Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific Between 1896 and 1899, Volume 2 Plant-Dispersal

part IV. p. 312).

Chapter 8230,349 wordsPublic domain

_On the Cause of the Buoyancy of the Stone or Putamen of the Coast Species._—This is primarily connected with the empty seed-cavities, the four-celled stone usually developing only one seed, the other cavities being empty. This inference was established by the dissection of a large number of stones, but it will be seen from the table below that one-seeded stones are also frequent in the case of the inland tree (P. serratifolia), where they as a rule sink. With either species the substance of the stone has no floating power, but with the shore species, on account of the thin-walled stone, the empty seed-cavities cause it to be specifically lighter than water whilst with the inland species the walls of the stone are so thick that the empty spaces of the unfilled seed-cavities do not effect the same result. It may be remarked that when the coast species grows in the inland plains the buoyancy of the stone is preserved.

NOTE 33 (page 63)

DE CANDOLLE’S LIST OF PLANTS DISPERSED EXCLUSIVELY BY CURRENTS

Drepanocarpus lunatus; Ecastaphyllum Brownei; Mucuna urens, D.C.; Tephrosia piscatoria; Hibiscus tiliaceus; Rhizophora mangle; Guilandina Bonduc, Linn.; Ipomœa pes capræ; Canavalia obtusifolia.

I have experimented on the buoyancy of the fruits and seeds of all these plants excepting the two first named. In five species the seeds float in sea-water unharmed for several months. With Rhizophora it is the floating seedling that disperses the plant. Neither the pods nor the seeds of Tephrosia piscatoria are suited for dispersal by the currents.

NOTE 34 (page 64)

THE LITTORAL PLANTS OF THE EASTERNMOST POLYNESIAN ISLANDS

Except in the case of Hernandia peltata my authority here is the _Botany of the “Challenger” Expedition_. Mr. J. H. Maiden gives some further details of the flora of Pitcairn Island in a more recent paper (_Austral. Assoc. Rep._, Melbourne, 1901, vol. 8), and Hernandia peltata is included in his list.

NOTE 35 (page 68)

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LITTORAL PLANTS WITH BUOYANT SEEDS OR FRUITS THAT ARE FOUND IN THE FIJIAN, TONGAN, SAMOAN, TAHITIAN, AND HAWAIIAN GROUPS

This list probably contains nearly all the species of the Polynesian region, but it is not implied that these plants have been recorded from all the groups (_vide infra_).

(a) _Species found only in the Old World._—Calophyllum inophyllum, Hibiscus diversifolius, Thespesia populnea, Heritiera littoralis, Kleinhovia hospita, Carapa moluccensis, C. obovata, Smythea pacifica, Colubrina asiatica, Mucuna gigantea, Erythrina indica, Strongylodon lucidum, Dalbergia monosperma, Pongamia glabra, Inocarpus edulis, Derris uliginosa, Afzelia bijuga, Barringtonia racemosa, B. speciosa, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera Rheedii, Terminalia Katappa, T. littoralis, Lumnitzera coccinea, Pemphis acidula, Morinda citrifolia, Guettarda speciosa, Wedelia biflora, Scævola Kœnigii, Cerbera Odollam, Ochrosia parviflora, Cordia subcordata, Tournefortia argentea, Ipomœa glaberrima, I. grandiflora, I. peltata, Aniseia uniflora, Clerodendron inerme, Vitex trifolia, Hernandia peltata, Excæcaria Agallocha, Tacca pinnatifida, Cycas circinalis, Pandanus odoratissimus, Scirpodendron costatum.

(b) _Species occurring in both the Old and New Worlds._—Hibiscus tiliaceus, Suriana maritima, Ximenia americana, Dodonæa viscosa, Canavalia obtusifolia, C. ensiformis, Vigna lutea, Sophora tomentosa, Cæsalpinia Bonduc, C. Bonducella, Entada scandens, Gyrocarpus Jacquini, Luffa insularum, Ipomœa pes capræ, Cassytha filiformis, Cocos nucifera.

(d) _Species found only in Polynesia._—Canavalia sericea, Mucuna platyphylla(?), Cynometra grandiflora, Serianthes myriadenia, Parinarium laurinum(?), Premna tahitensis.

_Remarks._—Of these seventy plants there is not one that has not come within the scope of my observations and experiments. The West Coast of Africa is included in the American region for reasons given in Chapter VIII. For the other authorities on the buoyancy of these seeds and fruits reference should be made to the list given under Note 2 and to other parts of this work. About one or two of the plants, like Ipomœa peltata, one scarcely knows whether they are most characteristic of the coast-flora or of the inland-flora.

NOTE 36 (page 72)

HAWAIIAN PLANTS WITH BUOYANT SEEDS AND FRUITS KNOWN TO BE DISPERSED BY THE CURRENTS EITHER EXCLUSIVELY OR, AS IN A FEW SPECIES, WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF FRUGIVOROUS BIRDS

_Colubrina asiatica._—Usually regarded as confined to the Old World; but since nearly all the species are American, that continent may be considered as the probable home also of this species. Hillebrand gives it a locality in the West Indies.

_Dioclea violacea._—Tropical America.

_Mucuna gigantea._—Old World.

_Mucuna urens._—America, and extending to the African West Coast, which is to be included in the American region of shore-plants.

_Strongylodon lucidum._—Old World.

_Vigna lutea._—Old and New Worlds.

_Cæsalpinia Bonducella._—Old and New Worlds.

_Scævola Kœnigii._—Usually regarded as confined to the Old World, but according to the synonymy accepted by some authors it is also to be ascribed to America. The genus is chiefly Australian, and it is possible that the littoral species may have reached America through the agency of birds, since all the species of the genus possess fruits that would attract frugivorous birds.

_Ipomœa glaberrima_ (Boj.).—Old World.

_Ipomœa pes capræ._—Old and New Worlds.

_Vitex trifolia._—Old World. The genus is also dispersed by pigeons.

_Cassytha filiformis._—Old and New Worlds. Like Scævola the genus is chiefly Australian, and here, also, the fruits of the littoral species are not only dispersed by the currents, but are known to be also disseminated by fruit-pigeons.

It is possible that birds may have taken a predominant part in the dispersal of the species of Scævola, Vitex and Cassytha.

There thus remain nine species for consideration. Of these two are exclusively American, three are found in both the Old and New Worlds and four are usually regarded as exclusively Old World plants, but one of them (Colubrina asiatica) has a fair claim to be regarded as of American origin. Thus it is quite possible that six out of these nine plants were brought to Hawaii from America through the agency of the currents.

NOTE 37 (page 78)

ON VIVIPARY IN THE FRUITS OF BARRINGTONIA RACEMOSA AND CARAPA OBOVATA

As observed by me in the Rewa delta, Fiji, there was no external evidence of such a process in the case of the fruits on the trees; but I did not pay very special attention to the matter, and it will be gathered from Chapter XXX. that the initial stage of germination may show no indication in the appearance of the fruit. More observation is needed for both species. As indicated in Note 50, the structure of the seed of Barringtonia racemosa is suggestive of a lost viviparous habit. With regard to Carapa, Schimper (p. 43) remarks that he has never observed vivipary; but Miquel, in his _Flora Indiæ Bataviæ_, particularly speaks of the seeds germinating in the capsule. I think this is very likely, and that perhaps even the rupture of the capsule may be partly due to this cause.

NOTE 38 (page 78)

ON THE TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY OF THE SURFACE-WATER OF THE ESTUARIES OF THE REWA RIVER IN FIJI, AND OF THE GUAYAQUIL RIVER IN ECUADOR

(a) _The Rewa Estuary._—My observations were made mostly in the warm, wet seasons, from October to January, 1897-99, and generally in the vicinity of the Roman Catholic Mission. The density varied usually between 1·000 and 1·010, the water being quite fresh after heavy rains inland. Though the density was usually greatest at high water, this was by no means always the case. The temperature of the water in dry weather varied from 79° to 84° F. With the river in flood after heavy rains it fell to 75° and 76°. As a rule, the fresher the water the lower the temperature, but this was not invariable. There was evidence of super-heating in the estuary, the water there having sometimes a temperature of 82° or 83°, when the water higher up the river as far as Viria was two or three degrees cooler, the sea-temperature being 79° to 80°. The average temperature of the water of the estuary during the season would be 80 to 81°.

(b) _The Estuary of the Rio Guayas, also known, as the Guayaquil River._—My observations were made in the last week of February and in the first half of March, 1904. Whilst the sea-temperature a few miles off the Ecuador coast varied from 76° to 80° F., the water of the estuary from the mouth up to Guayaquil ranged from 79° to 86°, whilst rather higher up the river the temperature was about 79° or 80°. The super-heating of the estuary is thus directly indicated. It was well marked in the lower part of the estuary during one of my ascents of the river.

_Surface-temperatures of estuary of the Guayaquil River, March 13, 1904, 11 a.m. to 4 p.m.; tide running up._

Sea-temperature 5-10 miles off the mouth 79·7 Estuary-temperature at the mouth, off Puna 82·7 Estuary-temperature 3 miles above Puna 84·4 Estuary-temperature 15 miles above Puna 86·5 Estuary-temperature 25 miles above Puna 82·5 Estuary-temperature off Guayaquil 81·8

The water of the estuary was, as a rule, cooler with the ebbing tide.

The density of the estuary-water at the mouth opposite Puna during the two days the ship was in quarantine ranged from 1·004 to 1·016, being generally about 1·010, and salter with the up-going tide. Off Guayaquil the water during the ebbing tide was quite fresh and, from an Ecuadorian standpoint only, potable, whilst at high water it may be a little brackish. The sea-water has much freer access to the channels in the mangrove-district at the back of the city of Guayaquil, where at high water I found the density to be 1·014.

Off Puna, on Feb. 25, I noticed that the surface-current which was running down the stream was from one to two fathoms deep, whilst below it was a strong current running up the river which carried my thermometer up against the surface-current.

NOTE 39 (page 82)

ON THE PACIFIC SPECIES OF STRONGYLODON

Hillebrand in his _Hawaiian Flora_, following Seemann, regards S. lucidum, Seem., and S. ruber, Vogel, as one species found in Fiji, Hawaii, and Tahiti, and by the former placed also in Ceylon. Hillebrand and Seemann are followed by Drake del Castillo as regards the Tahitian species. Taubert, in his monograph on the Leguminosæ (Engler’s _Pflanz. Fam._, Teil 3, Abth. 3, 1894), takes the same view of the Polynesian species and of its wide distribution. However, in the _Genera Plantarum_ and in the _Index Kewensis_, the Asiatic and Polynesian species have been always kept apart. The two species of the genus mentioned in the first work are increased to five in the _Index Kewensis_, viz., one in Fiji (S. lucidum), one in Hawaii (S. ruber), two in Madagascar, and one in the Philippines.

NOTE 40 (page 88)

PRECAUTIONS IN TESTING SEED-BUOYANCY

Many seeds and fruits require a few hours’ soaking before they sink; and when small they will rest a long time on the surface of still water, but a touch with the finger or a drop of water will send them to the bottom. A few will float a few days (3 or 4) before sinking; but such are included in the non-buoyant group. Only in rare cases does prolonged drying increase the period of flotation by more than a few days, examples being given at the end of the Table of Buoyancy results under Note 10. Adherent air-bubbles, a common cause of adventitious buoyancy, must always be removed.

NOTE 41 (page 91)

THE BUOYANCY OF THE SEEDS OF CONVOLVULUS SOLDANELLA IN FRESH WATER AND SEA-WATER COMPARED

The experiments were commenced at the close of September, 1894, and covered six months. At the end of this period in Mr. Millett’s experiment, 56 per cent. of the seeds were afloat in fresh water, and 62 per cent. in sea-water; whilst in my own experiment 72 per cent. floated in fresh water, and 65 per cent. in sea-water. I was indebted to Mr. Millett’s courtesy for the seeds.

NOTE 42 (page 96)

ON SECULAR CHANGES IN SEA-DENSITY

Exact data bearing on this subject are not at my disposal; but it would seem that geologists have formed conflicting conclusions from similar premises. There is the view that the composition of the ocean water was very different in early geological periods (_Encycl. Brit._, x., 221); but I should imagine that the character of the crustacean fauna of those seas would negative any great divergence from the present condition. Suess implies that the ancient seas carried the same minerals in solution that they do now, and it is to be inferred in a similar proportion (E. de Margerie’s French edition of _Das Antlitz der Erde_, ii., 343 and 345).

NOTE 43 (page 102)

ON THE MUCOSITY OF SMALL SEEDS AND SEED-LIKE FRUITS WHEN WET

I paid considerable attention to this subject from the standpoint of dispersal some years ago, and published most of the results in _Science Gossip_ for Sept., 1894. This peculiar quality of seeds had been noticed by Dr. Kerner in his _Pflanzenleben_ (vol. i., 1887-91), and was regarded as illustrating a mode of dispersal of seeds by adherence. As a rule, such seeds when placed in water become coated with mucus in a few minutes, or within an hour, and when allowed to dry on feathers they adhere as firmly as if gummed. I found that this quality is not affected by prolonged drying, as in the cases of Nepeta glechoma and Salvia verbenaca, where it was exhibited to the same degree after the seed-like fruits had been kept from one to three years. I especially tested about 110 British plants that were likely to display this quality, and found that about a dozen exhibited it in a marked degree, and if to these we add those plants with seeds that display it to a limited extent so that they merely become adhesive when wetted, the total would be nearly twenty. It will be noticed from the list subjoined that the plants showing marked mucosity belong to twenty genera and to ten families, the Labiatæ and Cruciferæ predominating. Although in some genera, like Plantago, there is reason to suppose that the seeds of all the species would behave in this fashion, it would be wrong to infer that this is usually the case, six genera being indicated below to which such a rule would not apply, and doubtless the number could be extended. These plants in England mostly occur at the roadside, on waste ground, and in dry meadows. It may be added that although in most cases the seeds appear in water to emit mucus, “exuded mucilage” being the expression used in the English edition of Kerner’s work, in some instances, as with Helianthemum vulgare, there appears to be a dissolving process affecting the outer seed-covering.

I. _Plants with Seeds or Seed-like Fruits that emit Mucus to a Marked Degree when placed in Water._

Arabis thaliana, G. Cruciferæ. Camelina sativa, K. Cruciferæ. Teesdalia, K. Cruciferæ. Capsella bursa-pastoris, G. Cruciferæ. Lepidium sativum, D. Cruciferæ. Helianthemum vulgare, G. Cistaceæ. * Viola tricolor (Field Pansy), G Violaceæ. Linum usitatissimum, D. Linaceæ. Linum, K. Linaceæ. * Matricaria chamomilla, K. G. Compositæ. * Senecio vulgaris, G. B. Compositæ. Collomia, K. Polemoniaceæ. Gilia, K. Polemoniaceæ. * Veronica beccabunga, S. Scrophulariaceæ. Ocimum basilicum, K. Labiatæ. Salvia verbenaca, G., &c. Labiatæ. Salvia, K. B. Labiatæ. * Nepeta glechoma, G. Labiatæ. * Dracocephalum, K. Labiatæ. Prunella vulgaris, G. Labiatæ. Plantago, K. Plantagineæ. Plantago major, lanceolata, maritima, G. Plantagineæ. Luzula campestris. G. Juncaceæ.

_Explanation of Abbreviations._—The capital letter following the name indicates my authority, which is not necessarily the oldest in each case: B = Beal; D = Darwin; G = Guppy; K = Kerner; S = Scott Elliot. The respective works quoted will be found at the end of this volume. The papers of Darwin quoted will be found in _Journ. Linn. Soc._, “Botany,” vol. i., 1857, and in the _Gardeners Chronicle_ for 1855.

The asterisk is placed before those genera of which other species examined by me exhibited no mucosity; these species are Arabis hirsuta, Viola canina, V. palustris, Matricaria inodora, Senecio aquaticus, Veronica agrestis, V. arvensis, Nepeta cataria, Dracocephalum canariensis.

II. _Plants with Seeds or Seed-like Fruits which in my Experiments only exhibited Mucosity in a Slight Degree, becoming merely “Sticky” or Adhesive when placed in Water._

Arabis albida, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, Lamium purpureum (occasionally), Thymus sp., Juncus bufonius, J. communis, J. glaucus, J. squarrosus.

III. _Plants with Seeds or Small Fruits that exhibit Adhesiveness in the Dry State and are apt to stick to one’s fingers._

Adenostemma viscosum, Lycopus europæus, Piper Macgillivrayi, &c. One may include here also Lagenophora (see page 276) as well as the familiar instances of Pisonia (page 347) and Boerhaavia (page 356).

NOTE 44 (page 121)

ON THE EFFECTS OF INLAND EXTENSION ON THE BUOYANCY OF THE SEEDS OR FRUITS OF LITTORAL PLANTS

When in Fiji I experimented on the buoyancy of the following beach-plants that had extended far into the interior of Vanua Levu, as will be found described in Note 22. Those tested were Cassytha filiformis, Cerbera Odollam, Ipomœa pes capræ, Morinda citrifolia, Premna tahitensis, Scævola Kœnigii, and Tacca pinnatifida. In all but Cerbera Odollam, where I contented myself with establishing that the fruits floated buoyantly in sea-water, the experiments were prolonged for many weeks and often for several months; and in some cases, as with Ipomœa pes capræ, three or four experiments were made on seeds from different inland localities. The result was to establish in all cases that the floating powers were as great with the inland as with the coast plants of the same species; nor could any structural difference of importance be noticed. It should be observed that there is every reason to believe that the “talasinga” plains of Fiji have been occupied by the intruding beach-plants for many ages.

NOTE 45 (page 122)

TABULATED RESULTS OF THE CLASSIFICATION, ACCORDING TO SCHIMPER’S APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL SELECTION THEORY, OF THE BUOYANT SEEDS AND FRUITS OF THE TROPICAL LITTORAL PLANTS ON THE BASIS OF THE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS CONCERNED IN BUOYANCY

Column headings:

#: Number. %: Per cent. A: Percentage of non-adaptive species. B: Percentage of adaptive species.

+------------------+-----------------------------+---------------+--------+ | | Classification of species. | | | | +-------------------+---------+ Proportion of | Total | | | Non-adaptive. |Adaptive.| non-adaptive | number | | +---------+---------+---------+ and adaptive | of | | Region. | First | Second | Third | species. | species| | | group. | group. | group. | | dealt | | +----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+-------+ with. | | | # | % | # | % | # | % | A | B | | +------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+-------+--------+ |Pacific Islands | 27 | 40 | 10 | 15 | 30 | 45 | 55 | 45 | 67 | | | | | | | | | | | | |Pacific Islands, | | | | | | | | | | |tropical America, | | | | | | | | | | |and Indo-Malaya | 28 | 35 | 12 | 15 | 40 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 80 | +------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+-------+--------+

NOTE.—If to the last we add the eight British shore plants, the buoyant fruits of which are described in Chapter XII., three non-adaptive and five adaptive, we get a proportion of adaptive species for temperate and tropical regions of fifty-one per cent. This is probably fairly typical of the world generally; but it must be remembered by the reader that the author regards them all as non-adaptive. In that case, the table can be used for the numerical results of the three groups which are based only on structural characters without reference to any theory.

NOTE 46 (page 124)

ON THE MODES OF DISPERSAL OF THE GENUS BRACKENRIDGEA.

Seed-vessels of this genus found afloat in the New Guinea drift are described by Mr. Hemsley as having two curved cavities crossing each other one containing a seed, the other empty. “This empty cavity,” it is stated “gives the fruit its buoyancy” (_Bot. Chall. Exped._, iii., 289; plate 54) Dr. Beccari, in the English edition of his _Wanderings in Borneo_, p. 187, speaks of the closed air-containing cavities in the seed-vessels, or rather “stones,” of this genus as probably giving them buoyancy and thus enabling them to be dispersed by currents. He points out that the fleshy covering of these fruits would also aid their dispersal by birds. The Italian botanist implies that the two Bornean species grow in swamps. The Fijian species, as observed by me in flower in Vanua Levu, grew in the dry talasinga districts bordering the Mathuata coast, the locality where Seemann found the plant. One of the most recent accounts of the genus is given by Van Tieghem in his memoir on the Ochnaceæ in _Ann. des. Sci. Nat. Bot._, tome 16, 1902. According to him there are nine species, all from Malaya and New Guinea, with the exception of one in Fiji. Previous authors have also referred to Queensland and Zanzibar species. However, all the species have a limited distribution, a fact which plainly assigns to birds the principal share in the dispersal of the genus.

NOTE 47 (page 125)

ON THE TRANSPORT OF GOURDS BY CURRENTS

Small calabashes or bottle-gourds are not uncommonly to be found floating in the Fijian estuaries and stranded on the beaches; and I have also found them in the sea off the coasts. They are usually more or less globular, 3 or 4 inches across, and are evidently able to float for very long periods and to carry the seeds unharmed. Most of those I examined from the drift were dry inside and contained the seeds dried together into a loose ball about an inch in size. The seeds are not those figured in Gaertner’s _De Fructibus et Seminibus_, as belonging to Lagenaria vulgaris, and more resemble those of Cucurbita, but are non-buoyant. One of these gourds, picked up by me in the sea in Fiji, was placed in sea-water, and two months later was still floating buoyantly. After being then kept dry for seven months, it was broken open; and ten of the seeds were put in soil, two of them germinating in a few days.

In Ecuador gourds similar in size and shape were frequently observed by me floating in the drift of the Guayaquil River and stranded on the sea-beaches. The seeds are similarly caked together in a loose mass in the cavity of the fruit. Their characters indicate that they belong to another species of gourd; and they differ also from the Fijian seeds in their buoyancy, some of them in my experiments floating two months and afterwards germinating.

It has been known since the days of Ström and Gunnerus, two Norwegian naturalists of the 17th century, that gourds and calabashes are from time to time stranded with other Gulf-stream drift on the coasts of Norway. We learn from Sernander that those found are usually worked calabashes; but he alludes to one that was unworked and contained several seeds (see Sernander, p. 119).

It is scarcely likely that a seed-carrying gourd stranded on a beach would be able to establish the plant without the aid of man; but it seems highly probable that gourds have often been introduced into new countries by the currents and that man has afterwards cultivated them. These plants may be contrasted with that remarkable Cucurbit, Luffa insularum, a genuine littoral plant, the seeds of which, and not the fruits, are dispersed in the Pacific by the currents (see page 426).

NOTE 48 (page 126)

ON THE USELESS DISPERSAL BY CURRENTS OF THE FRUITS OF THE OAK (QUERCUS ROBUR) AND OTHER SPECIES OF QUERCUS, AND ALSO OF THE HAZEL (CORYLUS AVELLANA)

The fruits of different species of Quercus are of not infrequent occurrence in the seed-drift both of the temperate and tropical regions, being brought down by the rivers to the sea and then stranded on the neighbouring beaches. They were amongst the drift gathered by Mr. Moseley in the open sea, 70 miles off the New Guinea coast (_Bot. Chall. Exped._, iv., 294). I found them on the beaches of Keeling Atoll where no oak exists, and on the beaches of the south coast of Java; whilst Prof. Schimper noticed them among the stranded drift of the Java Sea, and Prof. Penzig found them stranded on the shores of Krakatoa. They also came under my notice on the Sicilian beaches and on the Italian coast at Cumæ. Those of Quercus robur are to be found on the English beaches and in the autumn drift of the Thames, but they soon sink and disappear from river-drift. They are referred to by Dr. Sernander as frozen with other floating seeds in the ice of the Scandinavian rivers; but he evidently does not regard them as possessing much independent floating power.

Some years ago the author made a number of experiments on the buoyancy of the acorns of Quercus robur, and he formed the conclusion that when freshly collected not more than 4 to 8 per cent. of mature fruits will float in fresh-water, and not more than about 10 to 12 per cent. in sea-water, but that in either case they all sink in a day or two. Immature acorns float much longer, and it is these that mostly figure in the drift. However, unlike most fruits of little initial buoyancy the mature fruits gain considerable floating power by drying. Of some that had been kept for seven months 20 per cent. floated after four weeks in sea-water and 15 per cent. after 10 weeks.... It may be added that, according to Thuret, the fruits of Quercus ilex have little or no floating power.

The buoyancy of the fruits of Quercus is due entirely to the cavity left by the shrinking of the kernel. I never remember to have found one with a sound seed amongst the drift in England and Sicily; and I should doubt much whether those in the tropical drift retain their germinating powers. But, apart from this, the genus Quercus finds in its own constitution or habit the greatest obstacle in most species to the adoption of a littoral station. However, there are exceptional tendencies displayed by the evergreen oaks; and this is very significant, since in their xerophilous leaves they possess the preliminary qualification for a station near the sea. Quercus ilex, it is well known, shows a partiality for the sea-air, and Q. virens, the “live oak,” flourishes near the sea in the southern states of America, a maritime variety being distinguished by botanists. One of the willow-oaks of America, Q. phellos, which grows in swampy land, also has a beach variety.

