Chapter 26
AGREEMENT.
With One Subject.
254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as,--
vōs vidētis, _you see_;
pater fīliōs īnstituit, _the father trains his sons_.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,--
sēditiō repressa est, _the mutiny was checked_.
3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,--
Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, _Tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side_;
nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, _not every error is to be called folly_.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,--
Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, _Corioli, a town of the Volsci, was captured_.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:--
a) In Number; as,--
multitūdō hominum convēnerant, _a crowd of men had gathered_.
b) In Gender; as,--
duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, _two thousand (men) were crucified_.
With Two or More Subjects.
255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as,--
pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, _the father and son died_.
2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,--
a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,--
mortuus est pater et fīlius;
pater mortuus est et fīlius.
b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel; neque ... neque; as,--
neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, _neither father nor son died_.
3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as,--
temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, _rashness and ignorance are bad_.
a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.
4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the _first_ person rather than the _second_, and the _second_ rather than the _third_; as,--
sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, _if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well_.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
VOICES.
256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,--
ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, _I shall not allow him to defend himself_.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something _in his own interest_; as,--
vēlātus tempora, _having veiled his temples_.
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,--
tunicā indūcitur artūs, _he covers his limbs with a tunic_.
3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,--
curritur, _people run_ (lit. _it is run_);
ventum est, _he_ (_they_, etc.) _came_ (lit. _it was come_).
TENSES.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:--
a) The _period of time_ to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or Future.
b) The _kind of action_: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table:--
KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME. ACTION. PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE. UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future: scrībō, _I write_. Perfect: scrībam, _I shall scrīpsī, _I write_. wrote_. GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future: scrībō, _I am scrībēbam, _I was scrībam, _I shall writing_. writing_. be writing_. COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future Perfect: Perfect: scrīpseram, _I had scrīpserō, _I scrīpsī, _I have written_. shall have written_. written_.
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).
Principal and Historical Tenses.
258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.
Present Indicative.
259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities:--
1. It is used to denote _a general truth_, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,--
virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, _virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them_ (i.e. always does so).
2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,--
dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, _while they try to avoid_ (vītant) _vices, they rush into opposite ones_.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as,--
Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, _Caesar demanded a large number of hostages_ (lit. _demands_).
4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as,--
jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, _I have long been desiring to visit you_ (i.e. I desire and have long desired).
Imperfect Indicative.
260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action _going on in past time_; as,--
librum legēbam, _I was reading a book_.
a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of _description_ (as opposed to mere _narration_).
2. From the notion of action _going on_, there easily develops the notion of _repeated_ or _customary_ action; as,--
lēgātōs interrogābat, _he kept asking the envoys_;
C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, _as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius_.
3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,--
hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant, _the enemy tried to prevent_ (prohibēbant) _our men from advancing within the fortifications_ ('Conative');
ad proelium sē expediēbant, _they were beginning to get ready for battle_ ('Inceptive').
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as,--
domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, _he had had his residence at Rome for many years_ (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).
Future Indicative.
261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: '_If he comes, I shall be glad_,' where we really mean: '_If he shall come_,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, _say!_
Perfect Indicative.
262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the _state resulting from a completed act_, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,--
nōvī, cognōvī, _I know_ (lit. _I have become acquainted with_);
cōnsuēvī, _I am wont_ (lit. _I have become accustomed_).
B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of _narration_ (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of _description_); as,--
Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī captivōs negāvit esse ūtile, _Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned_.
1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').
Pluperfect Indicative.
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act _completed in the past_; as,--
Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, _Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats_.
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,--
nōveram, _I knew_.
Future Perfect Indicative.
264. The Future Perfect denotes an action _completed in future time_. Thus:--
scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, _I will write the letter when you have returned_ (lit. _when you shall have returned_).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as,--
nōverō, _I shall know_.
Epistolary Tenses.
265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,--
nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī quidquam audieram et ad tuās omnēs epistulās jam rescrīpseram, _I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters_.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
Sequence of Tenses.
267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:--
PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,--
videō quid faciās, _I see what you are doing_.
vidēbō quid faciās, _I shall see what you are doing_.
vīderō quid faciās, _I shall have seen what you are doing_.
videō quid fēcerīs, _I see what you have done_.
vidēbō quid fēcerīs, _I shall see what you have done_.
vīderō quid fēcerīs, _I shall have seen what you have done_.
HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,--
vidēbam quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.
vīdī quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.
vīderam quid facerēs, _I had seen what you were doing_.
vidēbam quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.
vīdī quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.
vīderam quid fēcissēs, _I had seen what you had done_.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.
Peculiarities of Sequence.
268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,--
dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, _I have shown why I took the case_ (lit. _I showed why_, etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,--
videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, _I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are_ (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative, ostendī, _I showed_).
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus:--
Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, _Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted_;
Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, _he exhorted the Gauls to take arms_.
