Chapter 28
usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,--
concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs quoque ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, _they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators_.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is _merely implied by the context_; as,--
dēmōnstrābantur mihi praetereā, quae Sōcratēs dē immortālitāte animōrum disseruisset, _there were explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul_ (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);
Paetus omnēs librōs quōs pater suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit, _Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left_.
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute _an essential part of one complex idea_; as,--
nēmō avārus adhūc inventus est, cui, quod habēret, esset satis, _no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had_;
cum dīversās causās afferrent, dum fōrmam suī quisque et animī et ingeniī redderent, _as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent_;
quod ego fatear, pudeat? _should I be ashamed of a thing which I admit?_
2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,--
mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī sint in proeliīs interfectī, _it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle_. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus:--
As Verbs,--
a) They may be limited by adverbs; b) They admit an object; c) They have the properties of voice and tense.
As Nouns or Adjectives,--
a) They are declined; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.
THE INFINITIVE.
Infinitive without Subject Accusative.
326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.
NOTE.--The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express _purpose_; as, nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, _and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses_.
_A. As Subject._
327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, dēlectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,--
dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī, _it is sweet and noble to die for one's country_;
virōrum est fortium toleranter dolōrem patī, _it is the part of brave men to endure pain with patience_;
senātuī placuit lēgātōs mittere, _the Senate decided_ (lit. _it pleased the Senate_) _to send envoys_.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,--
aliud est īrācundum esse, aliud īrātum, _it is one thing to be irascible, another to be angry_;
impūne quaelibet facere, id est rēgem esse, _to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king_.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse ōtiōsō Themistoclī, lit. _it was permitted to Themistocles to be at leisure_. So sometimes with other Impersonals.
_B. As Object._
328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after--
volō, cupiō, mālō, nōlō, dēbeo, cōgitō, meditor, _purpose_, _ought_; _intend_; statuō, cōnstituō, _decide_; neglegō, _neglect_; audeō, _dare_; vereor, timeō, _fear_; studeō, contendō, _strive_; mātūrō, festīnō, properō, contendō, parō, _prepare_ (so parātus); _hasten_; incipiō, coepī, īnstituō, assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, _accustom _begin_; myself_ (so assuētus, īnsuētus, pergō, _continue_; assuēfactus); dēsinō, dēsistō, _cease_; discō, _learn_; possum, _can_; sciō, _know how_; cōnor, _try_; soleō, _am wont_;
as,--
tū hōs intuērī audēs, _do you dare to look on these men_?
Dēmosthenēs ad flūctūs maris dēclāmāre solēbat, _Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea_.
2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as,--
beātus esse sine virtūte nēmō potest, _no one can be happy without virtue_;
Catō esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, _Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so_.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.
_A. As Subject._
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, ūtile est, turpe est, fāma est, spēs est, fās est, nefās est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, cōnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,--
nihil in bellō oportet contemnī, _nothing ought to be despised in war_;
apertum est sibi quemque nātūrā esse cārum, _it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself_.
_B. As Object._
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs:
1. Most frequently after verbs of _saying_, _thinking_, _knowing_, _perceiving_, and the like (_Verba Sentiendi et Dēclārandī_). This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following: sentiō, audiō, videō, cognōscō; putō, jūdicō, spērō, cōnfīdō; sciō, meminī; dicō, affīrmō, negō (_say that ... not_), trādō, nārrō, fateor, respondeō, scrībō, prōmittō, glōrior. Also the phrases: certiōrem faciō (_inform_), memoriā teneō (_remember_), etc.
Examples:--
Epicūrēī putant cum corporibus simul animōs interīre, _the Epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body_;
Thalēs dīxit aquam esse initium rērum, _Thales said that water was the first principle of the universe_;
Dēmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, _Democritus says nothing is everlasting;_
spērō eum ventūrum esse, _I hope that he will come_.
II. With jubeō, _order_, and vetō, _forbid_; as,--
Caesar mīlitēs pontem facere jussit, _Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge_.
a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.
III. With patior and sinō, _permit_, _allow_; as,--
nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, _he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty_.
IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,--
nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, _nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me_;
eās rēs jactārī nōlēbat, _he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed_;
tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, _we desire that you enjoy your worth_.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regularly used in accordance with § 328, 1. But exceptions occur, especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,--
cupiō mē esse clēmentem, _I desire to be lenient_;
Tīmoleōn māluit sē diligī quam metuī, _Timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared_.
b. Volō also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nōlō the Subjunctive alone. (See § 296, 1, a.)