The Hazel-tree (Corylus avellana) must be placed in the same category with Quercus. I found the empty nuts commonly amongst the stranded drift of the Sicilian and English beaches. The fruits were also frequently noticed by Dr. Sernander in the Scandinavian sea-drift; but he says nothing of their empty condition. Mr. Darwin remarks, in the _Origin of Species_, that he found that fresh hazel-nuts sank, but that after drying a long time they floated for ninety days and subsequently germinated. The floating-power is no doubt due to the cavity arising from the shrinking of the kernel, and it is to this cause that Dr. Sernander attributed the slight initial buoyancy observed by him. However, the hazel, like the common oak, lacks the habit that would fit it for a station by the sea, and, whatever capacity its fruits may possess for dispersal by currents, it is quite useless for the spread of the species.

NOTE 49 (page 131)

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF IPOMŒA PES CAPRÆ, CONVOLVULUS SOLDANELLA, AND CONVOLVULUS SEPIUM

Whilst Ipomœa pes capræ is cosmopolitan in the tropical zones, Convolvulus soldanella is cosmopolitan in both the north and south temperate zones; but, as might be expected, the two species at times meet and their areas overlap. Thus, according to Mr. Cheeseman (_Trans. New Zealand Inst._, xx., 1887), they meet in the Kermadec Islands, in the South Pacific, in about latitude 30°. From my observations on the coast of Chile it would seem that C. soldanella in its northward extension fails somewhere between Valparaiso and Coquimbo, that is to say, between 33° and 30° S. lat. Gay merely refers to the plant as existing in North Chile, which in his time would include the coast between 33° and 24° S. lat. It intrudes within the “thirties” on the coast of California and is found in Madeira in about 33° N. lat. Ipomœa pes capræ in its turn extends into subtropical regions, being recorded from the Kermadecs, as above noted, and from the Bermudas in 32° N. lat. Owing probably to special physical conditions of the coast, which are referred to in Chapter XXXII., this plant is evidently limited to the tropics on the west coast of South America. It did not come under my notice on the beaches of North Chile, and it is apparently not mentioned by Gay in his work on the Chilian flora.

Convolvulus sepium, the frequent inland associate of the littoral C. soldanella over the temperate regions of the globe, belongs to the same section of the genus (Calystegia). Its extraordinary occurrence by itself in the island of St. Paul, in the Southern Ocean, about fifty yards from the shore (_Bot. Chall. Exped._, ii., 153, 264), almost suggests that we have here a dimorphic species with a littoral and an inland form; and its existence in the Azores is in this connection very remarkable. It may be here noted that of three plants raised from seeds found in the beach-drift near Palermo two had the foliage of C. sepium and one of C. soldanella. Perhaps one of my readers, in imitation of De Vries with Œnothera, might be able to settle this point by raising some hundreds of seedlings from the seeds of the beach species. It is possible that the relation between these two species of Convolvulus may be in some respects akin to that between Cæsalpinia Bonducella and C. Bonduc, two littoral plants that accompany each other over much of the tropical zone.

The student of dispersal will, however, find some curious gaps in the distribution of Convolvulus soldanella even in the temperate regions; and it will be curious to observe how they affect the distribution of C. sepium. He will have to answer the query of De Candolle:... “Admitting, if one wishes, that the currents have transported this marine species, how comes it that it chances to be in the Pacific and in Europe, without occurring on the east coasts of America and on the east and west coasts of Africa?” (_Geographie Botanique_, ii., 1056). He will have to explain why some botanists give C. soldanella a habitat in the tropics, as in the Indian region. Schimper, who investigated this point, says that he arrived at no certain result (p. 127). See Notes 13 and 41 and pages 29, 91, for further remarks on these two species of Convolvulus.

NOTE 50 (pages 79, 132)

ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE SEEDS AND FRUITS OF BARRINGTONIA

As regards the fruits and their coverings, the littoral and inland species of Fiji evidently fall into different sections, the first named (B. speciosa and B. racemosa) being distinguished by their outer fibrous husk, to which the buoyancy is due, the last-named (B. edulis and an undescribed species) possessing a hard stone surrounding the seed, and here the fruits sink or float only for limited periods.

The fruits of B. edulis have an outer almost fleshy covering, a little fibrous at the outside, and the hard ligneous “stone,” containing an edible seed, requires a hammer to break it. They float heavily for three or four weeks, whereas those of the littoral species float for many months. In the case of another inland species found by me growing as a small tree 12 feet high on the slopes of Mount Seatura in Vanua Levu at an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea, the seed was similarly protected by a hard “stone” that could only be broken with an axe, and the fruit was non-buoyant, with thin and perishable outer coats.

This mountain species of Fiji, which I may name Barringtonia seaturæ, has the general habit of B. racemosa, with which the natives persisted in linking it; whilst the fruit and foliage come nearer to those of B. edulis. The leaves are entire, taper at the base, and have a petiole 1 inch long. The fruits are oblong, at least 3 inches in length, and are obscurely angled.

It would appear from Schimper’s description (p. 173) that the fruits of the Malayan Barringtonia excelsa possess both the hard stone-shell of the inland Fijian species and the dry air-bearing fibrous husk of the littoral species. This is of special interest, since the tree is both a coast and an inland species.

The following notes on the structure of the seeds of Barringtonia were made whilst I was drifting about in my canoe in the creeks of the Rewa delta in Fiji; and whatever may be their deficiencies they have the merit of having been written in the home of the plants.... When we cut across a seed like that of B. racemosa or B. speciosa, we observe that the different parts of the embryo are indistinguishable, being united into a homogeneous, firm, fleshy mass. But if we look closely we notice a central fusiform portion marked out from the surrounding parts by a faint line, along which a delicate membrane of vascular tissue has been developed. When “germination” begins, though, as the reader will subsequently perceive, this term is here hardly appropriate, the real nature of this singular structure becomes more apparent, as is indicated in the accompanying figure. The central fusiform portion proves to be the young plant without cotyledons and growing at either end to form the root and the stem. The delicate investing membrane becomes thicker and more apparent as germination proceeds, extending upwards and downwards with the growth of the stem and root and forming a cortical covering in either case. The investing fleshy portion of the seed, which is now separable with the fingers, remains attached to the lower part of the seedling for some time, being evidently a source of nutriment, and gives a bulbous appearance to the young plant. Young bulbous plants of B. racemosa, 1 to 2 feet high, are very common on the edge of Fijian mangrove swamps where the parent tree thrives. The seedlings of B. speciosa have the same appearance, but the outer fleshy part of the bulb is not so thick.

[_To face page 574._

Diagrams illustrating the structure of the growing seeds of Barringtonia (two-thirds the natural size). That of B. speciosa represents a seed removed from a fruit displaying the young plant protruding two or three inches. That of B. racemosa represents the lower end of the seedling when the plant is eighteen inches high.

_a_ = the exorhiza. _b_ = the neorhiza invested by the medullary sheath.

This structure of the seeds of Barringtonia speciosa and of B. racemosa was for a long time meaningless to me, until one day, whilst seated on the banks of the Lower Rewa, with a number of the sected seeds and bulbous seedlings gathered around, I reflected that the fruits of the latter species that floated past me in the river-drift were nearly always germinating. This called up “vivipary” to my mind; and as I looked at the Rhizophora seedlings dangling from the branches of the mangrove-trees close by, it occurred to me that this seed-structure might be the result of a lost viviparous habit. One apparently had to deal here not with an ordinary seed containing an embryo in the midst of albumen, but with a seed in an arrested stage of germination surrounded by a body that might perhaps prove homologous with the “cotyledonary body” of Rhizophora. The process of development that goes on without a break in Rhizophora, from the fertilisation of the ovule to the detachment of the seedling from the branch, was here, as I considered, arrested after germination had begun, but before the protrusion of the seedling from the fruit. With nearly all plants, as I reflected, there is a rest-stage of varying length, which might be called the seed-stage. With the mangrove-genera, Rhizophora and Bruguiera, I had convinced myself by a long series of observations, the results of which are given in Chapter XXX., that this rest-stage does not exist. It occurs, I argued, in Barringtonia, but only after germination has begun, and, therefore, displaced when compared with the typical seed-stage of most plants.

In this connection it may be noted that a difference in germinating behaviour might be expected between the two shore species on account of their difference in stations, Barringtonia speciosa growing on the sandy beach, and B. racemosa in the wet ground around a mangrove-swamp. There is a strong suspicion that the rest-stage in B. racemosa is very short, though I never found germination in progress on a tree (see Note 37). There is no doubt, on the other hand, that the rest-stage of B. speciosa is often, as with most other plants, very long. This, then, was my lesson from the Barringtonia fruits on the banks of the Rewa, and the question arose whether this interpretation of these curious seed-structures accorded with the opinion formed of their nature by botanists.

Curious seed-structures of this kind must have their significance in the history of the plant; and on returning to England I looked a little further into the matter. To follow up this kind of inquiry, however, would carry me far beyond the limits prescribed for this note, and I have only treated it here in a tentative fashion. Different botanists of eminence have paid attention to this subject, amongst them Roxburgh, Thomson, and Miers (see Dr. T. Thomson in _Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot._, vol. ii., p. 47, 1858, and Mr. J. Miers in _Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot._, vol. i., 1880). It would appear that the seed-structure of Barringtonia is also found in Careya, a genus of the same Myrtaceous tribe, and in Garcinia and other genera of the Guttiferæ, as well as in other inland plants.

Mr. Miers, after reviewing the opinions of his predecessors, gives the results of his own investigations. The solid embryo found in Barringtonia and many other genera consists, he observes, (_a_) of an external portion, the “exorhiza,” which nourishes the germinating seed and then dies away; (_b_) of an internal portion, the “neorhiza,” which, growing at each end, forms the central portion of the stem and root; and (_c_) the “medullary sheath” of Mirbel, that lies between the two, and is composed of elementary vascular tissue, which ultimately gives origin to the wood, bark, and leaves of the stem and yields woody fibre to the root. The exorhizal portion in some cases, as in Barringtonia acutangula, splits into four parts during germination. Mr. Miers compares this seed-structure with that of Rhizophora, employing the same terms, “neorhiza” for the internal portion which forms the seedling, and “exorhiza” for the external portion which merely nourishes it. However, I may add that the exorhizal portion in Rhizophora, as shown in Chapter XXX., is now regarded as formed by the coalesced cotyledons, and is termed the “cotyledonary body”; so that by implication the corresponding part of a Barringtonia seed should be regarded from the same standpoint.

It may be apposite to notice here that Barringtonia racemosa displays one capacity which does not appear to belong to B. speciosa. The branches stuck in wet soil throw out roots and establish themselves. This capacity of vegetative reproduction is turned to account by the Fijians, who make “live-fences” of this tree in wet localities.

NOTE 51 (page 135)

ON A COMMON INLAND SPECIES OF SCÆVOLA IN VANUA LEVU, FIJI

This is a tall shrub, or small tree, nine or ten feet high, which corresponds with S. floribunda, Gray, as far as Seemann describes it. It has small, black, juicy drupes, well suited for dispersal by birds, having no “suberous” mesocarp as in the shore species (S. Kœnigii), and no capacity for dispersal by currents. It grows, much like the Hawaiian inland species, in exposed situations where there is plenty of light, as on mountain-peaks, at the borders of forests, in open-wooded districts, and in the plains, and is to be found at all elevations from near the sea up to the highest mountain summit (3,500 feet) when the station is suitable. I noticed it on the higher slopes and frequently on the tops of nearly all the principal mountains that I climbed. It is evident that birds carry the “stones” from one mountain-peak to another, and no doubt they explain the presence of the species in Tonga. Dr. Seemann speaks of it as a beach plant in Viti Levu. The plant familiar to me in Vanua Levu is only on very rare occasions to be seen as an intruder in the beach-flora.

NOTE 52 (page 137).

ON THE CAPACITY FOR DISPERSAL BY CURRENTS OF COLUBRINA OPPOSITIFOLIA, AN INLAND HAWAIIAN TREE

The seeds in my experiments sank within ten days; but they are not readily detached from the fruit, as in the case of the buoyant seeds of the littoral species (C. asiatica). The fruits, which may float for a week or two, break down, as Hillebrand observes, tardily and imperfectly, and could give but little assistance to dispersal by water.

NOTE 53 (page 141)

ON THE GENUS ERYTHRINA

We have in E. indica a widely distributed littoral species, ranging from India through Malaya to eastern Australia, and over nearly all the groups of the Pacific, reaching to Tahiti and the Marquesas, but not occurring in Hawaii. It is associated in Fiji and Tonga with another shore-species, E. ovalifolia, Roxb., found also in India and Malaya. I did not come on the second species in Fiji, and according to Seemann it is rare. It is possible that there is a genetic connection between the two; and it is noteworthy that in one case Seemann was uncertain (p. 426) whether the species was E. ovalifolia or only a variety of E. indica.

In different parts of their areas both these species may be found inland. This no doubt is to be connected with their occasional cultivation. The Polynesians who esteem E. indica for its handsome scarlet flowers and its scarlet seeds often plant it near their houses; but it is curious that if we look at the pages of Seemann, Horne, and one or two other botanical authors who have written on the Pacific, we find no reference to its littoral station, the first-named botanist merely characterising it in Fiji as occurring “wild or planted.”

However, in various localities in Fiji, as on the shores of Natewa Bay in Vanua Levu, Erythrina indica thrives as a characteristic beach tree. Dr. Reinecke speaks of it as widely spread on the Samoan coasts; and the French botanists refer to it as a tree of the Tahitian beaches. Prof. Schimper frequently mentions the two littoral species of Erythrina as amongst the components of the Malayan strand-flora. Dr. Treub, when he visited Krakatoa in 1886, three years after the eruption, noticed some young plants of Erythrina growing on the shore; whilst Prof. Penzig in 1897 found that both E. indica and E. ovalifolia had established themselves on the beach. Mr. Kurz again is quoted by Prof. Schimper (p. 170) as including E. indica amongst the “beach-jungle” of Pegu.

There is abundant evidence in support of the dispersal of the genus by currents. I have observed the seeds of Erythrina indica on the beaches of Keeling Atoll. Schimper noted Erythrina seeds amongst the stranded drift of the Java Sea. Treub remarked young plants of the genus growing on the shore of Krakatoa three years after the great eruption, and Penzig places Erythrina indica and E. ovalifolia amongst the beach-plants brought to Krakatoa through the agency of the currents. The seeds of E. indica not infrequently came under my observation stranded on the Fijian beaches and floating in the Rewa estuary; and in an experiment made in Fiji they still floated after five months in sea-water. Mr. Hemsley years ago formed the opinion, from the drift collections at Kew, that the genus was dispersed by the currents. I may here add in further illustration of this point that Erythrina seeds were found by me in South America floating in numbers in the Guayaquil estuary and stranded on the beaches of Ecuador.

It is noteworthy that, unlike some of the other shore-plants, Erythrina indica has at least three sets of names in the South Pacific. Thus it is known as Rara and Ndrala in Fiji, Ngatae in Samoa, Futuna, and Rarotonga, Atae in Tahiti, and Kenae in the Marquesas. The Samoan and Tahitian name recalls the Burmese name of Ka-thit, whilst the Marquesan word is suggestive of the Makassar name Kăne or Kanur. The Hawaiian name of E. monosperma is Wili-wili, which evidently has arisen from the screw-like movement of the open pod when thrown into the air. The same name in the form of Wiri-wiri is applied for a similar reason to Gyrocarpus Jacquini in Fiji. It is possible that the Polynesians have assisted the dispersal of the coast-species (E. indica); but the currents could have performed the distribution unaided, and the variety of aboriginal names is not in favour of human intervention.

With reference to the possible extermination by insects of Erythrina in Hawaii, it has been before remarked (p. 143) that this would not account for the survival of an inland species, such as E. monosperma in Hawaii. However, this species since the occupation of that group by the white man is on the road to extinction. Dr. Hillebrand observes that the species was much more common formerly than in his time (1851-1871), a result evidently due to the ravages of the common tropical mealy bug, a pest of relatively modern introduction (see Koebele in Stubb’s _Agricultural Report on Hawaii_). It may be added here that Cordia subcordata, a littoral tree, had been almost exterminated by the ravages of a small moth even in Dr. Hillebrand’s time. During my examination of the coasts of the large island of Hawaii, in 1896-7, I was shown several places not long before occupied by this tree; and, as indicated in Note 29, it only came under my notice in a few localities.

NOTE 54 (page 145)

ON THE GENUS CANAVALIA

Of the three maritime species, C. obtusifolia, D.C., occurs on beaches all round the tropical zone. I was familiar with it on North Keeling Island in the Indian Ocean, in Fiji, and in Ecuador. C. ensiformis, D.C., is just as widely spread; but it is both inland and maritime in its station, and except when collecting it in the Solomon Islands I have had but little acquaintance with it. C. sericea (Gray) is a characteristic beach-plant in Fiji, but is infrequent. In Rarotonga, according to Cheeseman, it is a common littoral plant. It was also found in Tahiti by Banks and Solander, and is seemingly peculiar to the Pacific islands.

Besides C. ensiformis, the other two shore species may at times be found inland. Thus it is singular that the French botanists do not, as a rule, speak of C. sericea as a Tahitian beach plant; and Nadeaud only remarks, concerning its station, that it frequents the wooded slopes of the valleys of the interior. In North Keeling Island C. obtusifolia presented itself to me not only as a beach-creeper, its usual habit, but as a climber over the branches of the coast trees. In one locality in Vanua Levu I found a variety of this species growing on a hill a mile inland and about 700 feet above the sea. On one of the beaches it approached C. sericea in some of its characters, as in the form of the calyx and in the hairiness.

Although the seeds of C. obtusifolia have long been known to be dispersed by the currents, having been found in Moseley’s collections of floating drift off the New Guinea coast (_Bot. Chall. Exp._, IV, 291), they displayed remarkable fickleness when experimented on by me in Fiji. As a rule, however, about 10 per cent. sank at once in sea-water, 50 per cent. floated after three weeks, and 10 per cent. after twelve weeks. Of seeds that had been kept three years, 50 per cent. floated after eleven weeks. The seeds are to be found in numbers amongst the stranded drift of the Fijian and Ecuador beaches, and I noticed them also afloat in the Rewa estuary of Fiji.

I tested the floating-power of the seeds of C. sericea in Fiji, and found that half of them remained afloat after sixty days. On the seeds of C. ensiformis I have not experimented; but their buoyancy is indicated by the frequent occurrence of the plant on the Solomon Island coral islets (Guppy’s _Solomon Islands_, pp. 290, 292, 296), and probably the Canavalia seeds identified at Kew from my drift collections on these islets belong to this species. Schimper (p. 166) refers to the seeds of a Canavalia in Java that were still afloat after ten weeks. These littoral plants are indebted for the floating capacity of the seed to the buoyant kernel.

NOTE 55 (page 42 and Note 20)

THE INLAND EXTENSION OF SCÆVOLA KŒNIGII

Scævola sericea (Forst.), a hairy variety of this littoral plant, will probably prove in some localities to be the inland form of the species. Dr. Reinecke, who mentions only this variety for Samoa, says that it is found in very moist ground in river-ravines, and no other station is referred to. It would seem that both the glabrous and hairy forms occur in Hawaii. Dr. Seemann speaks of the hairy variety as littoral in Fiji.

NOTE 56 (page 149)

ON THE CAPACITY FOR DISPERSAL BY CURRENTS OF SOPHORA TOMENTOSA, S. CHRYSOPHYLLA, AND S. TETRAPTERA

(1) _Sophora tomentosa, Linn._—The moniliform pods will float for few weeks, but it is to the seeds liberated by the breaking down of the pod that the wide dispersal of this beach-plant by the currents is due. When experimenting on the freshly obtained seeds in Fiji I found that four-fifths of them floated after three months in sea-water. With seeds that had been kept for three years, half floated after twelve months and retained their sound condition. The seeds owe their floating power to the buoyant kernel.

(2) _Sophora chrysophylla, Seem._—The dry pods of this Hawaiian mountain species float between one and two weeks in sea-water, but being brittle they readily break down and the seeds escape. The seeds have no buoyancy even after drying for four years.

(3) _Sophora tetraptera, Ait._, from the coast of Chile.—After floating from ten to fourteen days in sea-water, the dry pods become sodden and begin to break up, the seeds escaping. Since, however, the pods tend to decay and break open on the tree they would not be available for dispersal by currents. Out of a number of freshly gathered seeds all floated buoyantly after a month in sea-water, when the experiment ended; and of seeds that had been kept over a year six out of ten floated after four months in sea-water, two of them germinating afterwards in soil. Like those of S. tomentosa the seeds possess buoyant kernels to which the floating power is due. On account of the hardness of the tests the seeds to ensure rapid germination require to be filed.

NOTE 57 (page 153)

ON THE SPECIES OF OCHROSIA

Schumann distinguishes the following species:

(_a_) O. parviflora, Hensl., widely spread in the Pacific islands.

(_b_) O. compta, Schumann, confined to Hawaii and corresponding to var. B. of O. sandwicensis as given by Hillebrand.

(_c_) O. borbonica, Spr., synonym O. oppositifolia, Lam., from Mauritius and Madagascar to Java and Singapore.

(_d_){O. sandwicensis, Gray, of Hawaii. } Both probably varieties of {O. elliptica, Lab., of New Caledonia.} O. borbonica.

(_e_) O. parviflora, Schumann, of New Guinea, probably identical with O. mariannensis.

NOTE 58 (page 156)

ON PANDANUS (from Warburg)

(a) _The size (length) of the drupes of endemic species in oceanic islands._—The drupes of P. reineckei of Samoa are 4-5 cm. (1-3/5 - 2 inches). Those of P. joskei and P. thurstonii in Fiji measure respectively 6 cm. (2-2/5 inch) and 2-1/2 cm. (1 inch).

Out of about sixteen species in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodriquez) quite half have drupes 2 - 3-1/2 cm. (4/5 - 1-2/5 inch) in size, whilst they run up to 8 or 10 cm. (3-4 inches), and may be less than a centimetre (2/5 inch).

(b) _The affinities of the Fijian and Samoan species._

NOTE 59 (page 188)

SEEDS IN PETRELS

Darwin, in his correspondence (1859) with Sir Joseph Hooker, refers to the occurrence of large West Indian seeds in the crops of some nestling petrels observed by Sir William Milner at St. Kilda (_Life and Letters_, II, 147, 148). Mr. Charles Dixon in _Ibis_ (1885) refers to Sir W. Milner’s observation in the case of the Fulmar Petrel (Procellaria glacialis) and speaks of them as Brazilian seeds brought by the Gulf Stream, adding that he himself found a nut in the crop of one of these birds in the same locality. He supposes that the birds pick them up from the water. Mr. Hemsley very kindly wrote to Sir Joseph Hooker recently on this point with the object of obtaining some idea of the nature of the seeds; but after this lapse of time it has not been found possible to satisfy my curiosity. I live in the hope of their proving to be Cæsalpinia seeds.

NOTE 60 (page 202)

SCHIMPER ON THE HALOPHILOUS CHARACTER OF LITTORAL LEGUMINOSÆ AND OF SHORE PLANTS GENERALLY

As a result of extensive microchemical investigations, this eminent German botanist arrived at the conclusion that plants living on the sea-shore, or in inland stations rich in chlorides, are able, as a rule, to store up in their tissues a large quantity of these salts, a capacity enabling them to live in localities where the subsoil is rich in these materials. This inference, as shown in his experiments, is just as applicable to the shore-plants of temperate regions, such as Aster tripolium, Crambe maritima, and Eryngium maritimum, as it is to such typical littoral plants of the tropics as Barringtonia speciosa, Ipomœa pes capræ, Scævola Koenigii, Tournefortia argentea, &c. However, with the Leguminosæ experimented upon, this capacity of storing up chlorides was often exhibited but slightly or not at all; and characteristic Pacific beach-plants, such as Canavalia turgida, Pongamia glabra, and Sophora tomentosa are especially cited as examples (Schimper’s _Ind. Mal. Strand-flora_, pp. 140-151; Wolff’s ash-analyses are here quoted).

NOTE 61 (page 215)

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA LOA

The summit is formed of bare rock and sand, the phanerogamic vegetation ceasing a couple of thousand feet below. Some low plant-forms doubtless occur under the moist, warm conditions near the steam-cracks, since Wilkes mentions his finding a small moss; but with this exception the surface may be described as sterile.

