Chapter 29

COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

341. Copulative Conjunctions. These _join_ one word, phrase, or clause to another.

1. a) et simply connects.

b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two members have an internal connection with each other; as,--

parentēs līberīque, _parents and children_;

cum hominēs aestū febrīque jactantur, _when people are tossed about with heat and fever_.

c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things connected,--_and also, and indeed, and in fact_. After words of _likeness_ and _difference_, atque (ac) has the force of _as_, _than_. Thus:--

ego idem sentiō ac tū, _I think the same as you_;

haud aliter ac, _not otherwise than_.

d) neque (nec) means _and not_, _neither_, _nor_.

2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is appended to the first word of the second clause; but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next following word; as,--

ob eamque rem, _and on account of that thing_.

b) atque is used before vowels and consonants; ac never before vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu.

c) et nōn is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon a special word; as,--

vetus et nōn ignōbilis ōrātor, _an old and not ignoble orator_.

d) For _and nowhere_, _and never_, _and none_, the Latin regularly said nec ūsquam, nec umquam, nec ūllus, etc.

3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively; as,--

et ... et, _both ... and_;

neque (nec) ... neque (nec), _neither ... nor_;

cum ... tum, _while ... at the same time_;

tum ... tum, _not only ... but also_.

Less frequently:--

et ... neque; neque ... et.

a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations, often uses correlatives, especially et ... et, et ... neque, neque ... et, where the English employs but a single connective.

4. In enumerations--

a) The different members of a series may follow one another without connectives (Asyndeton; see § 346). Thus:--

ex cupiditātibus odia, discidia, discordiae, sēditiōnēs, bella nāscuntur, _from covetous desires spring up hatred, dissension, discord, sedition, wars_.

b) The different members may severally be connected by et (Polysyndeton). Thus:--

hōrae cēdunt et diēs et mēnsēs et annī, _hours and days and months and years pass away_.

c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et); as,--

Caesar in Carnutēs, Andēs Turonēsque legiōnēs dēdūcit, _Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the Carnutes, Andes, and Turones_.

342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an _alternative_.

1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive; as,--

cita mors venit aut victōria laeta, _(either) swift death or glad victory comes_.

b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alternatives; as,--

quī aethēr vel caelum nōminātur, _which is called aether or heaven_.

2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correlatively; as,--

aut ... aut, _either ... or_;

vel ... vel, _either ... or_;

sīve ... sīve, _if ... or if_.

343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote _opposition_.

1. a) sed, _but_, merely denotes opposition.

b) vērum, _but_, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.

c) autem, _but on the other hand_, _however_, marks a transition. It is always post-positive.

DEFINITION. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence, but is placed after one or more words.

d) at, _but_, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing argument.

e) atquī means _but yet_.

f) tamen, _yet_, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always.

g) vērō, _however_, _indeed_, _in truth_, is always post-positive.

2. Note the correlative expressions:--

nōn sōlum (nōn modo) ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_;

nōn modo nōn ... sed nē ... quidem, _not only not, but not even_; as,--

nōn modo tibi nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem factum tuum, _I not only am not angry with you, but I do not even blame your action_.

a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second member, nōn modo may be used for nōn modo nōn; as,--

adsentātiō nōn modo amīcō, sed nē līberō quidem digne est, _flattery is not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man._

344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the statement which they introduce as _following from_ or as _in conformity with_ what has preceded.

1. a) itaque = _and so_, _accordingly_.

b) ergō = _therefore_, _accordingly_.

c) igitur (regularly post-positive[58]) = _therefore_, _accordingly_.

2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.

345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote _cause_, or _give an explanation_. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, _for_.

346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted between coördinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus:--

a) A copulative Conjunction is omitted; as,--

avāritia īnfīnīta, īnsatiābilis est, _avarice is boundless (and) insatiable_;

Cn. Pompejō, M. Crassō cōnsulibus, _in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crassus_.

The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when the praenomen (_Mārcus_, _Gaius_, etc.) is expressed.

b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as,--

ratiōnēs dēfuērunt, ūbertās ōrātiōnis nōn dēfuit, _arguments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was not_.

ADVERBS.

347. 1. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs:--

etiam, _also_, _even_.

quoque (always post-positive), _also_.

quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. It is sometimes equivalent to the English _indeed_, _in fact_, but more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.

nē ... quidem means _not even_; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between; as, nē ille quidem, _not even he_.

tamen and vērō, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs.

2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in English, as nōn nūllī, _some_; but when nōn, nēmō, nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque ... neque, nōn ... nōn, nōn modo, or nē ... quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it; as,--

habeō hīc nēminem neque amīcum neque cognātum, _I have here no one, neither friend nor relative_.

nōn enim praetereundum est nē id quidem, _for not even that must be passed by._

a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud sciō an. Later writers use it freely with verbs.

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