wounds, and considered more especially as a specific against those caused by poisoned arrows, hence the name of Arrow-root."
According to Dr. Livingstone, the inhabitants of Angola live almost exclusively upon the Tapioca plant. He thus describes the mode of preparing it, &c.:--"They (speaking of the half-caste Portuguese) subsist chiefly on the Manioc, and as that can be eaten either raw, roasted, or boiled, as it comes from the ground, or fermented in water and then roasted or dried after fermentation and baked, or pounded or rasped into meal and cooked as farina, or made into confectionery with butter and sugar, it does not so soon pall upon the palate as one might imagine when told that it constitutes their principal food. The leaves, boiled, make an excellent vegetable for the table, and when eaten by goats, their milk is much increased. The wood is a good fuel, and yields a large quantity of potash.... The root, rasped while raw, placed upon a cloth, and rubbed with the hands while water is poured upon it, parts with its starchy glutinous matter, and this, when it settles at the bottom of the vessel and the water is poured off, is placed in the sun till nearly dry to form tapioca, the process of drying is completed on an iron plate over a slow fire, the mass being stirred meanwhile with a stick; when dry, it appears agglutinated into little globules, and is in the form we see in the tapioca of commerce."
Although none of this family of plants produce building timber (according to our notions of that article), yet it is questionable whether we have a greater number of uses for our exogenous woods than are found by the natives of those countries where the Endogenæ abound for palm stems and bamboo canes; as the Grecian styles of architecture arose from the imitation of structures of timber, so the Hindoo and Chinese styles have arisen from imitation of bamboo buildings. There is scarcely a constructive use that can be imagined to which this convenient material is not applied. In the "Penny Cyclopædia" (article "Bambusa") is the following:--
"The purposes to which different species of bamboo are applied, are so numerous that it would be difficult to point out an object in which strength and elasticity are requisite, and for which lightness is no objection, to which the stems are not adapted in the countries where they grow. The young shoots of some species are cut when tender, and eaten like asparagus. The full-grown stems, while green, form elegant cases, exhaling a perpetual moisture, and capable of transporting fresh flowers for hundreds of miles; when ripe and hard, they are converted into bows, arrows, and quivers, lance-shafts, the masts of vessels, bed-posts, walking-sticks, the poles of palanquins, the floors and supporters of rustic bridges, and a variety of similar purposes. In a growing state the spiny kinds are formed into stockades, which are impenetrable to any but regular infantry aided by artillery.
"By notching their sides the Malays make wonderfully light scaling-ladders, which can be conveyed with facility where heavier machines could not be transported. Bruised and crushed in water, the leaves and stems form Chinese paper, the finer qualities of which only are improved by a mixture of raw cotton, and by more careful pounding.
"The leaves of a small species are the material used by the Chinese for the lining of their tea-chests. Cut into lengths and the partitions knocked out, they form durable water-pipes, or by a little contrivance are made into excellent cases for holding rolls of papers; slit into strips they afford a most durable material for weaving into mats, baskets, window-blinds, and even the sails of boats. Finally, the larger and thicker truncheons are exquisitely carved by the Chinese into beautiful ornaments. It is however more especially for building purposes that the bamboo is important (fig. 15). According to Marsden, in Sumatra the framework of the houses of the natives is chiefly composed of this material. In the floorings, whole stems four or five inches in diameter are laid close to each other, and across these laths of split bamboo about an inch wide are fastened down with filaments of rattan-cane. The sides of the houses are closed in with the bamboo opened and rendered flat by splitting or notching the circular joints on the outside, clipping away the corresponding divisions within and laying in the sun to dry pressed down with weights. Whole bamboos often form the upright timbers, and the house is generally roofed in with a thatch of narrow split bamboos six feet long, placed in regular layers, each reaching within two feet of the extremity of that beneath it, by which a treble covering is formed. Another and most ingenious roof is also formed, by cutting large straight bamboos of sufficient length to reach from the ridge to the eaves, then splitting them exactly in two, knocking out the partitions and arranging them in close order, with the hollow or inner sides uppermost; after which a second layer with the outer or convex sides up, is placed upon the other in such a manner that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous concave pieces, covering their edges, the latter serving as gutters to carry off the rain that falls upon the upper or convex layer."
The Endogenæ are divided into twelve orders, as follows:--
1. GRAMINACÆ (Grasses).
The Graminacæ comprise the great bulk of those plants which supply man and the lower animals with food, for it contains all the grasses and corn-bearing plants, including rice, maize, wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Upon these all the Ruminants of the earth feed, and millions of human beings taste no other kind of food. There are nearly 4000 species of graminaceous plants, rice and maize being the most broadly extended, forming the chief food of the Chinese, Hindoos, and other nations; wheat is here the most valuable grain, and is now grown in all parts of Europe and America. Humboldt, in his "Views of Nature," gives an interesting account of the first wheat grown in New Spain. He says:--
"A negro slave of the great Cortes was the first who cultivated wheat in New Spain, from three seeds which he found in some rice brought from Spain for the use of the troops. In the Franciscan convent of Quito I saw, preserved as a relic, the earthen vessel which had contained the first wheat sown in Quito by the Franciscan monk Fra Jodoco Rixi de Gante, a native of Ghent in Flanders. The first crop was raised in front of the convent, on the Plazuela di San Francisco, after the wood which then extended from the foot of the volcano of Pinchincha had been cleared. The monks, whom I frequently visited at Quito, begged me to explain the inscription, which, according to their conjecture, contained some hidden allusion to wheat. On examining the vessel, I read in old German the words,
"'Let him who drinks from me ne'er forget his God.'
"This old German drinking-cup excited in me feelings of veneration. Would that everywhere on the New Continent the names of those were preserved who, instead of devastating the soil by bloody conquests, confided to it the first fruits of Ceres."
2. CYPERACEÆ (Sedges).
These plants much resemble the Grasses, they afford but little nourishment, however, to cattle, having but little starchy matter in them, and being but little succulent. The Cyperus Papyrus is the plant from which the ancient "papyrus" was made, and is probably (according to Dr. Baird) the plant termed in Scripture the Bull-rush.
3. ARACEÆ (Arum tribe).
The Araceæ include the Arum maculatum, or Cuckoo-pint, peculiar in having the flowers enclosed by a kind of sheath formed like a leaf, and called a "spathe." The "Portland Sago" is obtained from the Rhizome of this plant, but some of the species of this order are poisonous. The Dumb-cane (Caladium Segninum) paralyses the tongue, if chewed.
4. TYPHACEÆ (Bull-rush kind).
The Typhaceæ are the Bull-rush tribe, having the Typha latifolia or great Reed-mace for its characteristic member. It grows in ditches and marshy places. The young shoots of the Bull-rush, which resemble asparagus, are eaten by the Cossacks as food.
5. MELANTHACEÆ (Colchicum kind).
This includes many plants which have bulbous roots, some of them being poisonous. The Colchicum autumnale, or Meadow Saffron, is the type of this order; it grows in moist meadows, producing a purple flower which appears before the leaves. The root or bulb, and the seeds, are used in medicine.
6. LILIACEÆ (Lily kind).