_Dryness of the Air and Electrical Phenomena._—Wilkes refers to the association of these conditions more than once in his narrative. Whenever, as sometimes happened, the dew point could not be obtained with Pouillet’s hygrometer, electricity was easily excited, and was developed in large sparks. On taking off the clothes at night, sparks would appear. As shown in the table subjoined, electrical phenomena were noticed during the first few days of my sojourn on the summit when the relative humidity was very low. My red blanket at night crackled in my hands and emitted sparks, and a glowing line was produced by drawing the finger along. Whilst the air was in this condition I observed that the wings of dead butterflies lying on the ground stuck to my fingers tenaciously like a needle to a magnet. The adhesiveness disappeared when the excessive dryness gave place to humidity. The physiological effect on me of the associated dryness and electrical state of the air was displayed in a hot, dry, sweatless skin (cracking and chapping rapidly), severe headache and sore-throat, general lassitude, and great irritability. When the weather changed and the air became humid, these unpleasant symptoms quickly disappeared.

As a result of these dry conditions on the summit of Mauna Loa, decomposition does not occur. I found in one place on the top, on the site of an old camp, the remains of a quarter of beef, the meat fresh but dried up. From a water-bottle left behind by one of the party and subsequently restored to him, I learned that the visit had been made in the previous summer. This non-decomposition seems a little strange, since, as remarked below, flies and other insects were not infrequent on the summit. However, as Hann remarks, when speaking of mountain climates, everything dries much more quickly at great altitudes; animals that have been shot, or killed by falling, become mummies without undergoing decay (Schimper’s _Plant-Geography_, 697).... The scorching power of the sun in a sky usually cloudless, or nearly so, was a trying feature of my daily experiences; and I found that when I faced it with unshaded eyes during my walks I suffered from severe pain in the eyeballs at night.

_Insects on the Summit._—It may seem a strange thing to relate, that in a region apparently absolutely sterile, the flies and other winged insects caused me much discomfort in my small tent when I was confined to it through illness. When lying down one morning I noticed the house-fly, the blue-bottle, and two or three other flies, small beetles not over a fifth of an inch in size, a moth, and a wasp. They were no doubt quite happy in the heat, as the temperature inside was over 80° F., and the sun’s rays felt almost scorching through the thin duck canvas. Butterflies (and occasionally large moths) were often observed flying in a drowsy condition about the summit and were easily caught. They were fond of fluttering around the steam-holes. In places, numbers were to be seen dead and dried up on the ground, the detached wings lying about. In the case of a recently dead butterfly I found its carcase already attacked by numerous small bugs. The butterflies were most frequent when there was a fresh southerly breeze, and were doubtless blown up the slopes from the forests below.

Whymper in his _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_ gives many particulars of the occurrence of insects at great elevations. He noticed beetles, diptera, butterflies, moths, and several other insects at altitudes of 15,000 to 16,000 feet. At 16,500 feet he obtained a small bug of the genus Emesa. He quotes Humboldt and Bonpland as showing that insects are transported into the upper regions of the atmosphere 16,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea, and he remarks that the transportation of insects by ascending currents of air has occasionally been observed in operation. These facts bear directly on the dispersal of insects.

_The Winds._—My tent, which was pitched near the middle of the western border of the crater, happened to be situated in the battle-ground of the northerly and southerly winds, in a region of gusty winds, fitful airs, and dead calms. The northerly winds were usually from N.-N.N.W. and the southerly winds from S.W.-S.S.W., easting in either case being rarely observed, the northerly winds rather prevailing at night. As a result of this location miniature whirlwinds were frequent in the vicinity of my tent, which carried sand into the air and more than once threatened to lift up my tent bodily and carry it off into the crater below. At the north end of the crater-border north-easterly winds prevailed, and at the south end southerly winds occasionally showing easting. When on one occasion I walked round the crater-margin, a fresh south-easterly wind prevailed at most parts of the circumference except in the vicinity of my camp, where there was a light S.S.W. wind both at 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. when I started and returned. The local character of the winds was often displayed in my walks. On one occasion, having left my camp, where a southerly wind was blowing, and walked half a mile to the north, I found a bitterly cold N.N.E. gale in my face which so impeded my progress that I returned to my camp where the same southerly breeze continued.

Commodore Wilkes was encamped on the east side of the crater, and there (December and January) he experienced strong south-west winds, on at least three days having the force of a gale. These are the prevailing winds in this season over the group; whereas in August, the time of my sojourn, south-westerly winds are quite out of season, this being in the midst of the period of the N.E. trades.

It will be gathered from the foregoing remarks that the mere record of the winds is insufficient for the purpose of obtaining any definite notion of the air-currents at this elevation (13,600 feet). It is to close observation of the clouds that we must look for data of importance.

_The Clouds._—The clouds on the summit of Mauna Loa were an unending source of interest to me, and I will give briefly the results of my observations. The highest clouds were wispy cirri, often arranged as in a mackerel sky, and evidently at a great altitude. They were only observed on four or five days. (The lower clouds are indicated in the accompanying diagram.) Below them and at no great height above the mountain were to be not infrequently observed isolated woolly clouds that were carried in a few minutes across the sky and had a brief existence, often forming and melting away as one gazed at them. Next, there was a heavy bank of cumulus, which formed on the south-west slope near the top of the mountain, from which lines of cloud extended along each flank. Lowest of all was a broad belt, or rather a sea, of cumulus that was developed on both sides of the mountain about one-third way down its slopes, and during the day-time isolated the peak from the world below. It is with the last two cloud formations that we are most concerned, and I will first describe the sea of cumulus.

The sea of cumulus, as in the case of similar cloud-formations of most other isolated mountains, when viewed from above, as from the mountain-top, presents a cloud-field of dazzling whiteness, sparkling in the sun. Seen from below, as from the coast, it has the dark lowering appearance of the rain-cloud and indicates the rain-belt. Disappearing during the night, this broad belt begins to form again between 8 and 9 a.m., and by 10 or 11 a.m. the lower regions are completely hidden and the mountain’s summit, cut off from the world, rises above the level of the sea of clouds like an island in an Arctic ocean. As the day progresses the clouds become more compact and dense. The usual altitude of this broad belt of cloud is between 7,000 and 8,000 feet. This level is indicated by the burying of the Kohala mountains, which rise to a height of 5,500 feet in the distant north-west corner of the island, and by the usual emergence of the highest summit of Hualalai, which rises, still nearer, to an elevation of 8,275 feet. On some days, however, it attains a height of nearly 9,000 feet. On such occasions the highest peak of Hualalai kept reappearing and disappearing during the day, but the distant summit of Haleakala in East Maui, 10,032 feet in elevation and 80 miles away, was always visible.

Words fail to describe the magnificent aspect of this sea of cloud which shuts off the spectator from the world below. From the summit of the mountain he gazes down on its surface lit up by a sun shining in a typically cloudless sky. At one time it appears as an undulating Arctic land covered with snow of dazzling whiteness. At another time it looks like a hummocky frozen Polar sea sparkling in the sunshine. Through occasional rifts, however, one can discern a dark dismal region of mist and rain-cloud beneath. Miss Bird, who passed a night on the summit in June, 1874, well describes this sea of cloud in her book on the Sandwich Islands as “all radiance above and drizzling fog below.”

[_To face page 585._

The heavy bank of cumulus, that forms at noon on the south-west slope at an altitude of 10,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea, and sometimes rises above the mountain, is one of the most conspicuous of the cloud-phenomena on the summit of Mauna Loa. Apparently extending from it, but in reality moving towards it, are two lines of small cumuli that follow the same level along either flank above the sea of cumulus, as is indicated in the accompanying diagram. It was observed by Wilkes in mid-winter, 1840-41, but at a lower level. “Clouds would approach us (he writes) from the south-west when we had a strong north-east trade wind blowing, coming up with their cumulus front reaching the height of about 8,000 feet, spreading horizontally and then disappearing.” During my sojourn this bank formed a very striking feature in the landscape during the early afternoon. On two or three occasions when I visited the south side of the summit and descended for about a thousand feet I passed through this bank, being then exposed to a driving mist coming up the slopes from the south-west. Though its upper surface viewed from a distance is dazzling white, below it is dark and nimboid.

It is to an updraught of warm moist air on the south or south-west slopes of the mountain, and to the prevailing cool north-east trade that strikes the north side of the summit, that we must look for the explanation of the development and situation of this bank. Although the trade-wind is markedly stronger than the south-west updraught, some of the warm, moist, southerly air-currents find their way, as shown by the observations at my camp, along the sides of the summit, and a line of condensation is produced where they come into contact with the cool air of the north-east trade as it sweeps past the flanks of the mountain. Sometimes at my camp, when there was a light southerly breeze blowing, I have noticed the line of small cumuli moving south along the mountain side towards the bank of cumulus.... I may remark that on a few days a small bank of cumulus formed under similar conditions on the north-west side of the summit.

From my study of the clouds I arrived at the conclusion that there were three prevailing air-currents on the summit of Mauna Loa:

(1) The updraught of warm moist air on the south and south-west slopes of the mountain.

(2) The north-east trade wind, the upper limit of this air-current being probably not far above the summit.

(3) An upper air-current from the south-east (E.S.E.-S.S.E.), which, from the velocity of the clouds it carried, was often probably not over a couple of thousand feet above the summit. It may be observed that on the coast at the base of the southern slope of the mountain in the middle of September, when the wind was N.E. and carried the lower clouds with it, the upper clouds were, on several occasions, noticed travelling in the opposite direction, namely, from the south.

The volcano was quiescent during my visit and could have exercised but little influence on the air-currents.

_The Shadow of the Mountain._—Every morning and evening, in clear weather, for about twenty minutes after sunrise and before sunset, the shadow of the mountain was thrown back against the sky of the opposite horizon. It seemed as if some Titanic brush, at work in the sky far away, had painted in the profile of the mountain with a very uncanny blue. At sunset the peak was the last to disappear. Commodore Wilkes, who only records it once, namely, at sunset on the 1st of January, describes it as “a beautiful appearance of the shadow of the mountain projected on the eastern sky ... as distinct as possible, its vast dome seemed to rest on the distant horizon.” This phenomenon is, of course, well known in the case of other isolated mountains. According to Murray’s _Handbook of Southern Italy_ (1892), the correct thing for a visitor to Stromboli is to make an early ascent of the cone to observe “the very curious triangular shadow of the mountain cast by the rising sun upon the _sea_.” Unfortunately I neglected my opportunity when on the island. The shadow of the mountain is also one of the sights of Etna, a dark-violet, triangular shadow (Baedeker) being thrown at sunrise over the surface of West Sicily, that is, on the _land_. I saw the shadow but imperfectly outlined, as the weather was not favourable at the time of my ascent. When at Nicolosi, on the south slope of Etna, I noticed at sunset a faint shadow of the mountain thrown against the eastern sky. I gathered from a short conversation with Prof. Ricco, the director of the Catania Observatory, when I told him of the shadow of the Hawaiian mountain, that the interest lay in its projection against the sky. It is doubtless akin to the spectre of the Brocken and other mountain spectres.

_Some Previous Meteorological Observations on Mauna Loa._—.... Mr. Douglas, the botanist, who was subsequently found dead in a cattle-pit on Mauna Kea, spent a day on the summit of Mauna Loa in the middle of January, 1834. He mentions that a little way below the top the thermometer fell at night to 19° F. The wind on the top was N.W. The air at 11.20 a.m. was 33°, the hygrometer registering 0·5. He remarks that the great dryness of the air was evident without the assistance of the hygrometer (_Hawaiian Spectator_, vols. I and II, 1838-9).

Commodore Wilkes, in vol. IV of his _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, gives the following observations on the temperature and winds on the top of Mauna Loa between Dec. 23, 1840, and Jan. 13, 1841. Those on the temperature are incomplete, but they give a fair idea of the prevailing conditions. The degrees are in Fahrenheit’s scale.

Dec. 23, 1840: elevation, 13,190 feet; 3 p.m., 25° F.; strong S.W. gale; night temperature, 15°. Dec. 24, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); night minimum, 22°. Dec. 26, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); violent S.W. gale; night min., 17°. Dec. 27, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); sunrise temp., 20°; night min., 17°; wind, S.W. Dec. 29, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); noon temp. in shade, 47°; night min., 20°. Dec. 30, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); noon temp., 55°; night min., 13°. Dec. 31, 1840: summit (13,600 feet); night min., 17°. Jan. 2, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); sunrise, 20°; wind, N.E. Jan. 3, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); night min., 17°. Jan. 4, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); daylight, 20°. Jan. 8, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); S.W. gale. Jan. 10, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); night temp., 16°. Jan. 12, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); night temp., 17°. Jan. 13, 1841: summit (13,600 feet); strong S.W. wind.

The usual variation of temperature in the twenty-four hours is given as 17°-50°. The south-west was evidently regarded as the prevailing wind, and the clouds are spoken of as sometimes moving from opposite directions towards the same centre.

When Miss Bird spent a night on the summit of Mauna Loa during the eruption of June, 1874, the cold was described as intense, eleven degrees of frost (21° F.).

_Observations on the Summit of Mauna Kea._—.... When Prof. Alexander with a party of scientists ascended this mountain (in the summer of 1892), the thermometer at night fell to 13° F., and the trade-wind was found to be blowing as strongly on the summit as down below (Whitney’s _Tourist Guide to Hawaii_). It is to be inferred that the party camped by the small lake which is a few hundred feet below the actual summit (13,800 feet). This lake, which I visited on May 20, 1897, is about 120 yards across, and evidently shallow, probably not more than three or four fathoms deep. A carpet of algæ covered the bottom. At noon, by the lake, the air in the shade was 53° F., whilst the temperature of the surface-water was 51°. The lower clouds were moving from S.S.E. This lake is said to be permanently frozen over in the winter, and to have been visited by skaters.

_Permanent Water Supply on the Summit of Mauna Loa._—In this barren rocky region water derived from the winter-snow is to be found all the year through at the bottom of the deep cracks or fissures in the lava-rock. Such fissures are from two to four feet wide, and in the case of that near my tent the bucket had to be lowered to a depth of seventeen or eighteen feet to reach the water, or rather the ice, since it was often necessary to break the surface ice. In these deep, narrow fissures, which the sun scarcely penetrates, the water would probably be frozen over all through the seasons; but in those of less depth it would remain liquid in summer.

REGISTER OF OBSERVATIONS ON WIND, RELATIVE HUMIDITY, CLOUD, RAIN, AND TEMPERATURE, MADE BY H. B. GUPPY ON THE SUMMIT OF MAUNA LOA AT AN ELEVATION OF 13,500 FEET ABOVE THE SEA, AUGUST 9TH TO 31ST, 1897. (CAMP ABOUT MIDDLE OF WEST SIDE OF CRATER MARGIN)

+-----+-------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+------------------+--------------+ | | | | | | | | | Air in shade. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Date.|Obser- | 12-4 | 4-8 | 8-12 | 12-4 | 4-8 | 8-12 |------------------+ Remarks. | | |vation.| A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Min.| Max.|Range.| | +-----+-------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------+--------------+ |9 |Wind |S.S.W- |Variable | ... |W.S.W.- |N.N.W.- |N.N.W.- | F. | F. | F. |A beautifully | | | |S.W. 2 | | |W.N.W. 3 |N. 1 | N. 3 | | | |coloured lunar| | |Rel. | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 27·5| 61·2| 33·7 |halo at 1 A.M.| | | hum. | | | | | | | | | |Electrical | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |condition of | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |the atmosphere| | | | | | | | | | | | |(see text). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |10 |Wind | ... |N.N.W. 2 |S.S.W.- |S.S.W.- |Calm | ... | | | |Electrical | | | | | |W.S.W. 3 |W.S.W. 2 | | | | | |condition of | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 34 | 42·5 | 46 | ... | 33·5| 59·7| 26·2 |the | | | hum. | | | | | | | | | |atmosphere. | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | ... | | | |Faint lunar | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |halo at 8 P.M.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |11 |Wind |Calm |W.S.W. 1 | ... | ... |S.S.W.- | ... | | | |Electrical | | | | | | | |S.W. 1 | | | | |condition of | | |Rel. | ... | ... | {28·5 | ... | ... | ... | | | |the | | | hum. | | | {21 | | | |}22·5| 61·2| 38·7 |atmosphere. | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ... |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |12 |Wind |Calm |Calm |N.N.W.- |N.N.W. 1 |N.N.W.- |N. 2-4, | | | |Earth tremors.| | | | | |N. 2-3 | |N. 2-4 |S.W.- | | | |Total rain, | | | | | | | | |W.S.W. | | | |10/100. At | | | | | | | | | 3-5 | | | |sunset, wind | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 45 | 79 | 89 | ... | 23 | 54·7| 31·7 |N.W., wet | | | hum. | | | | | | | | | |canvas of tent| | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 5 | 10 | 10 | 5 | | | |froze hard. At| | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 |Rain |Rain |Rain | | | |10 P.M., | | | | | | | | | | | | |strong | | | | | | | | | | | | |southerly | | | | | | | | | | | | |wind, canvas | | | | | | | | | | | | |thawed, rain | | | | | | | | | | | | |with strong | | | | | | | | | | | | |gusty wind | | | | | | | | | | | | |until 4 A.M., | | | | | | | | | | | | |when wind | | | | | | | | | | | | |less. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |13 |Wind |S.W. |S.W. 3-5 | S.W.- |S.W. 3 |Calm; | ... | | | |Earth tremors.| | | | 4-6 | | S.S.E. | |N.W. 1 | | | | |Total rain | | | | | | 3-4 | | | | | | |10/100. | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 86 | 86 | 78 | ... |} | | | | | | hum. | | | | | | |}33·6|48·7 |15·1 | | | |Cloud | ... | 10 | 7 | 10 | 9 | ... |} | | | | | |Rain |Rain |Rain | 0 |Rain |Rain | 0 | | | |Butterflies | | | | | | | | | | | | |flying about | |14 |Wind |N.N.W.- |Northerly,|N.N.W. 3 |N.N.W. 2 |N.N.W. 1 | ... | | | |in a semi- | | | |N. 1 |3 | | | | | | | |torpid state, | | |Rel. | ... | 61·5 | 47 | 42 | 45·5 | ... |} | | |and easily | | | hum. | | | | | | |}32·5|52·2 |19·7 |caught with | | |Cloud | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0-2 | 0 | ... |} | | |the hand. | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |15 |Wind |Northerly,|W.S.W. 1, |S.W.-W. |Calm; |Calm; |N.N.E.- | | | |Wind fitful | | | |1 |N.N.W. 1 |2 |Southerly,|N.N.W. 1 | 1-2 | | | |during day; | | | | | | |1 | | | | | |north-westerly| | |Rel. | ... | ... | 38 | 44·5 |{62 | ... | | | |and south- | | | hum. | | | | |{52·5 | |}28 |}54·7| 26·7 |westerly airs | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 7-0 | 0 |} | | |with calms. | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | |16 |Wind | Calm |N.N.W. 2 |N. 3 | ... |Southerly,| ... | | | |Carefully | | | | | | | |1 | | | | |observed the | | |Rel. | ... | ... | {32} | ... | 61 | ... | | | |shadow of the | | | hum. | | | {28} | | | |}26 | 53.2| 27.2 |mountain | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | ... |} | | |which, at | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |sunrise and | | | | | | | | | | | | |sunset, is | | | | | | | | | | | | |projected | | | | | | | | | | | | |against the | | | | | | | | | | | | |opposite | | | | | | | | | | | | |horizon. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |17 |Wind | ... |N.N.W. 1 |N.N.W. 2, |N.- |N.N.W. 1 | ... | | | |Fitful | | | | | |Southerly,|N.N.E 3, | | | | | |northerly and | | | | | |2 |Southerly,| | | | | |southerly | | | | | | |2 | | | | | |winds causing | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 32 | 32·5 | ... | ... |} | | |miniature | | | hum. | | | | | | |}20·5|58·7 |38·2 |whirlwinds | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ... |} | | |that carried | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |dust and paper| | | | | | | | | | | | |up into the | |18 |Wind |Calm |S.W. 1 |Variable | ... |S.W. 2 | ... | | | |air. | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 26 | ... | 47 | ... |} | | | | | | hum. | | | | | | |}23 | 58 | 35 | — | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ... |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |19 |Wind | ... | ... |N.N.W. 1, |Northerly,|Northerly,|Southerly,| | | |Through the | | | | | |W.S.W. 1 |3, |2, |3 | | | |day, fitful | | | | | | |S.S.W. 3 |Southerly,| | | | |northerly and | | | | | | | |2 | | | | |southerly | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 20 | 23 |{24 } | ... | | | |breezes. | | | hum. | | | | |{35·5} | |}22 | 58·7| 36·7 | | | |Cloud | ... | ... | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |20 |Wind |Southerly,|Northerly,|Northerly,|S.S.W.- |Northerly,|Southerly,| | | |Fitful | | | |2 |1, | 1, |S.W. 4 |2, |3 | | | |northerly and | | | | |Southerly,|Southerly,| |Southerly,| | | | |southerly | | | | |1 |1 | |1 | | | | |airs, often | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 26·5 | 25 | 29·5 | ... |} | | |reversing | | | hum. | | | | | | |}22 |57·2 |35·2 |several times | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |} | | |in a few | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |minutes. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |21 |Wind |Southerly,|Southerly,|S.S.W. 3-4|S.S.W. 4-5|S.W. 4-5 |S.W. 4 | | | |At camp, | | | |4 |3-4 | | | | | | | |strong | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 35·5 | 31 | 47 | ... |} | | |southerly | | | hum. | | | | | | |}26·5|53·7 | 27·2 |winds all | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ... |} | | |day. At 7 | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |A.M., walked | | | | | | | | | | | | |half-mile | | | | | | | | | | | | |north and | | | | | | | | | | | | |found a | | | | | | | | | | | | |bitterly cold | | | | | | | | | | | | |N.N.E. gale | | | | | | | | | | | | |blowing there,| | | | | | | | | | | | |which forced | | | | | | | | | | | | |me to return | | | | | | | | | | | | |to camp where | | | | | | | | | | | | |the south wind| | | | | | | | | | | | |still blew | | | | | | | | | | | | |freshly. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |22 |Wind | ... |S.S.W. 1 | ... | ... |Calm, | ... | | | |Walked round | | | | | | | |Southerly,| | | | |the crater | | | | | | | |2 | | | | |from 8 A.M. to| | |Rel. | ... | ... | 58 | ... | ... | ... |} | | |6 P.M. | | | hum. | | | | | | |}20·5|46·7 |26·2 | | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | ... |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |23 |Wind | ... |S.S.W. 2 | ... |N.N.W.- |Southerly,|Calm | | | |A few drops of| | | | | | |N.E. 1-3, |1 | | | | |rain at 2 P.M.| | | | | | |Southerly,| | | | | | | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | | | |Rel. | ... | ... | {60 | 52·5} | 70 | ... | | | | | | | hum. | | | {54·5 | 64 } | | |}24 | 50·7| 26·7 | | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 3 | 3-8 | 3-6 | 0 |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 |Rain | 0 | 0 | | | | | |24 |Wind | ... |Northerly,|S.W. 1 |N.N.W.- |N.N.W.- |Northerly | | | | | | | | |3 | |N. 2-3 |N. b. E. |2 | | | | | | | | | | | |2-3 | | | | | | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 54·5 | ... | 53 | ... |} | | | | | | hum. | | | | | | |}20 | 52·7| 32·7 | | | |Cloud | ... | 0 | 0-1 | 4 | 0 | ... |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |25 |Wind |Calm | ... |Calms |Calms |Northerly |Northerly | | | |A few drops of| | | | | |with N.W. |with N.W. |and |and | | | |rain at 3 P.M.| | | | | |and S.W. |and S.W. |Southerly |Southerly | | | | | | | | | | airs | airs |airs |airs | | | | | | |Rel. | ... | ... | {42·5 | 73·5} | 61 | ... |}17 | 52·2| 35·2 | | | | hum. | | | {37·5 | 61·5} | | |} | | | | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0-1 | 2-9 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 |Rain | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |26 |Wind |Northerly,| N.N.W. 1 | ... |N.N.W.- |N.N.W. 2 | ... | | | |Descended | | | |2 | | |N. 3 | | | | | |through the | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 49·5 | ... | 64 | ... |} | | |bank of | | | hum. | | | | | | |}19·5| 53·7| 34·2 |cumulus on | | |Cloud | 0 | ... | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 |} | | |S.W. slope and| | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | |found driving | | | | | | | | | | | | |mist coming up| | | | | | | | | | | | |the slope from| | | | | | | | | | | | |S.W. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |27 |Wind |Calms |Calms |S.W.- | W.S.W.- |Southerly |Calm | | | |Rain not | | | |with light|with light| W.S.W. 2 | W. 1 | | | | | |measurable. | | | |airs |airs | | | | | | | |Rain-clouds | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 35 | 73·5 | ... | ... |} | | |poured into | | | hum. | | | | | | |}18·5| 50·7| 32·2 |and filled the| | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 4 | 10 | 4 | 0 |} | | |huge crater. | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 |Rain | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |28 |Wind |Calms |Calms |N.N.W.- |S.S.W. 3 |Northerly,|Calms | | | |9 A.M., high | | | |with |with |N. 2-3 | |3 |with | | | |stationary | | | |northerly |variable | | | |variable | | | |cirrus; at | | | |airs |airs | | | |airs | | | |noon, solar | | |Rel. | ... | ... | {46·5 | 64·5} | | | | | |halo; in | | | hum. | | | {59·0 | 73·0} | ... | ... |}15 | 49·7| 34·7 |afternoon, | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 5 | 7 | 0 | 0 |} | | |nimbus partly | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 |Rain | 0 | 0 | | | |filling crater| | | | | | | | | | | | |causing a | | | | | | | | | | | | |rainbow there;| | | | | | | | | | | | |a few drops of| | | | | | | | | | | | |rain at 4 P.M.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |29 |Wind |N.N.W.- |N.N.W.- |N.- |N.N.W. 3, |Calms with|Northerly,| | | | | | | |N. 3 |N. 2 |N. b. E. 3|S.S.W. 2 |variable |1 | | | | | | | | | | | |airs | | | | | | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 45 | 44 | 60·5 | ... |} | | | | | |hum. | | | | | | |}21·5| 48·7| 27·2 | | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |30 |Wind |Calms with|Southerly,|N.N.W. |N.N.W. 3 |Calms with| ... | | | | | | | |northerly |1 |2-3 | |variable | | | | | | | | |airs | | | |airs | | | | | | | |Rel. | ... | ... | 32·5 |{41·0} | ... | ... | | | | | | | hum. | | | |{54·5} | | |}18 | 50·7| 32·7 | | | |Cloud | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |} | | | | | |Rain | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |31 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 18·5| 50·0| 31·5 | | +-----+-------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-----+-----+------+--------------+

_Method of Observation employed by the Author on the Summit of Mauna Loa._—My camp was placed near the middle of the west margin of the crater about 13,500 feet above the sea. The instruments employed were a Sixe’s maximum and minimum thermometer made by Negretti and Zambra, several unmounted thermometers, and a reference thermometer (with a Kew certificate) by the above-named makers, which was used as a standard. The freezing point was also tested for all the instruments on the summit in melting powdered ice. The maximum air observations and those on the relative humidity were taken in a small cave with a hole in the roof, through which there was a steady flow of air. One day was occupied in comparing the cave-observations with those obtained under a temporary screen rigged up outside my tent, the only difference shown being as a rule less than a degree. The minimum observations taken in my tent, where there was no artificial heat, were usually only 1·5° higher than those given by a thermometer outside the tent.