V. With Verbs of _emotion_ (_joy_, _sorrow_, _regret_, etc.), especially gaudeō, laetor, doleō; aegrē ferō, molestē ferō, graviter ferō, _am annoyed_, _distressed_; mīror, queror, indignor; as,--
gaudeō tē salvum advenīre, _I rejoice that you arrive safely_;
nōn molestē ferunt sē libīdinum vinculīs laxātōs ēsse, _they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion_;
mīror tē ad mē nihil scrībere, _I wonder that you write me nothing_.
a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod- clause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus:--
mīror quod nōn loqueris, _I wonder that you do not speak_.
VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as,--
cōgō tē hōc facere, _I compel you to do this_ (_cf._ tē hōc cōgō);
docuī tē contentum esse, _I taught you to be content_ (_cf._ tē modestiam docuī, _I taught you temperance_).
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others:--
a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,--
mīlitēs pontem facere jussī sunt, _the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge_;
pōns fierī jussus est, _a bridge was ordered built_;
mīlitēs castrīs exīre vetitī sunt, _the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp_;
Sēstius Clōdium accūsāre nōn est situs, _Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius_.
b) videor, _I am seen_, _I seem_; as,--
vidētur comperisse, _he seems to have discovered_.
c) dīcor, putor, exīstimor, jūdicor (in all persons); as,--
dīcitur in Italiam vēnisse, _he is said to have come into Italy_;
Rōmulus prīmus rēx Rōmānōrum fuisse putātur, _Romulus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans_.
d) fertur, feruntur, trāditur, trāduntur (only in the third person); as,--
fertur Homērus caecus fuisse, _Homer is said to have been blind_;
carmina Archilochī contumēliīs referta esse trāduntur, _Archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of abuse_.
NOTE.--In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as--
trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, _the story goes that Homer was blind_.
Infinitive with Adjectives.
333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parātus, assuētus, etc.; see § 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,--
contentus dēmōnstrāsse, _contented to have proved_;
audāx omnia perpetī, _bold for enduring everything_.
Infinitive in Exclamations.
334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying _scorn_, _indignation_, or _regret_. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples:--
huncine sōlem tam nigrum surrēxe mihi, _to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me!_
sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, _to stay whole days at the villa_.
Historical Infinitive.
335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,--
interim cottīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, _meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui_.
PARTICIPLES.
Tenses of the Participle.
336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.
2. The Present Participle denotes action _contemporary with_ that of the verb. Thus:--
audiō tē loquentem = _you_ ARE _speaking and I hear you_;
audiēbam tē loquentem = _you_ WERE _speaking and I heard you_;
audiam tē loquentem = _you_ WILL BE _speaking and I shall hear you._
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force; as,--
assurgentem rēgem resupīnat, _as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down._
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action _prior to_ that of the verb. Thus:--
locūtus taceō = _I_ HAVE _spoken and am silent_;
locūtus tacui = _I_ HAD _spoken and then was silent_;
locūtus tacēbō = _I_ SHALL _speak and then shall be silent._
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitrātus, ausus, ratus, gāvīsus, solitus, ūsus, cōnfīsus, diffīsus, secūtus, veritus.
Use of Participles.
337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:--
glōria est cōnsentiēns laus bonōrum, _glory is the unanimous praise of the good_;
Conōn mūrōs ā Lysandrō dīrutōs reficit, _Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander._
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote:--
a) Time; as,--
omne malum nāscēns facile opprimitur, _every evil is easily crushed at birth._
b) A Condition; as,--
mente ūtī nōn possumus cibō et pōtiōne complētī, _if gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects_.
c) Manner; as,--
Solōn senēscere sē dīcēbat multa in diēs addiscentem, _Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily._
d) Means; as,--
sōl oriēns diem cōnficit, _the sun, by its rising, makes the day._
e) Opposition ('_though_'); as,--
mendācī hominī nē vērum quidem dīcentī crēdimus, _we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth._
f) Cause; as,--
perfidiam veritus ad suōs recessit, _since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops._
3. Videō and audiō, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as,--
videō tē fugientem, _I see you fleeing._
a. So frequently faciō, fingō, indūcō, etc.; as,--
eīs Catōnem respondentem facimus, _we represent Cato replying to them_;
Homērus Laërtem colentem agrum facit, _Homer represents Laërtes tilling the field._
4. The Future Active Participle (except futūrus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote _purpose_; as,--
vēnērunt castra oppugnātūrī, _they came to assault the camp._
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coördinate clause; as,--
urbem captam dīruit, _he captured and destroyed the city_ (lit. _he destroyed the city captured_).