_Results of the Observations on the Top of Mauna Loa, Aug. 9-31, 1897_

Mean minimum temperature of air in shade 23·2° F. Mean maximum temperature of air in shade 53·8° Mean daily range of temperature 30·6° Lowest reading 15·0° Highest reading 61·2° Mean temperature for the period 38·5°

} Many observations Mean relative humidity, 8-9 a.m., 44·5 % } included which Mean relative humidity, noon ... 43 % } are not given in Mean relative humidity, 5-6 p.m., 56 % } the register.

On Aug. 11th, at 10 a.m., wet bulb, 33·2°; dry bulb, 52°; difference, 18·8°.

On Aug. 19th, at 11 a.m., wet bulb, 35·7°; dry bulb, 56°; difference, 20·3°.

Owing to the varying winds at my camp, the relative humidity fluctuated greatly in a short time. Thus, on Aug. 12 it was 46% at noon, and 79% at 2 p.m.

_Average Cloudiness (10 indicating a Sky completely Overcast)_

12-4 A.M. | 0 | Cloudless during 12 out of 13 days 4-8 A.M. | 0 | Cloudless during 19 out of 20 days 8-12 A.M. | 1·3 | Cloudless during 13 out of 22 days 12-4 P.M. | 3·5 | Cloudless during 6 out of 22 days 4-8 P.M. | 1·5 | Cloudless during 17 out of 22 days 08-12 P.M. | 0 | Cloudless during 11 out of 12 days

The winds at the camp were extremely variable and local from north and south, usually light, with force 1-3: see under Winds and Clouds in the text.

Rain fell on six days, total 30/100 of an inch: but on four of the days it was not measurable.

NOTE 62 (page 222)

ON THE RELATIVE PROPORTION OF VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS IN FIJI

According to Seemann’s work, where about 617 indigenous flowering plants and about 195 ferns and lycopods are enumerated, the vascular cryptogams would form about 24 per cent. of the whole flora. (All weeds and cultivated plants are here excluded.) The vascular cryptogams, however, seem to figure too prominently in Seemann’s collections. From Horne’s data, who says that he added 363 flowering plants to the flora, the flowering plants would amount to about 980; and since Baker implies, in _Trimen’s Journal of Botany_, 1879, that Horne added 42 species of ferns and lycopods to the flora, this would increase the vascular cryptogams to 237, which enables us to estimate the relative proportion of vascular cryptogams in Fiji as about 20 per cent. of the whole flora of vascular plants. This is probably near the truth.

NOTE 63 (page 222)

ON THE TABLE OF VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS OF TAHITI, HAWAII, AND FIJI

In the case of Tahiti, I have gone carefully through the list given by Drake del Castillo, comparing it with other Polynesian lists given by Seemann, Horne, Hillebrand, Hemsley, &c., and have reduced his endemic species from 19 to 13. The same thing has been done with Hillebrand’s list for Hawaii, some of his species having been found in other parts of Polynesia, thus reducing the endemic species from 75 to 70. The data relating to Fiji are referred to in Note 62.

NOTE 64 (page 223)

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TAHITIAN FERNS AND LYCOPODS

I have arranged them as follows, according to the distributions given by Drake del Castillo:—Cosmopolitan, 5; Tropics of Old and New Worlds, 33; Tropics of Old World, mainly Indo-Malaya, 58; “Océanie,” including Australia, 17; Polynesia, 26; South America, 2; peculiar to Tahiti, 13: total, 154.

Out of 141 non-endemic Tahitian species, 107 at least have been recorded from the Fijian area comprising Samoa and Tonga, and 42 from Hawaii. Of the last, all but four occur also in Fiji. There is thus a very small element peculiar to Hawaii and Tahiti alone. Some of them will no doubt be found in the Fijian area; whilst two of them, Acrostichum squamosum and Lycopodium venustulum, are high-mountain forms in Hawaii and Tahiti, which have evidently failed to find a suitable elevation in Fiji.

NOTE 65 (page 225)

DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MOUNTAIN FERNS OF HAWAII THAT ARE NOT FOUND EITHER IN FIJI OR TAHITI (mainly from Hillebrand)

NOTE 66 (page 226)

ENDEMIC GENERA OF FERNS IN HAWAII

Hillebrand gives two genera of ferns peculiar to Hawaii, one, Sadleria of Kaulfuss, “scarcely distinct from Blechnum,” and containing four species; the other, Schizostege, constituted by himself, and represented by a single species found in only one or two of the islands.

NOTE 67 (page 241)

ON THE DISPERSAL OF COMPOSITÆ BY BIRDS

The goldfinch’s habit of pecking at the heads of thistles, and pulling out the achenes in bundles, is well known. Gätke mentions two suggestive instances of birds feeding on the fruits of a Composite plant. According to this observer, the Scarlet Grosbeak (Pyrrhula erythrina), when it alights on Heligoland, always feeds on the achenes of Sonchus oleraceus, which it picks off the plant; whilst the Parrot Crossbill (Loxia sp.), feeds in Heligoland on burrs and thistles (_Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory_, pp. 407, 409). See Note 91.

NOTE 68 (page 264)

ON SOME OF THE HAWAIIAN ENDEMIC GENERA, EXCLUDING THOSE OF THE COMPOSITÆ AND LOBELIACEÆ

_Haplostachys, Phyllostegia, and Stenogyne, all Labiate Genera._—Phyllostegia is not strictly peculiar to Hawaii, since out of the 17 species enumerated in the _Index Kewensis_, 15 are Hawaiian, 1 Tahitian, and 1 is accredited to Unalaska (one of the Aleutian Islands). The last locality appears to be an error. The species in question is P. microphylla, Benth.; and on looking up the original authority in _Linnæa_ (vi. 570, 1831), I find the locality is thus given: “insula coralligena Romanzoffii,” which is either one of the atolls of the Paumotu Islands in about lat. 15° S. and long. 144° W., or a coral island of the Marshall Group, most probably the former.... I paid some attention to the suitability of the fruits of these three Labiate genera for dispersal by frugivorous birds, for which the fleshy nucules in the cases of Phyllostegia and Stenogyne apparently fit them. Out of the fruits of five species of Phyllostegia examined by me, the seed-coverings in three species, after the removal of the fleshy covering of the nucule, were too soft for the protection of the seed in a bird’s stomach. Hillebrand also observes (p. 347) that the nucules when dried are wrinkled, and absorb moisture easily, a quality which, if true of all the species, would make the distribution of the genus by birds impossible. However, in two species I found the seed-coverings somewhat harder. It would seem that since birds have largely ceased to disperse these plants, the soft-skinned nucules would in the absence of their selective agency more frequently characterise the genus. It is possible that the dry nucules of Haplostachys, which according to Hillebrand are not affected by drying, represent the original condition of those of Phyllostegia, and that the fleshy character has been acquired in this archipelago. It will be seen in the list on page 263, that Haplostachys is regarded by Gray as a section of Phyllostegia. The remarks under Phyllostegia, regarding the softness of the seed-coverings beneath the fleshy coat of the nucule, also apply to Stenogyne; and Hillebrand, in contrasting its fleshy nucules with the dry nucules of Haplostachys, implies that they absorb water, which, I may remark, would render them quite unfit for dispersal by frugivorous birds.

_Touchardia (Urticaceæ)._—According to Hillebrand, the solitary species is by no means common in the group now. In 1897 I found it growing abundantly some miles up the Waipio gorge, Hawaii.

_Cheirodendron (Araliaceæ)._—C. Gaudichaudii, the well-known “Olapa” tree, is common in the forests of all the Hawaiian Islands between 2,000 and 5,000 feet; but I noticed it occasionally at greater elevations, as on the south-east slopes of Mauna Kea, where it extends to 7,000 feet. As described on page 343, the “Olapa” often grows in close contact with the Lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), the two trunks appearing as one. The drupes would attract frugivorous birds and the pyrenes are well adapted for this mode of dispersal. Mr. Perkins states that the drupes are much sought after by the various species of Phæornis, a genus of birds peculiar to Hawaii.

_Deterioration of Fruits for Purposes of Dispersal._—Among fruits or endemic genera that have evidently deteriorated in the Hawaiian Group as far as fitness for dispersal is concerned, may be mentioned, in addition to those of Phyllostegia and Stenogyne above noticed, those of the Araliaceous genera, Pterotropia and Triplasandra, and the Amarantaceous Nototrichium. The pyrenes of the first two genera on account of their thin covering, and the seed of the last-named genus on account of its thin testa, seem ill-fitted now for transport in a bird’s stomach, yet we cannot doubt that their ancestors originally arrived in this fashion. The same principle is also illustrated by some Hawaiian non-endemic genera of later eras that possess peculiar species, such, for instance, as in the case of Elæocarpus discussed in Chapter XXVI.

NOTE 69 (page 366)

ON THE GERMINATION OF CUSCUTA

My observations were made on the Hawaiian endemic species (C. sandwichiana) and on a Fijian introduced species. Germination occurs readily in fresh water, the floating seedling growing rapidly. When the germinating seed is placed on wet soil in the shade, the seedling grows at the rate of 3/4 inch (19 mm.) a day. The store of nutriment contained in the swollen radicular end will support the seedling for a couple of days, and if it has not then found a host it withers and dies. At first lying prone the seedling then lifts its upper end into the air, and it was almost pathetic to notice it moving round and round, endeavouring vainly to find some object near. The seedlings make no effort to strike into the soil, and when they are allowed to attach themselves to a plant they ascend rapidly, growing at the upper end and dying at the lower end.

NOTE 70 (pages 477, 480-1)

ON BEACH-TEMPERATURE

My data are rather scanty; but, judging from observations made in Hawaii, in South America, and in the south of England, the following scale would probably be true of typical beaches where the sand is found relatively cool and moist at a depth of four or five inches. This moisture seems to arise entirely from subsoil drainage seaward. When a beach fronts an arid, rainless region, few if any plants grow on it; the sand is loose, hot, and dry at the depth indicated; and the temperature of the surface half-inch rises to between 130° and 140° F., whilst four inches down it is 95° to 100°. Salt-marshes situated behind a beach even in a desert-region change its thermal behaviour, and it would then be more like a beach skirting a vegetated sea-border in the same latitude. The method of observation was as follows:—An unmounted thermometer of the size of a clinical thermometer, but graduated higher, was placed horizontally in the sand half an inch below the surface and a reading taken. It was then pushed vertically into the sand until the bulb was four inches deep and another reading taken. Provided that the sand is moist beneath, the colour does not seem to make much difference, except perhaps in very dark sands, none of which were tested.

_Ordinary Beach-Temperatures with an Unclouded Sky in the Hot Season during the Early Afternoon._

+-----------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | |Surface half-inch.|Four inches deep.| | +------------------+-----------------+ |Temperate latitudes about 50-55°| 100-105° F. | 77° F. | |Sub-tropical latitudes about 30-35 | 105-110 | 80 | |Tropical latitudes about 10-20 | 110-120 | 85 | +-----------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+

This illustrates only the average condition. On a calm day in the case of a beach facing south in the South of England, I have obtained exactly the same readings in July as at Valparaiso in January, 112° at surface, 80° four inches deep.

NOTE 71 (page 479)

On the Buoyancy of the Seeds or Seed-vessels of some Chilian Shore Plants

(1) _Nolana_, probably _paradoxa_. Common on the beaches of Southern Chile. The ripe drupes have a somewhat fleshy outer covering which they lose when lying on the sand, and present themselves then as dark-brown angular “stones,” often five to six millimetres across. Inside the outer hard covering of the stone is a layer of spongy tissue which gives it buoyancy; but since these coverings are wanting at the scars marking the basal insertion of the drupe, the embryo seems insufficiently protected against injury during flotation in sea-water; and the seed-vessel at first appears to be only fitted for conveyance by the currents over a limited tract of sea. However, in a preliminary experiment on seed-vessels that had been kept a few weeks, I found that 30 per cent. floated after three weeks in sea-water. Subsequently, after drying for a year, the seed-vessels were again tested in sea-water, nearly all of them floating after three months’ immersion. Two of them, removed after six weeks’ flotation, germinated healthily. These fruits are common in beach-drift between Corral and Valparaiso.

(2) _Raphanus_, near R. maritimus. Growing near beaches in South Chile, and not infrequently represented in the stranded beach-drift by the pods, which in my experiments floated seven to ten days in sea-water, after drying some weeks.

(3) _Franseria._ A species common on the beaches of Valparaiso and Talcahuano. Its prickly fruits, after being kept six weeks, floated only two to four days. They are well suited for transport in birds’ plumage.

NOTE 72 (page 483)

THE SOUTHERN LIMIT OF THE MANGROVE FORMATION IN ECUADOR.

... The southern limit of the mangrove formation on the west coast of South America is usually placed at 4° S. lat.; but it is probable that the vicinity of Tumbez in lat. 3° 30ʹ S. would be more correct. Baron von Eggers would place it rather further to the north-east, near the frontier of Ecuador and Peru in lat. 3° 20ʹ S. I spent eight days in the locality last named and saw no evidence of the beginning of the mangrove-formation.

NOTE 73 (page 495)

ADDITIONAL NOTE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DRY COAST OF ECUADOR BETWEEN PUNA ISLAND AND THE EQUATOR.

... Baron von Eggers gives the mean annual temperature for El Recreo, about half a degree south of the equator, at 75° F., which is near that of Rio de Janeiro in lat 23° S. on the east coast of the continent. Mr. F. P. Walker has kindly given me the results of temperature-observations covering a period of ten years, taken in the room for testing cables at Santa Elena Point (2° 10ʹ S.), usually about 6·30 a.m. The range of the monthly means was 71° F. (August) to 79·1° (March), and the mean for the year was 74·8°. In that locality a typical daily range would be 65° to 80°; and Mr. Walker believes that a minimum of 59° has been recorded.

NOTE 74 (page 495)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT FROM ANTOFAGASTA NORTHWARD, BETWEEN JANUARY AND MARCH, 1904 (Fahrenheit scale)

The observations were usually taken at the anchorages, but in some places, as at Ancon and Puerto Bolivar, they were taken from a boat outside the roadstead.

If we wish to ascertain how the Humboldt Current retains its cool temperature as it advances through the tropics to the equator, a glance at the following table will show that the surface-temperatures can aid us but slightly, since they do not vary in accordance with the latitude, a subject further discussed below. We can, however, obtain some valuable indications from the deeper temperatures. Let us take for instance the plane of 60°. Whilst south of Ancon (lat. 11° 45ʹ S.) it was rarely deeper than four fathoms, north of this latitude it descends rapidly, being probably about ten fathoms down at Salaverri and Eten and about twenty fathoms deep at Payta, in latitude 5° S., where the Humboldt Current leaves the coast. Within the Gulf of Guayaquil it is probable that the plane of 60° would descend to nearer thirty fathoms, the region being outside the influence of the current.

Some interesting facts are also elicited from the variation of the surface-temperatures. When we were coasting along at a distance of five or six miles from shore the readings were fairly constant from hour to hour varying only a degree or so. But nearer the land, for instance, about two or three miles away, the variation from hour to hour amounted to two or three degrees, whilst within the limits of the anchorages, a mile and less from the coast, the change from hour to hour amounted to three or four degrees. Nor was there any uniformity at the same hour over the surface of a roadstead. The temperature would often rise or fall a degree every few boat-lengths. Sometimes the inshore water was the coolest and sometimes it was the warmest. Thus at Iquique the inshore water was three degrees warmer than the water half a mile out, whilst at Mollendo, when the temperature one-third of a mile off the shore was 70°, it was 63° close to the rocky coast. The same thing was exhibited at Pisagua, where the surface-water two miles out at sea was 61°, whilst close inshore at the anchorage it was 58°. It was evident that there was a considerable intermingling of the warmer surface and the colder, deeper waters on the coasts of Chile and Peru. This was particularly noticeable on a rocky, steep-to coast, or where there was an uneven bottom. At some places, indeed, the warm upper layer did not exist, the cold water welling up all along the coast. This was especially the case between the 22nd and 19th parallels of latitude, a tract of coast in which lie Tocopilla, Iquique, and Pisagua, and probably the coolest part of the sea-border at this season of the year.

During a fortnight spent at Ancon (11° 45ʹ S.), between January 27 and February 10, I paid considerable attention to the local climatic conditions, and especially to the temperature of the inshore water. The daily range of the air-temperature was only five or six degrees, the average minimum and maximum being 71° and 75·9°, and the mean for the period 73·5°. The mean temperature of the surface-water at the head of the pier, from observations taken at about 7 a.m. and 4 p.m., was 68·6°, or five degrees cooler than the air, the mean temperature in the morning being 69·1° and in the afternoon 68°.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE HUMBOLDT OR PERUVIAN CURRENT

(Made by H. B. Guppy, January to March, 1904. Those at Panama are added for the sake of comparison)

+--------------+----------+----------+--------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | Distance | | | | Depths in fathoms: temperature in Fahrenheit degrees. | | | Depth | from | | | +--------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | Locality. |(fathoms).| shore | S. lat.| Date. | Hour. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (miles). | | | |Surface.| 1.| 2.| 3.| 4.| 5.| 6.| 7.| 8.| 9.| 10.| 11.| 12.| 13.| 14.| 15.| 16.| 17.| 18.| 19.| 20.| 21.| 22.| +--------------+----------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------|----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Antofagasta | 22 | 2/3 | 23°40ʹ |{Jan. 12| 5 p.m. | 71° | 70°| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 61°| ...| ...| 57°| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56°| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | |{Jan. 13| 6 a.m. | 70 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 55 | ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Tocopilla | 18 | 1/2 | 22 0 | Jan. 14| 8 a.m. | 57 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 55 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Iquique | 9 | 2/3 | 20 15 | Jan. 15|5.30 a.m.| 59 | ...| ...| ...| ...| 58 | ...| ...| ...| 55 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Pisagua | 10 | 1/2 | 19 30 | Jan. 16| 8 a.m. | 57·5 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Arica | ... | 1/4 | 18 25 | Jan. 16| 7 p.m. | 66 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 57 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |{17 0 | Jan. 17| 8 a.m. | 61·5 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 57 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| |Mollendo | 22 | 1/3 |{17 0 | Jan. 17| 6 p.m. | 65 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 59 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | |{17 0 | Jan. 18|9.30 a.m.| 62 | ...| ...| ...| ...|57·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| 57 | ...| ...| ...| ...| 56 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 55 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Callao | 5 | 1 | 12 3 | Jan. 20| 6 a.m. | 60·5 | ...| ...| ...| ...|58·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Ancon | 17 | 1-3/4 | 11 45 | Jan. 29| 11 a.m. | 66 | ...| ...|6·15| ...|58·5| ...| ...| 57 | ...| 57 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|56·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Salaverri | 6 | 3/4 | 8 15 |Febr. 21|6.30 p.m.| 65 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 62 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Eten | 7 | 1/2 | 7 0 |Febr. 22| 6 a.m. | 66·5 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 63 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Payta | 16 | 1-1/2 | 5 0 |Febr. 23| 9 a.m. | 70 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|67·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|62·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Puerto Bolivar| 10 | 1 | 3 10 | Mar. 7| noon | 78 | ...| ...| ...| ...|71·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| 70 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Panama | 8 | 3 |{(8 50) | Mar. 23| 4 p.m. | 82 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|79·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| | | | |{( N.) | Mar. 24| 7 a.m. | 79·5 | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|79·5| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| +--------------+----------+----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

The Ancon climate at this period is full of oddities and abnormalities, and in this way typifies much of the coast of Peru. Thus, since the heat of the day is tempered by the cool south-westerly winds which die away in the evening and give place usually to warm, light, northerly and north-westerly breezes, there is, as above remarked, but a small difference between day and night temperatures. The coldest time of the twenty-four hours is not in the early morning but at sunset. The sea off the beach is, on the average, much cooler than the air, which is not a normal state of things; and again, the water is often two or three degrees colder in the evening than it is in the morning, which is very unusual. Though the sea-border is practically a desert for the greater part of the year and has no rain, it is frequently enveloped in drizzling fogs or “garuas.” Judged from a European standard, things go by contraries on the coast of Peru; and this is entirely the effect of the Humboldt Current.

The temperature of the inshore waters of Ancon Bay varied considerably during the twenty-four hours. During the day, with the prevailing southerly wind, the cool waters of the current had free access to the bay, and swept around its border in their course north; but in the night, when northerly breezes occurred, the cold waters of the current were pushed off the coast and their place taken by the warmer inshore waters from the north; and this sometimes continued for a day or two. When the current again got mastery and its clean, cool waters filled the bay, the temperature of the water dropped suddenly five or six degrees, and the bay was filled with fish. At such times men in boats leave the beach, and in a few minutes, with hand-nets and baskets, they obtain thousands of the small fry. Other men, fishing with lines from the pier-head, seem ill-contented unless they can catch fish of the size of small mackerel at the rate of one a minute.

There can be little doubt that on the coasts of Chile and Peru the instincts of fish often lead them astray, on account of the sudden changes of temperature arising from the conflict between the warmer waters of the open sea and the cooler waters of the current. From the preceding remarks it will be inferred that sometimes the current is pushed off the coast for a while and its place taken by the warm waters from the north. At other times it dives down, so to speak, and flows at a deeper level, and warmer waters prevail both out at sea and inshore. At other times again, and this must be most disconcerting to the fish, the cold current suddenly appearing at the coast predominates at the surface for days together, and we have stretches of coast which, although lying within tropical latitudes, are washed by waters having the temperature of the temperate zone. It is to such causes that we must attribute the reckless habits of fish on these coasts. They are known to throw themselves on the beaches in thousands, where by their decay they taint the air long afterwards. Mr. Anderson Smith in his recent book on _Temperate Chile_ vividly describes what goes on on such occasions at the port of Valdivia. At times the scene must be indeed a strange one, since huge octopi are rolled up on the beaches in numbers, and are regarded by the indigenes as deliberately seeking their death. Whether they commit suicide or not, “their beaks that blacken the edge of the sea-wash in places” afford a melancholy proof that their instinct has blundered.

_The Mode of Observation._—A thermometer made on the Sixe pattern which I used several years ago for taking the bottom-temperatures of rivers, was employed for the deeper temperatures, and at critical depths the observations were always repeated. This instrument was compared after each set of observations with an ordinary thermometer graduated on the stem, which was compared with my standard thermometer provided with a Kew certificate.... The observations in the Panama Roadstead have been added for the sake of contrast.

NOTE 75 (page 496)

ON THE STRANDED MASSIVE CORALS APPARENTLY OF THE GENUS PORITES FOUND ON THE COAST OF PERU AND NORTH CHILE, AT ARICA (18° 25ʹ S.), CALLAO (12° 3ʹ S.), AND ANCON (11° 45ʹ S.)

At Arica they occurred on the beach only. At Callao they also extended inland on the low spit at Punta for about 100 yards. At Ancon they were found not only on the beach but also twenty or thirty paces inland on the low adjoining plains. Their size varied from three inches to three feet. They were all more or less rounded by wave action, and were extensively burrowed by boring molluscs. Whilst some on the beach still displayed the dried-up soft parts of the boring mollusc, others inland were falling to pieces and undergoing chemical change. There was nothing to indicate that the corals were recently alive; and at Ancon they appeared to have been torn off a rocky spit of andesite that had become exposed on the beach during a recent movement of emergence, of which there is other evidence on this coast. Further particulars are given on page 496.

NOTE 76 (page 429)

STRANDED PUMICE ON ENGLISH AND SCANDINAVIAN BEACHES

Sernander, in his description of the Atlantic drift of the Scandinavian coast, refers to the occurrence of a small amount of true pumice. I have found solitary fragments of acid pumice well rounded by wave-action at Croyde Bay on the north coast of Devonshire, at the mouth of Salcombe Harbour on the south coast of the same county, and at Maenporth, near Falmouth, in Cornwall. Steamer slag, in some cases rudely simulating pumice, is common on all the South of England beaches I have examined. It is also common on the Scandinavian coasts, though seemingly regarded by Helge Bäckström, who is quoted by Sernander, as derived from the factories on the east coast of England. (See on these subjects a paper by Helge Bäckström, “Über angeschwemmte Bimsteine und Schlacken der nordeuropäischen Küsten”; Bihang till _K. Sv. V. A. Handl._ Bd. 16. Afd. 3, 1890; also a letter in _Nature_, about 1886, by H. B. Guppy.)

NOTE 77 (page 21)

ON THE MODE OF DISPERSAL OF KLEINHOVIA HOSPITA

This small tree has a very wide distribution in the tropics, ranging from East Africa and the Mascarene Islands through India, South-eastern Asia, Malaya, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands to Fiji and Tahiti. It is a plant that grows in inland open woods as well as amongst the littoral trees on the beach; and it is always doubtful (in Malaya, Fiji, and Samoa) whether to regard it as a shore plant or as an inland plant, different authors varying on this point. In Vanua Levu I formed the opinion that it is only an intruder amongst the littoral vegetation. In accounting for its distribution we have to choose between man, the bird, and the current. Though it may sometimes be noticed in native plantations, as I observed in the Solomon Islands, the tree has no special use; and the Solomon Island natives themselves indicated to me that the parrots that fed on the fruits of the tree aided in distributing the plant. The buoyant behaviour of the seeds, which are freed by the dehiscence of the bladder-capsules on the tree, is not constant. Whilst in the case of the seeds of littoral trees in Fiji I found that 30 per cent. floated after ten weeks, Prof. Schimper ascertained in the case (seemingly) of Malayan seeds that they sank at once. The seed-structure connected with the buoyancy is, as shown on page 105, accidental in character, and reference is made on page 20 to other plants of doubtful littoral reputation, in which the buoyant qualities are variable. The occasional buoyancy of its seeds will only, as I think, explain its occasional station at the coast; and I agree with Prof. Schimper (p. 156) when he attributes its wide distribution to birds, the seeds being hard, crustaceous, and about three millimetres across.

NOTE 78 (page 436)

ON THE “SEA”: AN UNIDENTIFIED WILD FRUIT-TREE IN FIJI

This is a fair-sized forest tree common in places in the lower forests. I have never been able to identify it; but a “putamen” which was sent to the Kew Museum was named Spondias with a query. It is to be hoped its true botanical name will be discovered by one of my successors. Seemann places it amongst the “desiderata” concerning which further information is needed. The fruit is a drupe 2 to 2-1/2 inches long possessing a pleasant fruity odour and inclosing a hard two-celled stone about 1-2/3 inch long, one cell containing a large fleshy seed covered with tawny hair, the other filled with the hair only and containing no seed. The Fijians say that these fruits, large as they are, are swallowed by the fruit-pigeons, the stones being found in their gullet. The leaves are distichous, alternate, lanceolate, eight or nine inches long, glabrous and dark green above, and covered below with a whitish woolly matted tomentum. The empty stones are not uncommon in the stranded beach-drift.

NOTE 79 (page 395)

ON WILLOW-LEAVED RIVER-SIDE PLANTS

A number of observers, beginning with Humboldt, in his _Ansichten der Nature_, and including Seemann, L. H. Grindon, Ridley, Beccari, and others, have referred to what is called “stenophyllism” in plants. These willow-leaved river-side plants are found all over the globe, such plants usually growing close to the water’s edge in situations where they are liable to be more or less submerged when the river is in flood. Seemann, Beccari, and Ridley mention more than two dozen genera belonging to a great variety of orders, and including Acalypha, Antidesma, Calophyllum, Eulalia, Eugenia, Fagræa, Ficus, Garcinia, Ixora, Lindenia, Melastoma, Podocarpus, Psychotria, &c., all tropical, and represented either in Fiji, Borneo, or in the Malay Peninsula; whilst my readers will recall amongst temperate floras river-side plants of the genera Epilobium, Lythrum, Salix, &c., possessing the same form of leaf and the same station. The genus Eugenia comes under this category in Fiji, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula, with reference to one or more of the species. In Fiji, species belonging to the genera Lindenia and Dolicholobium especially attracted my attention in this respect. It is noteworthy that several of the Bornean plants and some of the Fijian plants here concerned are endemic. Just as I have remarked in the question of the buoyancy of seeds and fruits, that not all water-side plants have buoyant seeds or fruits, but that nearly all plants thus endowed are found at the water-side, so we may say of the willow-leaved plants, that not all river-side plants have the willow-form of leaf, but that plants thus characterised gather at the river-side. Beccari and Ridley regard this willow-form of leaf as the result of adaptation. Seemann remarks that we have here the old question whether the webbed feet of a duck are the cause or the effect of the bird’s swimming; and I take the same position. (See Seemann’s _Flora Vitiensis_; Ridley in _Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot._, vol. iii. 1888-94; and Beccari’s _Nelle Foreste di Borneo_, 1902, or the English edition of 1904.)

NOTE 80 (pages 255, 504)

MR. PERKINS ON THE HAWAIIAN LOBELIACEÆ (_Fauna hawaiiensis_, vol. I.)

My view, that the early Hawaiian Lobeliaceæ acquired the monstrous form of their flowers in the humid forests of a later age, is supported by the observations of Mr. Perkins on the connection between the highly-specialised nectar-eating Drepanids of Hawaii and the highly-specialised flowers of the Tree-Lobelias, a subject further discussed in Chapter XXXIII. This naturalist ascertained, in the case of one of the trees, that fertilisation could only be effected by these birds. So close is the biological connection between the Drepanid and the Tree-Lobelia, that Mr. Perkins finds here in part the cause of the development of the most remarkable forms of the birds. The botanist, also, would not dissociate the plants from this conclusion. There would be every reason to look for abnormal growth in birds and plants when the bird depends on the flower for its food, and the flower is dependent on the bird for its pollenisation. It is through such guises that the zoologist and the botanist have to penetrate when establishing the systematic affinity.

NOTE 81

ON THE VERTICAL RANGE OF SOME OF THE MOST TYPICAL AND MOST CONSPICUOUS OF THE PLANTS IN THE FORESTS ON THE HAMAKUA SLOPES OF MAUNA KEA, HAWAII

During a descent of this mountain on its north side to near Ookala, the conditions were unusually favourable for recording the range of altitude for some of the plants easily recognisable.

Acacia koa began at 6,700 feet, and extended down to 2,300 feet.

Rubus (“akala”) began at 6,500 feet, and extended down to 2,500 feet.

Cheirodendron (“olapa”) began at 6,400 feet, and extended down to 2,200 feet.

Cyanea, a lobeliad growing on trunks of tree-ferns, began at 4,000 feet, and extended down to 2,300 feet.

Freycinetia began at 3,850 feet, and extended down to 2,000 feet.

Asplenium nidus began at 2,800 feet, and extended down to 2,200 feet.

Aleurites moluccana began at 1,800 feet, and extended down to 50 feet.

Metrosideros polymorpha, ranging through all the zones.

NOTE 82 (page 416)

ABORIGINAL WEEDS[7]

(Found by Captain Cook’s Botanists, Banks, Solander, the Forsters, Nelson, &c., in the Pacific Islands, 1768-80)

+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | Locality given by Cook’s | General distribution. | | | botanists. | | +-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+ |Cardamine sarmentosa | Tahiti | Polynesia. Introduced into Peru.| |Sida microphylla | Tonga, New Hebrides | Old World tropics. | |Sida rhombifolia | New Hebrides. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Urena lobata | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Waltheria americana |{ Tahiti. H. |} Tropics of Old and New World. | | |{ New Caledonia |} | |Oxalis corniculata | Tahiti | Old and New World. | |Cardiospermum halicacabum | Tahiti. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Desmodium polycarpum | Tahiti | Old World. | |Phaseolus truxillensis | Tahiti. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Lablab vulgaris | Tahiti | Old World tropics. | |Abrus precatorius | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Cassia sophora | Tonga | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Hydrocotyle asiatica | New Caledonia | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Oldenlandia tenuifolia | New Hebrides | Old World? | |Oldenlandia paniculata | Tonga | Old World tropics. | |Geophila reniformis | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Ageratum conyzoides | New Hebrides. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Adenostemma viscosum | Tahiti. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Eclipta alba | New Hebrides | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Siegesbeckia orientalis | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Bidens pilosa | Tonga | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Dichrocephala latifolia | Tahiti, Tonga, New Hebrides | Old World tropics. | |Sonchus asper | Tonga, New Zealand | Old World. | |Ipomœa insularis | New Hebrides, Tonga, Hawaii | Australia and Polynesia. | |Ipomœa bona-nox | New Hebrides, Tonga, Tahiti. H.| Tropics of Old and New World. | |Solanum nigrum, var. oleraceum.| Tahiti. H. | Old and New World. | |Physalis angulata | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Vandellia crustacea | Tahiti | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Leucas decemdentata | Tahiti | Old World tropics. | |Teucrium inflatum | Tonga | New World tropics. | |Amarantus melancholicus, var. | | | | tricolor | New Hebrides, Tahiti | Old World. | |Euxolus caudatus | Tonga, Tahiti | Old World tropics. | |Achyranthes aspera | Tahiti | Old and New World. | |Cyathula prostrata | Tahiti | Old World tropics. | |Fleurya interrupta | Tahiti, Tonga | Old World tropics. | |Commelina pacifica | Tonga, New Caledonia. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | |Eleusine indica | Tahiti. H. | Tropics of Old and New World. | | +-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+ Footnote 7:

Seemann is the principal authority, the results of his examination of the old collections being given in his _Flora Vitiensis_. Species regarded by Hillebrand as indigenous in Hawaii or as existing in that group at the time of its discovery by Cook are indicated by H in the second column.

NOTES 83-89 omitted

NOTE 90 (page 29)

ON THE BUOYANCY OF THE SEEDS OF EUPHORBIA AMYGDALOIDES AND E. SEGETALIS

The seeds of both species have no proper buoyancy, and display no structure in their testas suggesting it; though, through the shrinking of the nucleus, a temporary floating power may be acquired with less mature or imperfect seeds. They support the general principle indicated for the British species on page 29.

NOTE 91

MR. E. KAY ROBINSON ON THE DISPERSAL OF ASTER TRIPOLIUM

According to this naturalist, the seeds of this plant are eaten in winter by snow-buntings on the English east coast. In reply to my query he tells me that the “draggled fluff still containing seeds” might easily adhere to birds (_The Country-Side_, Sept. 30, 1905).

GENERAL INDEX

_Note._—Several subjects are worked up in this index, which, on account of the plan of the book, are not dealt with connectedly in the text. As examples may be cited the entries under the heads of “Hawaiian Flora”; “Species, their development”; “Fruit-pigeons”; “Polymorphous Species”; &c.

The figures in larger type indicate the pages where the subject is treated at length or where the most important points are discussed. This sign is not often used where the references can be classed, or where several references of importance belong to the same subject.

Abrus precatorius, 531, 605

Acacia farnesiana, 478, 552, 555, 556, =557=, =559=

Acacia heterophylla, 200

Acacia koa, 151, =200=, 533, 604

Acacia laurifolia, 45, 133, 134, =164=, 166, 200, 529, 551

Acacia richii, 531, 549

Acæna exigua, 253, 275; genus, 270-2, =275=, =276=

Acalypha, 395, 603

Acer campestre, 536

Achillea millefolium, 536

Achras, 373

Achyranthes aspera, 605

Acorus; home of the genus, 396

Acrostichum squamosum, 593

Adaptation in relation to means of dispersal, 11, =99-103=, 105, =119-129=, 324, 516, 522

Adenanthera pavonina, 159, 420

Adenostemma viscosum, 240, 417, 568, 605

Ægiceras, 470-1

Æthusa cynapium, 28, 536

Afzelia bijuga, 21, =93=, 107, =170-6=, 436, 529, 563

Agapetes, 265

Agathis: _see_ Dammara

Ageratum conyzoides, 417, 531, 605

Aglaia, 376

Agrostemma, 471

Agrostis, 272, 275, 538

Aira cæspitosa, 417, 418

Ajuga reptans, 28, 537

Alchemilla arvensis, 418, 536

Alchemilla vulgaris, 417

Aleurites moluccana, 59, 61, 361, =418=, 435, 438, 533, 549, 554, 558-9, 560, 604

Alexander, Prof., 587

Algaroba, 485, 557

Algerian beach-flora, 34

Alisma natans, 537

Alisma plantago, 38, 92, 537

Alisma ranunculoides, 537

Alliaria officinalis, 536

Alnus glutinosa, 31, 37, 430, 537

Alphitonia, 333, =346=, 357, 531

Alpine floras, 4, 34, 238; _see_ under Mountain floras

Alpinia, 531

Alopecurus, 538

Alsinidendron, 262-3

Alstonia, 381, =384=, 548

Alyssum maritimum, 536

Alyxia, 334, =344=, 531, 533

Amarantus melancholicus, 605

Amarouria, 265

America, as the home of tropical shore-plants, 67-75; _see_ under Hawaiian flora and under Tahitian flora for the American plants in those islands

Amorphophallus, 412, 414

Anagallis arvensis, 537

Ancon (Peru), 482, 497; climate, 492, 598

Angelica sylvestris, 28, 536

Aniseia uniflora, 530, 563

Anona paludosa, 68, 77, 109, 115, 435, 438, 486, 488-9, 498

Antarctic flora, represented in the Pacific islands, 271-3, 287, 292, 294, 305, 503-4, 518

Anthyllis vulneraria, 536

Antidesma, 371-2, 603

Antofagasta (Chile), beach-drift, 480

Apetahia, 252, 256-7

Apium graveolens, 28, 536

Apium inundatum, 28, 536

Apium nodiflorum, 28, 37, 536

Arabis albida, 568

Arabis hirsuta, 536, 568

Arabis thaliana, 536, 567

Arachis hypogæa, 479

Araliaceæ, 261-3

Araucaria, 298

Arcangeli, Prof., on the Italian species of Medicago, 431

Arenaria peploides, 35, 36, 107, =116=, 429-32, 536, =541=, 544

Argemone mexicana, 533

Argyreia tiliæfolia, 20, 106, 110, 533-4, 558

Argyroxiphium, 236-8, 240, 243-4

Arica (Chile), 481-2, 497

Armeria vulgaris, 33, 34, 36, 511, 537, =540=

Armeria maritima, 477

Artemisia, 238, 240, 269, 272, =278-9=, 540

Artemisia absinthium, 279, 536, 540

Artemisia maritima, 33

Artemisia tridentata, 279

Artemisia vulgaris, 279, 536, 540

Artocarpus incisa, 531

Artocarpus integrifolia, 531

Arum maculatum, 537

Arundel, Mr., 49, 179

Arundo phragmites, 538

Asparagus, 538

Aspidium aculeatum, 226

Aspidium caryotideum, 593

Aspidium filix mas, 225, 593

Asplenium adiantum nigrum, 225, 593

Asplenium aspidioides, 593

Asplenium contiguum, 593

Asplenium fragile, 593

Asplenium monanthemum, 593

Asplenium nidus, 554, 604

Asplenium trichomanes, 225, 593

Astelia, 270-2, 274, 290, =291=, 292-4, 305

Aster tripolium, 28, 34-6, 89, 536, 540, 545, 581, 605

Astrocaryum, 499

Astronia, 376

Atlas, Great; flora, 238, 277

Atriplex patula, 537, 544; genus, 284, 416, 546

Avicennia, 68, 69, 77, 78, 438, 484-5, 489, 498

Azolla, 488

Azores, 505

Bäckström, Helge, 601

Baillon, on the Lobeliaceæ, 251

Baker, Mr., on Fijian ferns, 224, 592

Bakeria, 265

Ball, Mr., 238, 476

Ballota nigra, 28, 537

Bananas: _see_ Musa

Banyans, 387

Barbarea vulgaris, 536

Bark, in beach-drift, 430

Barratt, Mr., 215

Barringtonia formation, 550

Barringtonia, genus; buoyancy and structure of fruits, 17, 18, 121, 160; mode of dispersal, 161; seed-structure and vivipary, 132, 168, 573; relation between coast and inland species, 134, 166

Barringtonia edulis, 19, 161, 531, 573

Barringtonia excelsa, 19, 108, 574

Barringtonia racemosa, buoyancy of fruits, 18, 161, 529; structure of seeds and fruits, 108, 161, 564, 573-6; fruits in drift, 76, 78, 435; station, 43, 47, 551; distribution and dispersal, 68, 160, 551, 563

Barringtonia samoensis, 19

Barringtonia speciosa, buoyancy of fruits, 18, 161, 529; structure of seeds and fruits, 108, 114, 161, 573-6; fruits in drift, 76, 78, 79, 435-7; station, 43, 551; distribution and dispersal, 49, 56, 57, 64, 68, 160, 563

Barringtonia, undescribed species; in Fiji, 19, 161, 531, 574; in Solomon group, 161

Barrows, Prof., 373

Bartsia odontites, 537

Bassia, 374

Batatas edulis, 415; _see_ under Ipomœa batatas

Batis maritima, 482, 485, =546=, 557

Bats, as dispersing agents, 321, 343, 394, 510, 514

Battandier, M., 34

Bauhinia, 531

Beach flora: _see_ Littoral plants

Beach formation, 43, 550

Beach seed-drift, 31, =429=, 479, 480, 482, 489, 499, =557=

Beach temperature, 477, 480, 481, =595=

Beal, Prof., 568

Beccari, Dr., on the dispersal of Brackenridgea, 124, 569; on the Cassowary as a seed-distributor, 152; on Ficus, 388, 504; on the retrocession of cultivated plants, 161; on Sararanga, 156; on willow-leaved plants, 603

Beech-nuts in drift, 429

Begonia, 394, 509

Begoniaceæ, 263, 394

Bell, Mr. Jeffrey, on Peruvian corals, 497

Bentham, Mr., 2, 423; on the Compositæ, 236, 245, 248

Berberis vulgaris, 535

Berkeley, Mr., 539

Bermuda, 348, 351

Bernicla sandwicensis, 241, 275, 283

Berrya, 379

Beta maritima, 35, 537, 542

Betula alba, 537

Bidens, 379

Bidens cernua, 28, 31, 536, 540, 544

Bidens pilosa, 379, 533, 605

Bidens tripartita, 28, 536, 544

Bird, Miss, 584, 587

Birds, differentiation of, 5-8, 504-6, 514, 520-2; crossing oceans, 506; migrations, 505-6; Polynesian, 67; at high altitudes, 241; biologically connected with plants, 504; as seed-dispersers, 5, 205, 226, 241, 296, 321; _see_ under Fruit-pigeons, Ducks, Geese, Sea-birds, Tetraonidæ, &c.

Bischoffia, 381, =386=, 531

Blysmus rufus, 537

Bobea, 262-3

Boehmeria, 263, 356

Boerhaavia, =355=, 552, 568

Bonin Islands, 54, 320

Boobies (Sula), as seed-dispersers, 188, 347, 356, 511

Borago officinalis, 537

Bourbon Island: _see_ Mascarene Islands

Bourne, Mr., 172

Brackenridgea, 113, 124, 569

Brandis, Dr., on the dispersal of Santalum album, 283

Brassica, 536

Breadfruit (Artocarpus), 412, 415, 531

Breweria, 362-3

Brighamia, 252, 255, 258

British flora, 23, 31, 115, 432, 535, 539-44

Brown, Dr. R., on seed-dispersal by sea-birds, 510

Brown, Mr. R., on a drift seed of Cæsalpinia, 189

Broussaisia, 263

Bruguiera, 43, 441, 551; dispersal by currents, 48, 55, 77, 94, =461-2=, 467, 529; distribution, 54, 68, 69, =461=, 563; in beach-drift, 435, 437, 461; seed-development and germination, =463-6=, 468-71; fertilisation, =462=

Bryonia dioica, 536

Buller, Sir W., on the fruits and seeds eaten by New Zealand birds, 292, 296, 301, 321, 337, 347, 508, 541

Buoyancy of seeds and fruits, of Pacific plants, 12-22, 104-15; of Fijian plants, 44-6, 529, 531-3; of Hawaiian plants, 57, 533, 552; of Tahitian plants, 49; of British plants, 23-39, 115, 535-8, 539-44, 566; its relation to sea-density, 88-98, 516; structures concerned, 17, 104-18; the question of adaptation, 119-29, 516, 569; effect of inland extension, 121, 568; the great sorting process, 16, 24, 30, 515; long flotation experiments, 530, 539; tables showing results of experiments, 529-38, 552; effect of drying, 535, 538, 539-44, 571-2; precautions in testing buoyancy, 566; the risks of the floating seed in warm seas, 79-87

Burkill, Mr., on the Tongan flora, 224, 232, 335, 385

Butomus umbellatus, 537

Butterflies at high altitudes, 509, 583

Buttneria, 379

Button, Mr., 172

Byronia, 371

Cacao, 489

Cacti, 471, 485, 560

Cæsalpinia, general account of Pacific species, 183-97

Cæsalpinia bonduc, buoyancy of seeds, 21, 192-5, 529; structures concerned with seed-buoyancy, 106, 191-2; dispersal by currents, 189; distribution, 186, 563; station and extension inland, 49, 186-7

Cæsalpinia bonducella, buoyancy of seeds, 21, 192-5, 529, 530-1, 552; structures concerned with seed-buoyancy, 106, 111, 191-2; dispersal by currents, 57, 189, 430, 562, 563; in beach-drift, 189, 430, 437-8, 558; dispersal by birds, 57, 188, 511, 581; station and extension inland, 42, 59, 186-8, 551, 552-4, 559; germination, 191; distribution, 68, 186, 563; suggested relation to C. bonduc, 573

Cæsalpinia nuga, 183

Cæsalpinia, undescribed mountain species of Fiji, 184-5

Cakile maritima, 30, 35, 36, 109, =116=, 429-31, =432-3=, 536, 539, =542=, 544

Calamintha officinalis, 28, 537

Californian current, 491

Calla palustris, 537, 544

Callao, 482, 492, 496-7, 599, 601

Callitriche, 38, 537

Calonyction: _see_ Ipomœa

Calophyllum; relation between coast and inland species, 17, 18, 120, 134, 136, 533

Calophyllum amœnum, 534

Calophyllum burmanni, 18, 136, 531

Calophyllum calaba, 534

Calophyllum inophyllum; buoyancy of fruits, 18, 529, 534, 552; structures concerned in buoyancy, 107, 113, 115, 122; fruits in beach-drift, 437, 558; station, 42, 43, 49, 52, 550, 554; its relation to inland species, 136

Calophyllum spectabile, 18, 136, 389, 531

Caltha palustris, 85, 535

Camelina sativa, 567

Campylotheca, 236-8, 240, 243-4, 533

Cananga odorata, 159, =393=, 531

Canarium, =400=, 532

Canavalia, 107, 201-2; Pacific species, =145=, 578; relation between the littoral and inland species, 20, 134, 145

Canavalia ensiformis, 145, 529, 563, 578-9, 581 (turgida)