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,--
post urbem conditam, _after the founding of the city_;
Quīnctius dēfēnsus, _the defense of Quinctius_;
quibus animus occupātus, _the preoccupation of the mind with which._
7. Habeō sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as,--
equitātus quem coāctum habēbat, _the cavalry which he had collected._
8. The Gerundive denotes _obligation_, _necessity_, etc. Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:--
liber legendus, _a book worth reading_;
lēgēs observandae, _laws deserving of observance_.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,--
veniendum est, _it is necessary to come_;
oblīvīscendum est offēnsārum, _one must forget injuries_;
numquam prōditōrī crēdendum est, _you must never trust a traitor_;
suō cuique ūtendum est jūdiciō, _every man must use his own judgment_.
2) After cūrō, _provide for_; dō, trādō, _give over_; relinquō, _leave_; concēdō, _hand over_, and some other verbs, instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose; as,--
Caesar pontem in Ararī faciendum cūrāvit, _Caesar provided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar_;
imperātor urbem mīlitibus dīripiendam concessit, _the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder_.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, 1.
THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:--
1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used--
a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200, 202); as,--
cupiditās dominandī, _desire of ruling_;
ars scrībendī, _the art of writing_.
b) With Adjectives; as,--
cupidus audiendī, _desirous of hearing_.
c) With causā, grātiā; as,--
discendī causā, _for the sake of learning_.
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used--
a) With Adjectives; as,--
aqua ūtilis est bibendō, _water is useful for drinking_.
b) With Verbs (rarely); as,--
adfuī scrībendō, _I was present at the writing_.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,--
homō ad agendum nātus est, _man is born for action_.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used--
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§ 218, 219); as,--
mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, _the mind is nourished by learning and reflection_.
Themistoclēs maritimōs praedōnēs cōnsectandō mare tūtum reddidit, _Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates_.
b) After the prepositions ā, dē, ex, in; as,--
summa voluptās ex discendō capitur, _the keenest pleasure is derived from learning_;
multa dē bene beātēque vīvendō ā Platōne disputāta sunt, _there was much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily_.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.
339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction _may be, and very often is, used_. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus:--
GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. cupidus urbem videndī, _desirous of cupidus urbis videndae; seeing the city_. dēlector ōrātōrēs legendō, _I am dēlector ōrātōribus legendīs charmed with reading the orators_.
2. The Gerundive Construction _must be used_ to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,--
locus castrīs mūniendīs aptus, _a place adapted to fortifying a camp_;
ad pācem petendam vēnērunt, _they came to ask peace_;
multum temporis cōnsūmō in legendīs poētīs, _I spend much time in reading the poets_.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly--
philosophī cupidī sunt vērum invēstīgandī, _philosophers are eager for discovering truth_ (rarely vērī invēstīgandī);
studium plūra cognōscendī, _a desire of knowing more_ (not plūrium cognōscendōrum).
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as,--
hostēs in spem potiundōrum castrōrum vēnerant, _the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp_.
5. The Genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively. Thus:--
mulier suī servandī causā aufūgit, _the woman fled for the sake of saving herself_;
lēgātī in castra vēnērunt suī pūrgandī causā, _the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves_.
So nostrī servandī causā, _for the sake of saving ourselves_.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote _purpose_; as,--
quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvertundae, _which he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty_.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas; as,--
decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;
quīndecimvirī sacrīs faciundīs, _quindecimvirs for performing the sacrifices_.
THE SUPINE.
340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express _purpose_; as,--
lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt, _envoys came to Caesar to congratulate him_.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,--
pācem petītum ōrātōrēs Rōmam mittunt, _they send envoys to Rome to ask for peace_.
b. Note the phrase:--
dō (collocō) fīliam nūptum, _I give my daughter in marriage_.
2. The Supine in -ū is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incrēdibilis, jūcundus, optimus, etc.; also with fās est, nefās est, opus est; as,--
haec rēs est facilis cognitū, _this thing is easy to learn_;
hōc est optimum factū, _this is best to do_.
a. Only a few Supines in -ū are in common use, chiefly audītū, cognitū, dictū, factū, vīsū.
b. The Supine in -ū never takes an Object.
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