Canavalia galeata, 20, =145-6=, 533

Canavalia sericea, 107, 145, 529, 563, =578-9=

Canavalia obtusifolia; seed-buoyancy and dispersal by currents, 19, 83, 145, 529, 562, =579=; cause of buoyancy, 107, 113; in beach-drift, 437-8, 489; station and distribution, 42, 43, 488, 498, 547, 550, 563, =578=

Candolle, A. de, 25, 62, 80, 239, 418, 562, 573

Candolle, C. de, 376

Canna indica, 532

Canthiopsis, 265

Canthium, 355

Cape-pigeon (Daption capensis), 511

Capercailzie, 282

Capparis sandwicensis (sandwichiana), 533, 553

Capsella bursa pastoris, 536, 567

Carapa, seed-buoyancy, 108, 114, 529; beach and river drift, 76, 435, 437; germination, 76, 78, 564; station, 43, 550-1; distribution, 68-9, 562

Cardamine hirsuta, 536

Cardamine pratensis, 536

Cardamine sarmentosa, 604

Cardiospermum halicacabum, 417, 605; _see_ Additions and Corrections

Carduus, 28, 536

Carex, 37, 272, 283, 538, 540, 544

Careya, 575

Carmichael, Captain, on Tristan da Cunha, 276, 286

Carpenter, Captain, 490

Carruthersia, 265

Caryophyllaceæ; represented in the early flora of Hawaii, 261-3, 518

Caspary, R., on the dispersal of water-lilies, 512

Cassia gaudichaudii, 533

Cassia occidentalis, 533

Cassia sophora, 605

Cassowaries as seed-dispersers, 152, 160

Cassytha filiformis; fruit-buoyancy and dispersal by currents, 56, 57, 71, 106, 111, 121-2, 530, 552, 563, 569; dispersal by birds, 71, 123, 564; station and distribution, 56, 59, 67, 122, 551-2, 563; extension inland, 42, 49, 59, 121, 547, 548, 559, 569

Castillo (Drake del), on the Tahitian flora, 46, 49, 221, 231, 254, 285, 318, 347, 504, 551

Casuarina, 134, 136, 479

Casuarina equisetifolia, 42, 45, 136, 530, 548-9

Casuarina nodiflora, 136, 549

Cattle Plains of Hawaii, 208

Centranthus ruber, 536

Centropogon, 251, 259

Cerastium vulgatum, 536

Ceratophyllum, 38, =398-9=, 408, 537

Cerbera odollam, distribution, 64, 563; station, 551; extension inland, 41, 42, 49, 121, =547=, 548, 569; fruit-buoyancy and dispersal by currents, 76, 108, 114, 121, 530; in river and beach drift, 76, 435, 437

Chærophyllum sylvestre, 28, 536

Chagres River, 498

Chamisso, 367

Chancay coast (Peru), 482

Charpentiera, 263

Cheeseman, Mr., on the flora of Rarotonga, 50, 177, 208, 216, 232, 238, 256, 291, 293, 295; on Kermadec plants, 295, 420, 572; on Polynesian food-plants, 415, 420

Cheirodendron, 262, 263, 281, 343, 364, 533, =594=, 604

Chelidonium majus, 535

Chenopodium, 272, 283, 284, 537

Cherry (Cerasus) stones in beach-drift, 429, 431, 479

Chestnuts in beach-drift, 429

Chile; the coast plants and beach-drift, 431, 474-80, 596; the coast climate, 491-3, 598-601

Chloridops kona, 275

Christmas Island, 422

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, 536, 568

Chrysanthemum segetum, 536

Chrysodium aureum, 48, 486, 498

Chrysophyllum, 362

Chrysosplenium, 536

Cicuta virosa, 28, 536

Citrus aurantium, 125, 532

Citrus decumana, 125, 126, 532, 533

Citrus, other species, 125, 436, 532

Cladium mariscus, 537

Clarke, Mr. C. B., on Cyrtandra, 316

Cleome, 362

Clermontia, 252-6, 258-9, 533

Clerodendron, 17, 121

Clerodendron inerme, 47, 76, 108, 114, 435, 530, 551, 563

Climate and currents, 491-5, 500, 597-601

Clouds, altitude of, on mountains; on the Owen Stanley Range, 215; observations on the summit of Mauna Loa, 584; on the Chilian and Peruvian sea-borders, 492, 494

Coast and inland species of a genus, relation of, 16, 27, 133-169

Cocculus, 362

Cochlearia officinalis, 33, 536, 540

Coco-de-mer, 61

Coco-nut palm (Cocos nucifera), 67, 108, 413, 530, 552, 553-4, 563; effective dispersal by currents, 436; viviparous, 472

Coix lachryma, 532

Collomia, 568

Colobanthus, 263

Colocasia antiquorum, 412

Colon; shore-plants, 498

Colubrina, 134, =137=

Colubrina asiatica; station and distribution, 137, 552, 556, 562-4; inland extension, 49, 547; seed-buoyancy and dispersal by currents, 56, 57, 105, =137=, 529; river and beach drift, 436, 559

Colubrina oppositifolia, 137, 533-4, 576

Columbæ, extinct; of the Mascarene Islands, 152, 157, 159, 169, 200, 517

Comins, Rev. R. B., 379

Commelina nudiflora (syn. pacifica), 533, 605

Commersonia echinata (syn. platyphylla), 532, 548

Commersonia, 376, 380

Compositæ, age of, 9, 231-49, 304, 306, 503, 514, 517-20; endemic Hawaiian and Tahitian genera, 236, 248; arborescent, 235-49; dispersal by birds, 241, 593, 605; fruit-buoyancy of British species, 536

Coniferæ, age of, 303-6, 502-3, 514, 519-20; Fijian, 294, 297-306; New Zealand, 507-9, 514

Conocarpus erectus, 68, 108, 438, 498

Convolvulaceæ, seed-buoyancy, 28, 110, 117, 544; abortive germination of floating seeds, 76, 79, 83, 85, 87

Convolvulus arvensis, 28, 110, 537, 544

Convolvulus sepium; station, 29; distribution, 417-8, 573; seeding in England, 539; buoyancy of seeds, 26, 29, 106, 110, 537, 539, 544; suggested dimorphism, 573

Convolvulus soldanella; seed-buoyancy, 26, 28, 35, 36, 83, 91, 106, 110, 115, 537, 542, 566; non-germination in sea-water, 35, 544, 546; seeds in beach-drift, 31, 429-31; dispersal by currents, 432-3; distribution, 131, 433, 476-9, 542, 572; suggested dimorphism, 573

Convolvulus tricolor; germination in sea-water, 546

Conway, Sir Martin, 241

Coprosma, 270-2, 274-5, 290-3, =294-6=, 305, 315, 321, 331, 533

Corals on the coasts of Chile and Peru, 496-7, 601

Cordia, 17, 121, 134, 137, 485, 488

Cordia aspera, 137

Cordia subcordata; station and distribution, 52, 551-2, 555, 563; fruit-buoyancy, 79, 108, 114, 530-1; sea and beach-drift, 79, 437; becoming extinct in Hawaii, 578

Cordyline, 420, 532

Coreopsis, 237

Coriaria, 270, 290, =291-2=, 305

Corks in beach-drift, 479

Corral (Chile), 478

Corvus tropicus, 321

Corylus avellana, 126, 429 (hazel), 431 (hazel), 537, 538, 572

Corynocarpus, 508

Cotula plumosa, 241

Cotyledon umbilicus, 417-8, 536

Couthovia, 265-6, =401=, 532

Crambe maritima, 35, 536, 542, 581

Cratægus oxyacantha, 536

Cratæva religiosa, 379

Crepis, 536

Crinum asiaticum, 530

Crithmum maritimum, 28, 35, 109, 116, 429, 433, 536, =542=, 544

Crocodile, in Fiji, 65

Crosby, Mr., 550

Croton, vivipary, 472

Cucumis acidus, 532

Cucurbita, 125, 479, 532

Cupania, 532

Curcuma longa, 548

Curlews, as seed-dispersers, 355, 356

Currents, as seed-dispersers, 4, 12, 44, 49, 57, 58, 61-75, 79-84, 179, 557, 562, 571; Gulf-stream, 4, 80, 180, 189, 430, 570, 581; currents reaching Hawaii, 58, 72-5, 557-9; Humboldt or Peruvian current, 480, 483, 490-5, 500, 597-601; _see_ under Climate and currents

Cuscuta, 58, =366=, 537, 552, 553, 555, 559, =595=

Cyanea, 252, 254-5, 258, 604

Cyathodes, 272, =282=, 284, 285, 290-1, =292=, 305, 533, 553-4

Cyathula prostrata, 605

Cycas circinalis, 42, 109, 115, 328, 413, 530, 547, 548-9, 563

Cynometra, 108, 529, 563

Cyperaceæ, dispersal by ducks, 513; by purple water-hens, 296

Cyrtandra, 308-9, =316=, 331, 405, 520

Cyrtosperma, 413

Cytisus scoparius, 536

Dacrydium, 294, 297-8, =302=, 305-6

Dalbergia monosperma, 106, 435, 529, 551, 563

Damasonium stellatum, 537

Dammara, 294, =298=, 303-6, 532

Daption capensis (Cape-pigeon), 511

Darwin, Mr., 24, 150, 177, 347, 497, 509, 538, 539, 542, 544, 546, 568

Datura stramonium, 537

Davis, Prof., 491

Davis, Rev. S. H., 213

Dead Sea, density of, 89

Death and Evolution, 11, 523

Delissea, 252, 254-5, 258

Density of sea-water and seed-buoyancy, 88, 566

Derris uliginosa; distribution, 68, 552, 563; station, 44, 551; inland extension, 42, 547; fruit-buoyancy, 106, 111, 529, 552; river-drift, 76, 435; beach-drift, 437

Deschampsia, 272, 275

Desmodium umbellatum, 106, 529

Desmodium polycarpum, 605

Deterioration of capacity for dispersal, 262-3, 337, 350, 365, 507, 594-5

Deyeuxia, 272, 284-5

Dianella, =356=, 533

Dichrocephala latifolia, 605

Dickson, Mr., 493

Didunculus, 159, 393

Didymocarpus, 318

Differentiation of birds and plants, 505-7, 514, 520, 521-2; of climate, 470, 473, 507, 521-2

Dimorphism, suggested, in Rhizophora, 449, 465, 521; in Cæsalpinia, 573; in Convolvulus sepium and C. soldanella, 573

Dioclea, 82, 107, 113, 436, 529, 531, 563

Dioscorea, 412-4, 532

Dispersal, agencies of, 5, 61, 502; suspension, causes of, 5-9, 242-3, 365, =504=, 514, 521-2; _see_ under Adaptation, Birds, Currents, Deterioration &c.

Dixon, Mr. C., on differentiation of birds, 505-6; on seeds in petrels, 581

Döderlein, 54

Dodo, 8, 159, 522

Dodonæa, 67, 71, 106, 333, =338=, 357, 529, 548, 554, 563

Dole, Mr., 241, 557

Dolicholobium, =394=, 603

Douglas, Mr. D., 278, 282, 586

Dove: _see_ Pigeon

Draba verna, 536

Dracæna aurea, =367=, 533

Dracæna, vivipary in, 471

Dracocephalum, 568

Dracontomelon, =399=, 532

Dragon-flies, dispersed by winds, 510

Drepanididæ, 259, 343, 348, 504-5, 603

Drepanocarpus, 562

Drift: _see_ Beach seed-drift, River seed-drift

Drift-timber, 58, 72, 557

Drosera, 4, 253, 270, 272, 285-8, 536

Druce, Mr., on Sea-thrifts, 34

Drupe, rubiaceous, its first appearance in the Pacific, 262

Drying-winds, 491-4

Drymispermum, 45, 133, 134, =164=, 166, 530

Dryobalanops, vivipary in, 471

Dubautia, 236-8, 240, 243-4

Ducie Island, 49, 64

Ducks, as dispersers of seeds, 241, 277, 356, =369=, =370=, 375, 399, 506, =512-3=, 514, 541

Dusolier, M., 506

Dwarfing of shore-plants growing inland, 547

Dysoxylum, 376

Easter Island, 64

Ecastaphyllum, 562

Eclipta alba, 533, 534, 605

Ecuador, climate of sea-border, 476, 483, 489-91, 493-6, 500, 597; influence of the Humboldt or Peruvian current, 490-1, 493-5, 500, 599; mangroves, 3, 77, 445, 448, 474-6, 483-90, 521, 597; beach-drift and beach-plants, 180, 488-9; temperature of the Guayaquil estuary, 77, 78, 565; drift of the Guayaquil River, 91, 435, 488-9; Santa Rosa River, 486; Machala plains, 485, 495; Santa Elena coast, 483, 490, 494, 597

Eeka, mountain in Maui, 208, 214, 253

Eggers, Baron von, on the climate and mangroves of Ecuador, 449, 450, 476, 483-4, 487, 490, 493-5, 597

Ekstam, O., on seed-dispersal in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, 242, 277, 282, 434, =511=, =512=

Elæocarpus, =334=, 357-8, 389, 391, 401, 507-9, 532

Elatine hydropiper, 536

Elatostema, 317, 383, 391, =405=

Electrical state of the atmosphere, 582, 588

Eleusine indica, 605

Elizabeth Island, 64

Embelia, 362-4, 409, 520

Empetrum nigrum, 511

Endemic genera and species, tables of, 232, 233, 244, 252, 255, 263, 265; _see_ under Fiji, Hawaii, Tahiti

Endemism: _see_ under Species

English beach-drift, 429-33; _see_ Beach seed-drift

Entada scandens, =176=; station, 44, 48, 50, =177=, 182; distribution, 68, =177-9=, 182, 200, 499, 500, 551, 563; dispersed by currents, =179-80=, 182; seed-buoyancy, 82, 94, 106, 111, =181-3=, 529, 531; river and beach drift, =180=, 430, 435, 437-8, 488-9, 499

Epilobium, 471, 536, 603

Epiphytic plants, 281 (Vaccinium); 291 (Weinmannia); 343 (Myoporum and Vaccinium); 383 (Loranthus); 402 (Myrmecodia)

Eranthemum, 532

Eriophorum, 537

Erodium maritimum, 33

Eryngium maritimum, 28, 35, 536, 539, =543=, 544, 581

Erythrina; general discussion of the genus, =577=; relation between coast and inland species, 19, 134, =141=; seed-buoyancy, 107; seeds in river and beach drift, 435, 437-8, 489

Erythrina indica, 19, 107, =141-4=, 529, 562, =577=

Erythrina monosperma, 20, =141-4=, 200, 533, 553-4, 578

Erythrina ovalifolia, 107, 577

Erythrina aurantiaca, 144

Erythrina vespertilio, 144

Estuaries, temperature of tropical, 78, 564

Etna, shadow of, 586

Eucalyptus, 479

Eugenia, 61, 134, =163=, 166, 334, =349=, 357, 507, 532, 603

Eugenia brackenridgei, 351

Eugenia corynocarpa, 350, 351, 532

Eugenia grandis, 163

Eugenia malaccensis, 349, 532

Eugenia monticola, 351

Eugenia neurocalyx, 350, 351

Eugenia rariflora, 164, 349-52, 532

Eugenia richii, 45, =164=, 350, 529

Eugenia rivularis, 350, 532

Euonymus europæus, 536

Eupatorium cannabinum, 536

Euphorbia, 29, 478, 537

Euphorbia amygdaloides, 537, 605

Euphorbia atoto, 106, 530

Euphorbia cordata, 556

Euphorbia helioscopia, 29, 537

Euphorbia paralias, 29, 31, 35, 109, =116=, 429, 431-3, 537, =543=, 544

Euphorbia peplus, 537

Euphorbia segetalis, 537, 605

Eurya, 371-3

Euxolus caudatus, 605

Everett, Mr., 388

Evolution, 11, 227, 522; _see_ under Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Species

Excæcaria agallocha, 43, 109, 436, 530, 551, 563

Exocarpus, 271, 274-5

Fagræa berteriana, 42, 45, =385=, 532, 548, 603

Fagus, 508

Fanning Island, 377

Fernando Noronha, its flora and its birds, 8, 144, 366, 388

Ferns, =220-30=, 509, 517, 592, 593

Ficus, 61, 377, =387=, 395, =504=, 532

Fiji, the climate, 209, 215-8; the seed-drift of rivers and beaches, 435-6; the “talasinga” plains, 42, 43, 215, 386, 547, =548=, 569; area and altitudes, 207-8

Fijian flora, the littoral plants, 13, 40, 528-30, 550-1; ferns and lycopods, 220-30, 592; endemic genera and endemic species, 231-5, 264-6; mountain plants, 269, 293-7, 305; conifers, 297-306 The age of Malayan plants comprising first the genera widely dispersed over the Pacific, 307-58; and then those that are locally dispersed, 359, 360; the last comprising Fijian genera found in Hawaii and not in Tahiti, 359, 371-4; Fijian genera found in Tahiti and not in Hawaii, 359, 380-8; and genera found in Fiji, but neither in Hawaii nor in Tahiti, 360, 399-408 ... The number of Fijian flowering plants, 528, 592 ... The Fijian “difficulty,” 155, 166, 169, 517 ... The buoyancy of the seeds of inland plants, 531

Fish in the Humboldt current, 600

Fitchia, 236, 237-8, 240, 245, 248

Fleurya interrupta, 605

Flying-foxes: _see_ Bats

Focke, W. O., on the dispersal of Leguminosæ, 150, 417

Fogs on the Chilian and Peruvian coasts, 475, 481, 490, 492-3, 600

Forbes, Dr. H. O., 304, 347, 388

Forster on the “Antarctic” flora, 271

Fragaria chilensis, 4, 270, 272, 285, 287-8

Fragaria vesca, 536

Francolins at high altitudes, 241

Franseria, 131, 431, 478-9, 597

Freycinetia, 308-9, =319=, 331, 504-5, 509-10

Frigate-birds (Fregata), as seed-dispersers, 188, 511

Fritillaria meleagris, 537

Fruits “difficult” or “impossible” from the standpoint of dispersal, 262, 267, 372-3, 379, 388-9, 391, 409; _see_ under the Fijian flora and the Hawaiian flora Fruit-pigeons (Carpophaga, &c.), seeds and fruits eaten by them, limit of size, 337, 381, 389, 400-1, 410; Achras, 373; Areca, 330; Cananga, 393; Canarium, 372, 400; Cassytha, 123, 564; Coriaria, 292; Corynocarpus, 508; Couthovia, 266, 401; Dracontomelon, 372, 400; Elæocarpus, 337, 372, 508; Eugenia, 350; Ficus, 388, 504; Gnetum, 404; Kentia, 330; Litsea, 508; Myristica, 403; Olea, 508; Oncocarpus, 266; Phyllanthus, 326; Pisonia, 347; Plectronia, 355; Podocarpus, 301, 508; Premna, 561; Psychotria, 314; Sapota, 373; Sideroxylon, 373; Spondias, 602; Vitex, 564; Ximenia, 113. (For additional note on Litsea and Vitex, _see_ Additions and Corrections)

Fruits, fleshy, 101

Fulmar-petrel, 581

Galapagos Islands, flora and avifauna, 505

Galeopsis tetrahit, 28, 537

Galium aparine, 27, 536, 539

Galium mollugo, 536

Galium palustre, 27, 536

Garcinia, 575

Gardenia, 308-9, =311=, 532-3, 548, 552

Garuas, 475, 481, 600

Gätke, H., 151, 506, 593

Gaudichaud, 385, 434

Gay, C., on Chilian plants, 477-8

Geese, as seed-dispersers, 241, 275, 283, 356, 511-2, 514

Geissois, 343, =393=, 510, 532

Geniostoma, 384

Geological time, 502, 520

Geophila reniformis, 417, 532, 605

Geranium, 4, 269, 272, 274-5

Germination, of floating seeds, 76; its connection with vivipary, 78, 84, 87, 191, 468, 521; effect of previous immersion in sea-water on the germinating capacity of seeds in soil, 25, 539; germination in sea-water in temperate latitudes, 35, 544; germination in sea-water in tropical latitudes, 79-87; the process in Cæsalpinia, 191, and in Cuscuta, 595

Giffard, Mr., 212

Gilia, 568

Gill, Rev. Wyatt, 48

Gizzard-stones in birds, 159

Glacial epoch, 503, 509, 513

Glaucium luteum, 35, 90, 536, 539, 543 544

Glaux maritima, 34, 36, 537, 541

Gleichenia, 548

Gnetum, 391, =404=, 532

Goats as seed-dispersers, 554, 558

Goebel, K., 453; on vivipary, 469-72

Gossypium, 352, 533

Gossypium tomentosum, 58-9, 529, 533, 552, 556

Gouania, 371-3

Gouldia, 262-3

Goura pigeon, 8, 159, 392

Gourds dispersed by currents, 125, 570

Græffea, 265

Grape-seeds in beach-drift, 429

Gray, Asa, 34

Grewia, 381, 382, 532

Grindon, Mr., 603

Grouse-family as seed-dispersers: _see_ Tetraonidæ

Guavas, 554

Guayas or Guayaquil river and estuary: _see_ under Ecuador

Guettarda, relation between coast and inland species, 17, 121, 134, =162=, 166, 532, 533; germination, 79, 132

Guettarda speciosa, station at coast, 43, 551; station inland, 162; distribution, 64, 68, 563; buoyancy of fruits and their dispersal by currents, 55-6, 108, 114, 163, 529; beach-drift, 163, 437

Guilandina (synonym of Cæsalpinia), 188, 562

Gulf-stream drift: _see_ under Currents

Gulls (Laridæ) as seed-dispersers, 241, 511, 514

Gum-resins, native names of, 300

Gunnera, 269, 271, 272, 274, 275

Gunnerus, 570

Gyrocarpus jacquini, 2, 49, 68, 106, 111, =422=, 428, 529, 551, 563

Haberlandt, G., on the germination of mangroves, 453, 457, 465

Haleakala, 208

Hall, Mr. W. L., on the forests of Hawaii, 213

Halophily, 581

Hamilton, Mr., on the crop-stones of the moa, 159

Hann, Prof., on mountain climates, 582

Haplopetalon, 264, 265

Haplostachys, 263, 594

Hawaiian islands; area and altitude, 207-8; climate, 209-15, 217-8, 582-92; temperature and relative humidity, 209-11, 218; rainfall, 212-15, 218; meteorology of the summit of Mauna Loa, 582-92

Hawaiian flora; littoral plants, 15, 51, 71, 552, 553-7; beach-drift, 58, 557; ferns and lycopods, 220-30, 517, 592, 593; the eras of the flowering plants, 234-5, 517; tables of endemic genera and endemic species, 232, 233, 244, 252, 263; the age of Compositæ, 235-49; the age of the Lobeliaceæ, 250-60, 266-7, 603; the endemic genera belonging neither to the Compositæ nor to the Lobeliaceæ, 261-4, 594; mountain flora, 269-88, 518 The age of Malayan genera, 307-78; the Malayan genera widely dispersed in the Pacific, 307-58; the Malayan genera locally dispersed, 359-69; the residual genera (found only in Hawaii), 359, 361; the genera occurring in Hawaii and Tahiti but not in Fiji, 359, 370; the genera occurring in Hawaii and Fiji but not in Tahiti, 359, 371; the absentees from Hawaii, 359, 375 American plants in Hawaii, 261, 334, 362, 372, 409, 517-8. They include the following orders and genera:— Compositæ, 237, 248, 260, 518; Lobeliaceæ, 254, 260, 266, 518; Caryophyllaceæ, 261-3, 518; Sanicula, 272-3, 287; Sisyrinchium, 272-3, 287; Fragaria, 285, 288; Rubus, 273, 285; Pritchardia, 309, 326; Lythrum, 362; Perrottetia, 362; Sicyos, 362, 365; Chrysophyllum, 362; Nama, 362; Jacquemontia, 362, 365; Sphacele, 362; Phytolacca, 362, 364; Urera, 362 The Hawaiian difficulty, 140, 165, 168, 517; Hawaiian plants and birds, 505-6, 603; buoyancy of fruits and seeds of inland plants, 533-4

Haynaldia, 251

Hazel: _see_ Corylus avellana

Hazlewood’s Fijian Dictionary, 400

Heather, 511

Hedera helix, 536

Hedley, Mr., 65, 66, 304

Hegelmaier, on Lemna, 408

Heilprin, Prof., 506

Helianthemum vulgare, 536, 567

Heliosciadium, 538

Heliotropium anomalum, 49, 56, 58, 365, 370, 528, 552, 554-7

Heliotropium curassavicum, 56, 58, 482, 552, 555, 557

Hemsley, Mr. W. B., 34, 232, 238, 301, 434, 499, 511, 530, 539, 581; on dispersal by currents, 62; on Cæsalpinia, 184; on insular Leguminosæ, 198-9; on the Pacific Compositæ, 242, 246-7; on the Pacific Lobeliaceæ, 251, 257; on Pisonia, 346; on Gnetum, 404; on ten widely spread British plants, 417; on Rhizophora mangle in the Pacific, 441; on vivipary in Dracæna, 471; on Brackenridgea, 569

Heptapleurum, 263

Heritiera littoralis, station, 43, 551; distribution, 47, 68, 375-6, 551, 562; buoyancy of fruits, 106, 112, 529; their occurrence in river-drift, 79, 435; and in beach-drift, 437

Hernandia peltata, station, 551; extension inland, 49; distribution, 54, 64, 68, 562, 563; buoyancy of fruits, 109, 115, 530; beach-drift, 437

Herpestis monnieria, 552, 557

Hesperomannia, 236-7, 243-4

Hesselman, H., on plant-dispersal, 282, 511

Hibbertia, 402, 548

Hibiscus, 21, 134, 137

Hibiscus abelmoschus, 21, 124, 532, 533

Hibiscus diversifolius, 21, 105, 529

Hibiscus esculentus, 21, 532

Hibiscus tiliaceus, station, 43, 486, 498, 551, 555-7; growing inland, 41-2, 419, 547, 557, 560; distribution, 52, 486, 498, 552, 563; seed-buoyancy, 21, 105, 529, 552; beach-drift, 437-8; river-drift, 435; sea-drift, 489; currents, 562

Hibiscus youngianus, 21, 533, 534

Hillebrand, Dr., on the Hawaiian flora; introduced littoral trees, 51; the agency of the currents, 73; the endemism of the ferns, 224-7, 593; the Compositæ, 236-47; the Lobeliaceæ, 250-5; the absence of Coniferæ, 303; on Cyrtandra, 317; other references, 231, 340, 341, 405, 557, 559, 560, 576, 578, 594, &c.

Hillebrand, Mr. W. F., 224

Hillebrandia, 263, 394

Hilo, 53, 213

Hippomane mancinella (Manchineel), 68, 109, 498

Hochstetter, 336

Holland, Mr., 478, 489, 499

Holmboe, Jens, on Silene maritima, 280

Holmes, Mr., on the Fijian rainfall, 216, 549

Honckeneya: _see_ Arenaria peploides

Hooker, Sir J., 198, 238, 258, 271, 344, 369, 581

Horne, Mr., on the Fijian flora, 41, 172, 394, 395, 425, 549, 592

Horse-dung containing seeds transported by currents, 558

Hottonia palustris, 536

Hoya, 377

Humboldt on insects in the upper air-currents, 583

Humboldt current, 480, 483, 490-5, 500, 597-601

Hydnophytum, 402

Hydrocharis, 537

Hydrocotyle asiatica, 532, 605

Hydrocotyle verticillata, 533-4

Hydrocotyle vulgaris, 28, 536, 544

Hygrophytes, 32, 515

Hypericum, perforatum, quadrangulum, elodes, 536

Iceland; plants, 505

Ilex aquifolium, 536

Impatiens fulva, 536

Impatiens parviflora, 536

Incas; bones exposed on the Ancon plain, 497

Inocarpus edulis, 108, =421=, 435, 529, 563

Insects in the upper air-currents, 509-10, 514, 582-3

Ipomea: _see_ Ipomœa

Ipomœa, 20, 76, 109, 134, 137, 489, 532-3, 546

Ipomœa batatas, 20, 415 (Batatas edulis), 532

Ipomœa bona nox (Calonyction speciosum), 20, 106, 110, 533, 534, 554, 558, 605

Ipomœa glaberrima (Calonyction comosperma), 20, 52, 57, 106, 110, 472, 530, 552, 555, 558, 564

Ipomœa grandiflora, 20, 106, 530, 531

Ipomœa insularis, 20, 110, 532, 533, 553, 554, 605

Ipomœa peltata, 110, 435, 472, 532

Ipomœa pentaphylla, 20, 110, 533

Ipomœa reptans, 533

Ipomœa tuberculata, 20, 110, 533, 556

Ipomœa turpethum, 20, 106, 110, 532

Ipomœa pes-capræ; seed-buoyancy, 20, 21, 83, 106, 110, 121, 530, 546, 569; dispersal by currents, 56-7, 562; seeds in river and beach drift, 435, 437-8, 489, 558-9; distribution, 56, 68, 433, 488, 498, 552, 563, 564, 572; station, 43, 551, 553-6, 560; growing inland, 21, 41, 42, 121, 547, 560, 569

Iris; home of the genus, 396

Iris fœtidissima, 24, 27, 537

Iris pseudacorus, 24, 27, 30, 430, 537, 540, 544

Isodendrion, 263

Isotoma, 255

Jacquemontia, 58, =365=, 533, 552, 553, 555-7

Jacquin, on Rhizophora mangle, 457

Jambeli Island, 488-9

Johnston, Sir H., 241, 252, 510

Jouan, H., 187

Juan Fernandez, 222, 316

Juncus, 89, 471, 537, 545, 568

Junghuhn, on the climate of the Java mountains, 211

Jussiæa villosa, 533

Kadua, 262, 263

Kandavu, 207, 208

Karsten, G., on Rhizophora, 453

Kauai, 207, 208, 214

Kauri pine, 299

Keeble, F. W., on the dispersal of Loranthus, 383

Keeling atoll, 81, 190, 510

Kerguelen, 241, 242, 276

Kermadec islands, 258, 276, 295, 420, 572

Kerner, Dr., 63, 101, 277, 408, 469, 567

Kidder, Dr., 241, 276

Kilimanjaro, 251

Kinabalu, Mount, in Borneo, 286, 295-6, 301

Kirk, T., on the forest-flora of New Zealand, 299, 347, 507

Kittlitz, on Nipa fruticans, 66

Kiwi, 522

Kleinhovia hospita, 21, 105, 376, 529, 562, =602=

Koebele, Prof., 212, 578

Kolpin-Ravn, on seed-buoyancy, 24, 38, 116, 538

Krakatoa beach-drift, &c., 180, 190, 206, 221

Krämer, Dr., 275, 283

Kurz, Mr., 577; on Scirpodendron, 406

Labiatæ; station and seed-buoyancy, 28, 537; mucosity of seeds, 567-8; Hawaiian endemic genera, 261-3, 518, 594

Lablab vulgaris, 413, 417, 605

Labordea, 262, 263

Labrador current and climate, 493

Lagenaria (bottle-gourds), dispersal by currents, 125, 570

Lagenophora, 240, 242, 270-2, 274-5, =276=, 293-4, 305, 568

Lagerheim, Prof., on the dispersal of Empetrum nigrum, 512

Lagopus: _see_ Tetraonidæ

Laguncularia; station and distribution, 68-9, 484, 498; dispersal by currents, 77; fruit-buoyancy, 108; fruits in beach-drift, 438; in river-drift, 489; in sea-drift, 489; germination, 77-8, 469, 471

Lamium album, 28, 537

Lamium galeobdolon, 537

Lamium purpureum, 28, 537, 568

Lapsana communis, 536

Larch, 430

Lathyrus maritimus, 35, 107, 116, 430, 432, 536, =543=

Lathyrus pratensis, 536

Layard, Messrs., on birds and seeds, 143, 296, 388, 420

Leersia oryzoides, 538

Leguminosæ in littoral floras, 13, 19, 68, 76, =79-85=, 87, =107=, 111, 117, =140-51=, =170-97=, =198=, 438-9; dispersal by birds, 150, 417, 581

Lemnaceæ, =407=, 488, 537

Leontodon autumnalis, 536

Lepidium sativum, 567

Lepinia tahitensis, 378-9

Leucæna forsteri, 425, 529

Leucas decemdentata, 605

Ligustrum vulgare, 537

Limnanthemum, =396=, 537

Linaria cymbalaria, 537

Linaria vulgaris, 537

Linden, A., on Pritchardia, 326-7

Lindenia, =395=, 532, 603

Lindman, C., on the Gulf stream drift of the Scandinavian coast, 180, 430, 531

Linum, 536, 567

Lipochæta, 58, 236-7, 239, 243-4, 552-3, 556-7

Lister, Mr., 327, 356, 550

Lithospermum officinale, 537

Litsea, 508; _see_ Additions and Corrections

Littoral plants; distribution in tropics, 68, 516, 562; causes of the buoyancy of the seeds and fruits, 104, 119, 569; long flotation experiments, 530; the littoral plants and the currents of the Pacific, 61; relation of littoral and inland species of the same genus, 130-70; the inland extension of beach plants, 34, 40, 49, 59, 121, 547-50, 559, 568, 579; Fijian shore plants, 13, 15, 40, 528, 547-50; Tahitian shore plants, 14, 47, 551; Hawaiian shore plants, 15, 51, 552-7, 559, 563; shore plants of west coast of South America, 474-88, 500, 596; shore plants of the Panama isthmus, 498; British shore plants, 33-6, 106, 107, 109, 115, 432-3, 540-4; halophily, 581

Lobelia, 252-6, 258, 272-3, 279

Lobelia dortmanna, 536

Lobeliaceæ, Age of, 250-60, 266-7, 304, 306, 517-20; arborescent, 250-60; Hawaiian, 253; Tahitian and Rarotongan, 256; affinities with American forms, 251, 267; relation between the flowers and birds, 504-5, 603; seed-buoyancy, 533; capacities of dispersal, 258

Locusts as seed-dispersers, 509

Loranthus, 377, 381, =383=

Lotus corniculatus, 536

Luffa, =426=, 472, 529, 563, 571

Lumnitzera, 43, 69, 108, 435, 437, 529, 551, 563

Luzula campestris; in Hawaii, 272, 286-8; in Tahiti, 290, 292; mucosity of the seeds and their dispersal by birds, 286, 417, 568; seed-buoyancy, 89, 537

Lychnis diurna, 536

Lycopods, 220-30, 509, 517, 592, 593

Lycopsis arvensis, 537

Lycopus europæus, 28, 37, 86, 417-8, 537, 545, 568

Lyon, Prof., on the Hawaiian rainfall, 213

Lysimachia; in Hawaii, 272, 283-5

Lysimachia thyrsiflora, 537

Lysimachia vulgaris, 536

Lythrum; in Hawaii, 362

Lythrum salicaria, 417-8, 536, 603

Maba, 371-3, 532-3

Macaranga, 381, =384=, 436, 532

Macgregor, Sir W., 215

Machala plains (Ecuador), 484-5, 495

M’Lachlan, Mr., on dragon-flies in ancient drift, 510

Magellan Straits, its shore plants, 477

Maiden, Mr., on the plants of Pitcairn Island, 345, 355, 418, 562

Malayan era of the Pacific floras, 308-9, 330-2, 333, 353, 357, 359, 519

Malva rotundifolia and sylvestris, 536

Malvaceæ, the effect of sea-water on the seeds, 544

Man in the Pacific, subject to the laws of distribution, 325, 411-2, 427

Manchineel: _see_ Hippomane

Mandarin orange; precocious germination of its seeds, 472

Mangle chico, 445, 448-9, 498, 501

Mangle grande, 445, 448-9, 498, 501

Mangrove formation, 9, =43-4=, 47, 50, 53-5, 77, 132, =483-7= (Ecuador), =551=, 597

Marquesas, 208, 529

Marsilea, 408

Martins, Prof., on the effects of sea-water immersion on seeds, 24, 538-9, 542-4, 546

Mascarene islands; association of several species of Pandanus with extinct Columbæ, 152, 157, 169, 517; linked to the Pacific islands by Afzelia bijuga, 172; by Acacia heterophylla, 200; by Naias marina, 368; by Potamogeton, 369; by Eugenia, 351; by Sophora, 148; by Ochrosia, 153, 580; by Pandanus, 157-9

Mat-names and plant-names in Polynesia, 324, 328

Matricaria chamomilla, 536, 568

Matricaria inodora; inland form, 536, 543; maritime form, 33-4, 109, 116, 536, 540, =543=

Matricaria maritima: _see_ under M. inodora

Maui, 207-8

Mauna Kea, 207-8, 210-4, 238, 509, 587

Mauna Loa, 207-8, 210-4, 238, 509, 587

Mauna Loa; meteorological observations on summit, 582

Mauritius: _see_ Mascarene islands

Maxwell, Dr., on the Hawaiian rainfall, 213

Medanos, 482

Medicago; fruits frequent in beach-drift, 429, =431=, 479; buoyancy of fruits, 431, 536

Medinilla, 376

Mediterranean beach-drift, 430

Megapodes, as probable seed-dispersers, 160, 169, 200, 392

Melastoma, 376, 381, =382=, 532, 603

Melastoma denticulatum, =382=, 532, 548

Melia, 376

Meliaceæ, 376

Melica nutans, 538

Melicope, 263

Meliphagidæ (Honey-eaters), as seed-dispersers, 321, 331, 377, 388

Melochia, 376

Memecylon, 376

Mentha aquatica, 28, 537, 545

Menyanthes trifoliata, 537

Meryta, 381

Mesembryanthemum, 131, 478

Mesozoic continent in the Western Pacific, 303-6, 503, 509, 514, 519

Metrosideros, 259, 333, =341=, 357, 361, 510, 533, 549, 553, 554, 604

Meyer, Dr., 388

Mez, C., on the genus Embelia, 363

Mezoneuron, =146=, 363, 533

Micromelum, 393, 532

Miers, Mr. J., on the seed-structure of Barringtonia, 575

Millett, Mr., on the seed-buoyancy of Convolvulus soldanella, 91, 543, 566

Milner, Sir W., on seeds in petrels, 581

Mimosa pudica, 488

Mimusops kauki, 374

Miquel, on Scirpodendron, 406; on Carapa, 564

Moa, its crop-stones, 159

Mœnchia erecta, 536

Mollendo (Peru), 482, 598, 599

Momordica charantia, 532

Montia fontana, 536

Moreno Bay (Chile), its beach-drift, 480

Morinda; relation between the shore and inland species, 18, 134, =135=; inland species, 42, 45, 135, 532, 534

Morinda citrifolia; distribution, 18, 52, 552, 563; station, 551; inland extension, 49, 121, 547, 548, 553, 569; buoyancy of pyrenes, 18, 107, 112, 121, 123, 124, 529, 531, 534, 569; their occurrence in river-drift, 79, 435

Moseley, Prof., 242, 276, 286, 403, 434, 579

Mountain bananas, 412, =414=, 427

Mountain climates of the Pacific islands, 210-1, 214-5, 218, 582

Mountain ferns of the Pacific islands, 225-9, 593

Mountain floras of the Pacific islands, 268-306, 518-9

Mountain-shadows, 586

Mucosity of seeds, 102, 277, 417, 567

Mucuna (genus); abortive germination of seeds in sea-water, 76, 79-82, 202; long flotation experiments, 80, 81, 531; cause of seed-buoyancy, 106, 109, 111; dispersal by currents, 80, 81, 430; seeds in river-drift, 435, 488; in beach-drift, 430, 437-8, 489, 499

Mucuna gigantea, 44, 81, 94, 109, 115, 529, 531, 552, 554, 562, 563

Mucuna urens, 80, 106, 111, 123, 430 499, 531, 533, 534, 562, 563

Mueller, Dr. K., 224

Mueller, Baron von, 394

Musa, 412, 414

Musa ensete, 414, 436

Mussænda frondosa, 425, 532, 548

Mutations, 383

Myoporum, 271, 272, 274-5, 343, 533, 553-4

Myosotis, 37, 537

Myriophyllum, 37, 536

Myristica, 391, =402=, 532

Myrmecodia, =402=, 472, 532

Nadeaud, Dr. J., on Tahitian plants, 216, 312, 426, 578

Naias, 362, 364, =367=, 409, 520, 537, 556; _see_ Additions and Corrections

Nama, 362

Narthecium, 537

Nasturtium, 37, 536

Nathorst, Prof., 511

Natural Selection, 105, 117, 119-29

Nature-Study, 101

Nelitris, 381, =382=, 532, 548

Nepeta cataria, 28, 537, 567, 568

Nepeta glechoma, 28, 537, 567, 568

Nephelium, 161, 532

Neraudia, 263

Nertera depressa, 270, 272, 285, =286=, 288, 290, 292-4, 296-7, 305

Nesopanax, 265

Nestor meridionalis, its vegetable food, 321, 343

New Caledonia, 298, 301-2, 341, 395-6, 420

New Zealand birds and seed-dispersal, 296, 321, 337

New Zealand flora; from the standpoint of dispersal, 507-8; its bearing on the continental theory, 508-9, 512, 514

New Zealand plants in the Pacific islands, 271-2, 287, 290, 295, 297, 305, 315, 336-8, 341, 357, 366, 503-4, 507-9

Nicobar-pigeon, as a seed-disperser, 8, 159

Nipa fruticans, 66, 68, 108, 472, 550

Nolana, 131, 431, 477, 479, 480, =596=

Norman, J. M., on Scandinavian beach-drift, 430, 432, 539, 543

Norwegian beach-drift: _see_ Scandinavia

Nothocestrum, 262-3

Nototrichium, 262-3

Nova Zembla; plant-dispersal, 511

Nuphar luteum, 37, 89, 513, 535

Nymphæa alba, 37, 89, 513, 535

Oahu, 207-8

Oak: _see_ Quercus

Ochrosia; relation of coast and inland species, 134, =151=; dispersal, 152-4; Schumann’s enumeration of the species, 580

Ochrosia parviflora, 49, 108, =152-4=, 530, 563, 580

Ochrosia sandwicensis, 153, 580

Ocimum basilicum, 568

Œnanthe crocata, 28, 536

Œnanthe phellandrium, 536

Oldenlandia, 605

Olea, 364, 508, 533

Oliver, Prof., 171, 178, 251

Oncocarpus, 265-6; _see_ Additions and Corrections

Ononis arvensis, 536

Ophiorrhiza, 382, =383=, 532

Orchids; suggested dispersal of their seeds by insects, 509

Oregon drift on the Hawaiian coasts, 58, 72, 430, =557=

Oreobolus, 271, 272, 275

Oreodoxa, 489

Osmanthus, 364

Osteomeles, 353, =354=, 554

Owen Stanley range; climate of the summit, 215

Oxalis acetosella, 536

Oxalis corniculata, 349, 416, 427, 536, 604

Oxyria digyna, 512

Pachyrrhizus, 412, 413, 548

Paita (Payta), 482, 599

Palms; specific differentiation in Borneo, 504

Panama isthmus; its shore plants and seed-drift, 180, 498

Panax, 263

Pandanus, =155=, 508, 517; relation between coast and inland species, 134, =155-60=, 166, 169, 517; mode of dispersal, 157-60, 169; insular distribution, 156-7, 160, 169, 580

Pandanus odoratissimus; distribution, 52, 53, 156, 552, 563; station, 551; inland extension, 41, 42, 361, 548-9, 553-6, 560; dispersal by currents, 53, 158; buoyancy of fruits, 109, 530, 552; their occurrence in river-drift, 435, and in beach-drift, 437, 557-9; aboriginal food-plant, 413, 427

Pangerango, Mount; rate of decrease of temperature with elevation, 210

Panicum, 272, 284

Papaver, seed-buoyancy, 535

Papaya, 472

Paphia, 265

Parinarium, 108, 435, 529, 563

Parrots, as seed-dispersers, 321, 388, 420, 602

Partridges, as seed-dispersers, 284, 356, 367, 416

Pastinaca sativa, 28, 536

Peach-stones in beach-drift, 429, 431, 479

Pea-nuts in beach-drift, 479

Peale, Mr., 355

Pebble-swallowing by birds, 8, 159

Pedicularis palustris, 537

Pelagodendron, 265

Pelea, 263

Pemphis acidula; station, 42, 43, 551; distribution, 54, 68, 563; seed-buoyancy, 108, 114, 529

Penzig, Prof., on the beach-drift and flora of Krakatoa, 180, 189, 206, 571

Peperomia, 334, =348=, 357, 417, 509

Peplis portula, 536

Perkins, Mr., on birds and seeds in Hawaii, 151, 259, 275, 321, 329, 343, 348, 364, 595; on the biological connection between the birds and the arborescent Lobeliaceæ, 255, 504, 603; on the Hawaiian fauna, 505

Perrottetia, 362

Peru; littoral flora, 474-6, 481-2; on the coast climate and the Humboldt current, 490-4, 500, 598-600; corals, 496, 601

Pes-capræ formation, 550

Petrels and seed-dispersal, 242, 511, 581

Peucedanum, in Hawaii, 362, 363

Peucedanum palustre, 536

Phaethon (Tropic-bird) and plant-dispersal, 241

Phaseolus truxillensis, 605

Philippi, on the shells of Chile, 496

Phyllanthus, 309, =325=, 331, 532

Phyllostegia, 262, 263, 371, 533, 594

Physalis angulata, 605

Phytelephas, 489

Phytolacca, 362, 364

Pigeons, 356, 416, 506; _see_ Fruit-pigeons

Pilea, 362

Pilger, R., on Podocarpus and Dacrydium, 301-2

Pimia, 265, 266

Pinguicula lusitanica, 537

Pinus sylvestris, 537

Piper, 532, 568

Pipturus, 356

Pisonia, 61, 333, =346=, 357, 568

Pistia, 435, 486-9

Pitcairn Island, 64, 345, 355, 418, 562

Pittosporum, 308, =309=, 313, 509, 532

Platydesma, 263

Plantago; on tropical mountains, 269, 270; Hawaiian species, 271-2; mode of dispersal, 276; seed-mucosity, 276, 568; seed-buoyancy, 537, 540

Plantago coronopus, 33

Plantago lanceolata, 276, 537, 568

Plantago major, 276, 537, 568

Plantago maritima, 34, 478, 537, 541, 568

Plantago media, 537

Plectronia, =355=, 533

Plectrophanes nivalis (Snow-bunting), as seed-disperser, 510, 511, 605

Pleiosmilax, 371-3, 532

Plerandra, 265

Plum-stones in beach-drift, 429, 431, 479

Poa; Hawaiian species, 272, 275

Poa aquatica, 538

Poa fluitans, 538

Podocarpus, 294, 297-8, =301=, 306, 508, 603

Polycarpon tetraphyllum, 33

Polygala vulgaris, 536

Polygonum; dispersal by birds, 356; buoyancy of fruits, 537, 543

Polygonum amphibium, 537

Polygonum aviculare, 356, 537

Polygonum convolvulus, 356, 537

Polygonum glabrum, 354, 356, 435, 487-8

Polygonum hydropiper, 37, 537

Polygonum lapathifolium, 537

Polygonum maritimum, 35, 477, 537, 543

Polygonum persicaria, 356, 537

Polygonum viviparum, 512

Polymorphous species, discussed, 33-4, 353, 357-8, 373, 381, 391, 519, 520, 522; independent of insular conditions, 363, 368, 520; noted under Elæocarpus, 335; Dodonæa, 339; Metrosideros, 341; Alyxia, 345; Alphitonia, 346; Pisonia, 346; Wikstrœmia, 348; Sicyos, 363, 365; Naias, 368; Eurya, 372; Maba, 372; Grewia, 382; Nelitris, 382; Melastoma, 382; Loranthus, 383; Geniostoma, 384; Macaranga, 384; Tabernæmontana, 385; Bischoffia, 386; Micromelum, 393; Limnanthemum, 396; Weinmannia, 291; Vaccinium, 280-1

Polynesians; their differentiation, 325, 411, 427

Polynesian food-plants, 412-4, 427

Polynesian weeds, 415, 427, 604

Polynesian plant-names, 66, 324, 328, 341, 345, 387, 398, 414, 419, 421, 424, 425, 441, 578

Polypodium, 593

Pongamia glabra, 54, 106, 202, 529, 551, 563, 581

Pontederia, 435, 486-9

Porphyrio (Purple Water-hen), as concerned in plant-dispersal, 296, 305, 321, 331

Portulaca, 532, 552, 553-5

Potamogeton, 5, 30, 38, =369=, 513, 537

Potentilla; buoyancy and station, 27

Potentilla comarum, 27, 536

Potentilla tormentilla, 27, 536

Premna; the genus in the Pacific, =560=; buoyancy and station, 19, 134, 139; cause of buoyancy of the fruits of the coast species, 107, 112, 123, 124, 530, 532, 561, 569; inland extension of the coast species, 42, 547, 548, 561, 569; distribution of the species, 561, 563; occurrence of the fruits in river-drift, 112, 435, 561; modes of dispersal, 561

Prioria copaifera, in Panama beach and river-drift, 499

Pritchardia, 124, 308, 309, =326=, 532, 533-4, 554-5

Prosopis dulcis, 557

Prunella vulgaris, 28, 417, 537, 568

Pseudomorus, 371

Psittacirostra, 321, 505

Psychotria, 308-9, =314=, 331, 391, 532, 603

Pteris aquilina, 225, 548

Pteropidæ: _see_ Bats

Pterotropia, 262-3, 595

Ptilotus, 263

Ptychosperma, 389, 532

Puerto Bolivar (Ecuador); sojourn of the author, 476, 484-8, 494

Pumice in beach-drift, 429, 558, 601

Puna Island (Ecuador), 489, 494

Puna coast (Hawaii), 553

Quercus, 61, 90, 126, 429, 431, 537, 538, =571=

Radiola millegrana, 417, 418

Raiatea, 250, 252, 257

Raillardella, 237

Raillardia, 236-8, 240, 243-4

Ranunculaceæ, 535, 544

Ranunculus; on tropical mountains, 269, 272; Hawaiian species, 272-3; dispersal by birds, 277, 511; buoyancy of fruits, 535

Ranunculus aquatilis, 37, 535

Ranunculus repens, 37, 86, 535, 545

Ranunculus sceleratus, 37, 535, 544, 545

Ranunculus; other British species, 535

Raphanus, 33, 478, 536, 540, 596

Rarotonga; its flora, 48, 177, 291, 295, 309, 317, 320, 323, 336, 374, 419, 425, 551, 578; altitude, 208; rainfall, 216; absence of mangroves, 50; ferns, 221-2; endemic species of flowering plants, 232; the age of arborescent Compositæ and Lobeliaceæ represented by Fitchia, 237-8; and by Sclerotheca, 250, 252, 256-7; scanty representation of Tahitian mountain plants, 293; a connection with the Kermadec islands, 295

Rauwolfia, 362

Reinecke, Dr., on the Samoan flora, 19, 232, 266, 291, 317, 387, 577, 579; on Elatostema, 405

Remya, 236-7, 243-4

Rendle, Mr., on Naias, 368

Reseda luteola, 536

“Revue Scientifique,” 506

Rewa River (Fiji); seed-drift, 76, 78, =435=; temperature, 78, 564

Reynoldsia, 309, =310=, 371

Rhaphidophora, 404, 532

Rhinanthus crista galli, 537, 545

Rhizophora; general discussion, =440=, 520-1; dispersal by currents, 48, 77, 94, =458=; the “Selala” or seedless form in Fiji, 443; its representative in Ecuador, 449, 487, 521; the genus in Ecuador, 483-7; in Panama, 498-9; absence from Hawaii, 54-5, and Tahiti, 47; germination and growth of seedling, =451=, =468=, 575; river-drift, 435, 460, 499; beach-drift, 437-8, 460, 499; polyembryony, 449; distribution, 54-5, 69, 520

Rhizophora mangle; in Fiji, 43, 441, 520; in Ecuador, 484-7; in Panama, 498-9; discussed in detail in Chapter XXX

Rhizophora mucronata, 43, 68; discussed in detail in Chapter XXX

Rhus, 353, 354

Rhynchospora, 272, 283-5

Richella, 265

Ricinus communis, 142, 533, 558

Ridley, Mr. H. N., on the plants of Fernando Noronha and of the Malay peninsula, 8, 144, 162, 319, 340, 386, 603

River seed-drift; Thames, 37, 85, 91, 430; Rewa (Fiji), 76, 91, =435-6=; Guayaquil or Guayas River (Ecuador), 77, 91, 435, =488-9=; Panama isthmus, 499; germination in river-drift, 76-8, 84, 85-6, 435, 488-9

River temperature, 78, 564

Robinson, Mr. E. Kay, on the dispersal of Aster tripolium, 605

Rodriguez Island, 157, 351; _see_ Mascarene Islands

Rœmeria hybrida, 535

Rollandia, 252, 255, 258

Rosa arvensis, 536

Roxburgh, W., on the seed-structure of Barringtonia, 575

Rubiaceæ; appearance of the order in the Pacific islands, 261, 262

Rubus, in Hawaii, 269, 272-4, 285, 533, 604

Rumex; in Hawaii, 366; modes of dispersal, 367; fruits in Thames drift, 37, 86, 430; buoyancy of the fruits of British species, 537, 545

Ruppia maritima, 371, 372, =374=, 398, 482, 537, 555

Russell, Prof., 493

Ruwenzori, Mount, 241, 251

Sachs, Prof., 100

Sadleria, 593

Sage-brush, 279

Sagina procumbens, 536

Sagittaria sagittifolia, 38, 537

Sagus vitiensis, 413

St. Helena, 8, 258

Salicornia; mode of dispersal, 482, 489, 541, 545

Salicornia herbacea, 34, 35, 537, 541, 545

Salicornia peruviana in Ecuador, 77, 484-6, 489

Salicornia; other species in Chile and Peru, 478, 482

Saline deposits of North Chile, suggested origin, 485

Salsola kali, 10, 34-6, 429, 431, 477, 479, 537, =541=

Salvia verbenaca, 28, 537, 567-8

Sambucus nigra, 536

Salvinia, 488

Samoa; altitude, 208-9; few peculiar genera, 266; proportion of peculiar species of flowering plants, 232; littoral flora, 46; mountain flora, 290, 297, 305; peculiar species of Pandanus, 156, 580, Elatostema, 405, Eugenia, 349. Amongst other genera possessing peculiar species are Gardenia, 311, Psychotria, 315, Cyrtandra, 317, Macaranga, 384, Ficus, 387

Samolus valerandi, 34, 537, 541

Samolus, in Chile, 478

Sanicula, in Hawaii, 4, 269, 270, 272, =273=, 274-5

San Lorenzo Island (Peru) in the coast-clouds, 492; decaying shells, 497

Santa Elena Point (Ecuador), its vegetation and climate, 490, 494, 597

Santa Rosa River (Ecuador), the vegetation of its banks, 486

Santalum, 272, 283-4, 285

Sapindus, 309, =325=, 332

Sapota, 373, 532

Sapotaceæ, 372-4

Sararanga, 156

Saxifraga, British species, 536

Saxifragaceæ, in Hawaii, 263

Scævola; relation between littoral and inland species, 18, 134, =135=; Hawaiian inland species, 18, 135, 533; Fijian inland species, 18, 532, 576; distribution, 67, 71, 564; modes of dispersal, 135, 564; buoyancy of fruits, 18, 135, 531-3

Scævola chamissoniana, Hawaii, 18, 533

Scævola gaudichaudii, Hawaii, 18, 533

Scævola floribunda, Fiji, 18, 532, 576

Scævola koenigii; distribution, 56, 135, 552, 563; station at coast, 18, 43, 551, 553-6, 560; extension inland, 42, 59, 121, 547, 553, 560, 569, 579; modes of dispersal, 57, 71, 552; buoyancy of fruits, 108, 114, 121, 122, 529, 531, 569; their occurrence in beach-drift, 437, 559; in river-drift, 79; variety, 579; synonymy, 71, 564

Scævola lobelia, 71

Scævola sericea, 579

Scandinavia; Sernander’s “Dispersal-biology,” 24; Atlantic or Gulf-stream drift, 180,189, =430=, 570, 601

Schenck, Dr., 512

Scheuchzeria palustris, 537

Schiedea, 262-3

Schimper, Prof.; relation between littoral and inland species of a genus and between the littoral and inland floras, 17, 19, 130-4, 534; grouping of Malayan littoral plants, 43, 550; distribution and dispersal of tropical littoral plants, 62, 69; the littoral Leguminosæ, 201, 581; structure of the buoyant seeds and fruits of tropical plants and the question of adaptation, 104, 112-5, 119-29, 569; on Rhizophora, 441, 446, 453-4, 459; the essential climatic conditions for mangrove-growth, 470; the xerophytes and hygrophytes, 32, 40; epiphytic habit of Vaccinium, 281; miscellanea, 423, 561, 571, 577, 602; letters to the author, 43, 121, 440-1, 454; his indebtedness to Prof. Schimper’s work, 63

Schizæa, 593

Schizostege, 593

Schmidt, J., on Lathyrus maritimus, 543

Schönland, S., on the Hawaiian Lobeliaceæ, 255

Schumann, K., on Ochrosia, 153, 580; on Musa, 414, 436

“Science Gossip,” 23, 277, 369, 398, 513, 567

Scilla nutans, 537

Scirpodendron costatum, 47, 108, =405=, 435, 530, 551, 552, 563

Scirpus; buoyancy of the fruits of seven British species, 537; dispersal by ducks implied in connection with the Cyperaceæ, 513

Scirpus maritimus, 34, 92, 109, 116, 537, 541

Scirpus palustris, 90, 537

Scleria; dispersal by purple water-hens, 296

Sclerotheca, 252, 256-8

Scott, J., on Indian parrots, 420

Scott-Elliot, Mr., 568

Scrophularia aquatica, 89, 537

Scrophularia nodosa, 537

Scutellaria galericulata, 28, 37, 537, 545

Scyphiphora, 109

Sea, Fijian tree, 436, 602

Sea-aster: _see_ Aster tripolium

Sea-birds, as seed-dispersers, 188, 241, 242, 347, 506, =510-1=, 514, 605

Sea-eagle, as a seed-disperser, 286

Sea-thrifts: _see_ Armeria

Seed-mucosity: _see_ Mucosity

Seed-stage, regarded as an adaptation, 11, 85-7, 468, 473, 521

Seed-structure; anomalies connected with a lost viviparous habit, 79, 132, 470, 473, 521, 575

Seemann, Dr., on the Fijian flora, 172, 177, 231, 264, 421, 442, 549, 576, 577, 579, 592; on the northern limit of mangroves, 54; on Polynesian weeds, 415, 604; on Laguncularia in the Panama isthmus, 498; on willow-leaved plants, 603

Selala, the seedless Rhizophora of Fiji, 441-9, 465-6, 487, 520-1; _see_ Rhizophora

Selliera radicans, 477

Senecio, in Hawaii, 362

Senecio aquaticus, 28, 536, 568

Senecio candidans, 477

Senecio palustris, 536

Senecio vulgaris, 536, 568

Serianthes, 108, 389, =424=, 529, 563

Sernander, Dr., on the dispersal-biology of Scandinavia, 24; on the Gulf-stream drift, 180, 189, 430, 570, 601; miscellanea, 280, 511, 538, 542-3, 571

Sesbania, 528, 555

Sesuvium zone of west coast of South America, 476, 481

Sesuvium portulacastrum; in Fiji, 529; in Tahiti, 370, 528; in Tonga, 528; in Hawaii, 375, 552, 554-5; in Ecuador, 485; in Peru, 482; seed-buoyancy, 16, 529

Shaddock (Citrus decumana), 125-6, 532-3

Shadow of mountains, 586

Sibthorpia europæa, 417, 418

Sicilian beach-drift, 430

Sicyos, 362, 363, =365=

Sideroxylon, 371-4, 507-8

Sida, 417, 427, 533, 555, 604

Siegesbeckia orientalis, 605

Silene, in Hawaii, 272, 279-80

Silene cucubalus, 536

Silene maritima, 33, 36, 280, 511, 536, 540, 544

Simpson, Mr. M.; precocious germination of the coco-nut, 472

Siphocampylus, 251

Sisyrinchium, 272, 273, 279, 533

Sium; buoyancy of the fruits of British species, 536

Smith, Mr. Jared G., 211, 213

Smyrnium olusatrum, 536

Smythea pacifica; distribution, 47, 264-5, 551, 562; buoyancy of fruits, 106, 112, 529; their occurrence in river-drift, 435

Snow-buntings (Plectrophanes nivalis), as seed-dispersers, 510-1, 605

Solanum aculeatissimum, 533

Solanum dulcamara, 537

Solanum nigrum (and var. oleraceum), 417, 537, 605

Solereder, H., 265

Solitaire, 8, 159

Solomon Islands, 351, 394, 400

Sonchus asper, 241, 605

Sonchus oleraceus, 536, 593

Sonneratia, 69, 108

Sophora; general discussion, =147=; relation between littoral and inland species, 19, 134, =147=, 165, 200; its indication in New Zealand, 508

Sophora chrysophylla, 20, =147-51=, 271-2, 278, 533, 580

Sophora tetraptera, 64, =148-9=, 271, 431, 478-9, =580=

Sophora tomentosa; distribution, 19, 54, 68, 147-8, 563; station and habit, 201-2, 551, 581; seed-buoyancy, 107, 113, 529, 531, 579; seeds in beach-drift, 437-8

Soulamea, 265

South America; observations on the littoral flora of the west coast, 474-501; _see_ Chile, Peru, Ecuador

Sparganium, 5, 31, 430, 513, 537, 540, 545

Species, their development in the Pacific islands; the views of Hillebrand, 226-7; the effect of the greater elevation of the Hawaiian islands on the endemism (production of new species) of the ferns, 227-8; tables showing the development of new species and new genera of the flowering plants of the Pacific islands, 232-4, 252, 255, 263, 265; the polymorphism of genera, as indicated by their fecundity in species, illustrated by Cyrtandra, 317; by Elatostema, 317, 405; and by Psychotria, 315, 391; the polymorphism of species, as indicated by their great variability, 520, 522; _see_ Polymorphous species; the question whether the relative fecundity of two genera like Psychotria and Coprosma is to be connected with difference in antiquity or with difference in their geographical position, 315, 331; the connection between endemism and the suspension of means of dispersal by birds, 5, 7, 229; endemism thus produced nearly as pronounced with certain genera like Cyrtandra, Embelia, and Naias, in continental regions as in oceanic islands, 229, 317-3, 331, 363-4, 368, 409, 520; the process concerned in endemism favoured by the deterioration of plants in their capacity for dispersal, 262-3, 337, 350, 365, 507, 594-5; biological connection between plants and birds, 504-5; differentiation of climate, bird, and plant, the bird being dependent on the climate, and the plant on the bird, 378, 410, 506-7, 514, 521-2

Spergula arvensis, 536

Spergularia rubra and S. marina, 33, 36, 536, 540, 544-5

Sphacele, 362

Spiræa ulmaria, 37, 92, 536

Spitzbergen; flora and plant dispersal, 511-2, 514

Spondias dulcis, 532

Spondias lutea, 124, 438, 489, 499

Spondias, unidentified Fijian species, 602

Spring-centres for the diffusion of aquatic plants, 396, 399

Stachys, 27, 28, 537

Stapf, Dr., on the flora of Kinabalu, 101, 296, 301

Statice, 34

Station and seed-buoyancy, 16, 24, 30, 515

Stellaria, 37, 89, 536

Stenogyne, 262-3, 594-5

Sterculia, 11, 375-6, =391=, 532-3

Sterculiaceæ, 10, 375

Straussia, 262-3, 364

Stromboli, its shadow, 586

Strongylodon, 80, =82=, 107, 113, 123, =200=, 436, 529, 531, 558, 562-3, =565=

Struthious birds, suggested as seed-dispersers, 152, 159-60

Stubbs, Dr.; Agricultural Report on Hawaii, 212, 578

Stylocoryne, 532

Suæda; concerning dispersal by birds, 511

Suæda fruticosa, 34, 480, 482, 537, 541

Suæda maritima, 34, 537, 541

Suess, Prof., on the shell-fauna of Chile, 496; on the salts of ancient seas, 566

Sula: _see_ Boobies

Suriana maritima, 105, 528, 529, 563

Swamp-hens: _see_ Porphyrio

Symphytum officinale, 537

Tabernæmontana, 381, =385=, 532

Tacca; relation between littoral and inland species, 19, 134, =138=

Tacca maculata, 19, 138, 532, 548

Tacca pinnatifida, =19=, =138=; distribution, 138, 552, 563; modes of dispersal, 138; seed-buoyancy, 19, 108, 530, 531, 569; station, 138; growing inland, 42, 138, 547, 548, 569; as a food-plant, 138, 412, 414, 427

Tahiti; area and altitude, 207-8; temperature, 209; rainfall, 216, 218

Tahitian flora; littoral plants, 14, =47=, 528, =529=, 551, 552; ferns and lycopods, 220-230, 592; endemic genera and endemic species of flowering plants, 231-5; the age of Compositæ, 236-40, 245, 248; and of Lobeliaceæ, 250-2, 256-8, 266; the mountain plants, 269, 290-3, 305, 518-9 The age of Malayan plants; the general dispersal of these plants in the Pacific, 307-58; the local dispersal, (_a_) genera common to Tahiti and Hawaii, but not found in Fiji, 359, 370; (_b_) genera found in Tahiti and Fiji, but not in Hawaii, 359, 380-8; (_c_) residual genera (found only in Tahiti), 359, 378. The absentees from Tahiti, 360, 388 American genera in Tahiti, 379, 380

Talasinga plains: _see_ Fiji

Tamus communis, 537

Tarawau tree of Fiji: _see_ Dracontomelon

Taraxacum, 536

Taro, 412, 415

Taubert, P., on Strongylodon, 566

Taviuni, 207-8

Taxus baccata, 537

Teesdalia, 567

Temperature: _see_ under Beach-temperature, Estuaries, Humboldt current

Tephrosia piscatoria; in Fiji, 42, 45, 547; in Hawaii, 56, 58, 59, 552, 553-6; buoyancy of seed and pod, 529, 562; modes of dispersal, 45, 150, 417, 562

Terminalia; relation between coast and inland species, =17=, 120, 533; buoyancy, 108, 114

Terminalia katappa; distribution, 52, 54, 551, 552, 563; buoyancy of fruits, 108, 114, 529; their occurrence in beach-drift, 437, 559

Terminalia litorea or littoralis, 108, 529, 563

Tertiary submergence of the Western Pacific archipelagoes, 245, 247, 249, 260, 267, =304-5=, 306, 503, 518, 520

Tetramolopium, 236-7, 243-4

Tetraonidæ (Grouse-family), as seed-dispersers, 279, 282, 511, 514

Teucrium inflatum, 416, 605

Teucrium scorodonia, 28, 537

Thacombauia, 265

Thalictrum flavum, 535

Thames; the vegetation of the banks, 37; the seed-drift, 37-8, 85-6, 430, 539; _see_ Additions and Corrections

Thauziès, M. A., 506

Thespesia populnea, 562; in Hawaii, 52, 552, 554-6, 558-9; in Fiji, 547, 550; seed-buoyancy, 105, 529, 530-1; beach-drift, 558-9

Thlaspi arvense, 536

Thomson, Mr. G. M., on the New Zealand flora, 508

Thomson, Dr. T., on the seed-structure of Barringtonia, 575

Thuret, M., on the buoyancy of seeds and fruits, 24, 63, 538, 542, 544, 546

Thymus, 28, 537, 568

Tibet; its flora, 34, 238

Tillandsia, 484, 486

Tonga; included in the Fijian area, 207; the littoral plants, 46; the proportion of endemic species, 232; absence of peculiar genera whether of the Compositæ or Lobeliaceæ or of any other order, 235, 266; several peculiar species of Eugenia, 349; a home for the Sapotaceæ, 374; Pritchardia pacifica thrives, 327; vegetation of the leeward plains, 550. Amongst other genera possessing peculiar species, or in other respects remarkable, are Podocarpus, 301; Pittosporum, 309; Freycinetia, 320; Elæocarpus, 335; &c.

Touchardia, 263, 594

Tournefortia argentea; distribution, 43, 64, 563; station, 42, 43, 551; buoyancy of fruits, 108, 114, 530, 531; their occurrence in beach-drift, 437

Tragopogon, fruit-buoyancy of British species, 536

Tree-Lobelias, 250-60, 266-7; _see_ Lobeliaceæ

Treub, Dr., on the new flora of Krakatoa, 206, 221, 577

Trevesia, 309, =310=, 371

Tribulus cistoides, 56, 58, 365, 366, 552, 553-6

Trichospermum, 265, =392=, 532

Trifolium, 150, 536

Triglochin, 34, 36, 537, 541, 545

Trimenia, 265

Triplasandra, 262-3

Trisetum, 272, 275

Tristan da Cunha, 242, 276, 286, 364, 366

Triumfetta procumbens, 42, 43, 45, 529, 550

Triumfetta rhomboidea, 529

Tropic-bird (Phaethon), 241

Tropical beach-drift, 434-9; _see_ Beach-drift

Tschudi, Dr., 493

Tupa, 251, 258

Tussilago farfara, 536, 546

Tussilago petasites, 536

Typha; seed-buoyancy, 537

Ulex europæus, 536

Ulmus campestris, 537

Umbelliferæ; station and fruit-buoyancy, 28, 537

Uncinia, 271-5

Urena lobata, 417, 427, 532, 604

Urera, 362

Urtica dioica, 537

Urticaceæ; represented in the early flora of Hawaii, 261, 263

Vaccinium, 4, 5, 269, 270, 272, 274-5, =280-2=, 290-4, 297, 305, 343

Valerianella, 536

Vallesia, 154

Valparaiso; beach-plants and beach-drift, 477-9

Vandellia crustacea, 605

Van Tieghem, on Brackenridgea, 570

Vanua Levu; area, altitude, and rainfall, 207-8, 216

Varigny, Dr. H. de, 506

Vascular cryptogams in the Pacific islands, 222, 592; _see_ also under Ferns and Lycopods

Veitchia, 401, 532

Verbena officinalis, 537

Veronica; buoyancy of the fruits of British species, 537

Veronica beccabunga, 37, 537, 568

Vicia; in the Hawaiian mountain-flora, 272, 278

Vicia faba; dispersed by pigeons, 150, 417

Vicia sativa; seed-buoyancy, 536

Victoria Institute, 66

Vigna; relation between littoral and inland species, 134, 139

Vigna lutea; in Hawaii, 56-7, 139, 552, 554, 558-9, 560; in Fiji, 550; distribution, 68, 563; seeds dispersed by currents, 57; seed-buoyancy, 56, 106, 529; seeds in beach-drift, 437-8, 558-9; seeds in river-drift, 435, 489 (species in last case unidentified)

Viola; in Hawaiian mountain-flora, 253, 272; modes of dispersal, 277; seed-buoyancy, 533, 536; seed-mucosity, 278, 567-8

Viscum, 355, 358, 377, 536

Vitex; relation between littoral and inland species, 134, 137

Vitex trifolia; station and distribution, 50, 551-2, 563-4; growing inland, 42, 547-8, 560; dispersal by currents, 56, 57, 564; buoyancy of fruits, 108, 122, 530; their occurrence in river-drift, 435, and in beach-drift, 559; dispersal by birds, 57, 122, 564; _see_ Additions and Corrections Variety, unifoliolata, 108, 547-8, 552, 556, 559, 560

Vitex agnus castus, 109, 431

Viti Levu, 207-8

Vivipary (germination on the plant), 78, 84-7, 132, 191, =468=, =521=, 564, 574-6; a lost habit with many plants and only indicated by anomalies in seed-structure, 79, 132, 470, 473, 521, 575

Vries, Prof. H. de, 573

Walker, Mr. F. P., 490, 495, 597

Wallace, Mr. A. R., 7, 242, 247, 259, 400

Wallis Island, 349, 551

Walsh, Canon, on the Cordyline of the Maoris, 420

Waltheria americana, 375, 416, 427, 533, 553-4, 604

Waltheria pyrolæfolia, 375

Warburg, Dr., 54; on Pandanus, 155-8, 580; on Freycinetia, 319-22, 510; on the Samoan species of Ficus, 387

Warming, E., on Rhizophora, 450, 453

Webster, Mr. H., on Ecuador, 495

Wedelia, 108, 116, 529, 551, 563

Weed, Prof., 277, 364

Weeds of Polynesia, 415, 427, 604

Weinmannia, =290-1=, 292-4, 297, 305

Whymper, Mr., on insects at great altitudes, 510, 583

Wichmann, A., on the submergence of the Western Pacific islands, 304

Wiglesworth, Mr., on Polynesian birds, 66, 296

Wikstrœmia, 45, 333, =348=, 357, 530

Wilkes, Commodore; meteorological observations on the summit of Mauna Loa, 210, 583, 585, =586=

Wilkesia, 236-7, 240, 243-4

Willow-leaved river-side plants, 395, 603

Wilson, Mr. S. B., on the vegetable food of Hawaiian birds, 151, 321

Winds; in plant-dispersal, 226, 259, 511; on the summit of Mauna Loa, 583; _see_ Drying-winds

Wolff, Dr., on Ecuador, 476, 486, 494-5

Wolffia, found by the author in Fiji, 408

Wollastonia, 109

Woodford, Mr. C. M., 66

Xerophytes, 32, 39, 201, 515

Ximenia americana, 107, 113, 115, 122, 128, 529, 563

Yams, 412-4

Zannichellia palustris, 537

Zippelius, on Scirpodendron, 406

RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

Transcriber’s Note

Some corrections have been made to the original text. In particular, punctuation has been normalized and ditto marks have been replaced by the text they represent. Scale bars have been added to the illustrations where a scale is indicated. Corrections listed in Additions and Corrections have been made in cases where words or phrases are to be substituted or removed. The page numbers in the Additions and Corrections have been corrected and the order has been adjusted accordingly.

Further corrections are as follows:

p. 48 seseedlings will float uninjured -> seedlings will float uninjured p. 467 in the case of Bruguiera rheedi -> in the case of Bruguiera rheedii