4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,--
honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā tamen pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, _virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness_.
5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,--
sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem tū quidem eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, _if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live_.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:--
rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jūdicārit, _the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy_.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply _as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act_, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jūdicārit in the above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, _he adjudged_. To denote a result as _something continuous_, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:
a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as,--
Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit, _Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored_ (Direct statement: nōn potest restitui);
ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō flagrantius studium vīderim, _Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire_ (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī, _I have seen in no one_).
NOTE.--This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used historically; as,--
nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs, _I do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter_.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive.
Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.
269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:--
1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses.
b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus:--
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, _the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order_;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret, _the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order_;
Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit, _the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered_;
Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāvisset, _the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered._
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:--
timeō nē veniat, _I am afraid he will come_;
Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, _Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt_.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus sim and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as,--
nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, _I do not doubt that my father will come_;
nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, _I did not doubt that my father would come_.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,--
nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, _I do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;_
nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, _I did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished._
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but _with reference to the verb on which they depend._ Thus:--
a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as _contemporaneous with_ the time of the verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsequī, _he seems to be gaining honors_;
vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, _he seemed to be gaining honors_.
b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as _prior to_ the time of the verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seems to have gained honors_;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seemed to have gained honors_.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as _subsequent to_ that of the verb on which it depends; as,--
vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seems to be about to gain honors_;
vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seemed to be about to gain honors_.
2. Where the English says '_ought to have done_,' '_might have done_,' etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,--
dēbuit dīcere, _he ought to have said_ (lit. _owed it to say_);
opōrtuit venīre, _he ought to have come_;
potuit vidēre, _he might have seen_.
a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,--
hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, _this ought long ago to have been done_.
3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,--
spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, _I hope you will repent of your fickleness_ (lit. _hope it will happen that you repent_);
spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, _I hope that the enemy will be kept off_.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,--
spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, _I hope the enemy will be conquered_.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,--
spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, _I hope the letter will have been written_;
dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, _I say that I shall have gained enough_.
THE MOODS.
MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
The Indicative in Independent Sentences.
271. The Indicative is used for the _statement of facts_, _the supposition of facts_, or _inquiry after facts_.
1. Note the following idiomatic uses:--
a) With possum; as,--
possum multa dīcere, _I might say much_;
poteram multa dīcere, _I might have said much_ (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, ūtilius est, and some others; as,--
longum est ea dīcere, _it would be tedious to tell that_;
difficile est omnia persequī, _it would be difficult to enumerate everything_.
The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.
272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something--
1. As willed--Volitive Subjunctive; 2. As desired--Optative Subjunctive; 3. Conceived of as possible--Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action _as willed_. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:--
A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses _an exhortation_. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē. Thus:--
eāmus, _let us go_;
amēmus patriam, _let us love our country_;
nē dēspērēmus, _let us not despair_.
B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a _command_. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used--
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,--
dīcat, _let him tell_;
dīcant, _let them tell_;
quārē sēcēdant improbī, _wherefore let the wicked depart!_
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,--
istō bonō ūtāre, _use that advantage_;
modestē vīvās, _live temperately_.
C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with nē, to express _a prohibition_. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,--
nē repugnētis, _do not resist!_
tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, _don't leave her!_
impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, _let not the impious dare to appease the gods!_
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive, or by cavē or cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as,--
nōlī hōc facere, _don't do this_ (lit. _be unwilling to do_)!
nōlīte mentīrī, _do not lie!_
cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, _do not forgive, do not pity!_
cavē nē haec faciās, _do not do this_ (lit. _take care lest you do_)!
D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used _in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety_. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is nōn. Thus:--
quid faciam, _what shall I do?_
ego redeam, _I go back!_
huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! _are we to bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!_
quid facerem, _what was I to do?_
hunc ego nōn dīligam, _should I not cherish this man?_
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in character, and do not expect an answer.
E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something _as granted or conceded for the sake of argument_. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus:--
sit hōc vērum, _I grant that this is true_ (lit. _let this be true_);
nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, _I grant there is not strength in old age_;
fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, _I grant that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?_
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of _wishing_. The negative is regularly nē.
1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of _as possible_.
dī istaec prohibeant, _may the gods prevent that!_
falsus utinam vātēs sim, _oh that I may be a false prophet!_
nē veniant, _may they not come!_
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the _regret that something is not so now_; the Pluperfect that something _was not so in the past_. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,--
utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, _would that you were saying that in earnest_ (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);
Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, _would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo_;
utinam nē nātus essem, _would that I had not been born_.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses _a possibility_. The negative is nōn. The following uses are to be noted:--
1. The 'May' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may designate _a mere possibility_ (English auxiliary _may_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--
dīcat aliquis, _some one may say_;
dīxerit aliquis, _some one may say_.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as _depending upon a condition expressed or understood_ (English auxiliary _should_, _would_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--
fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, _one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it_ (i.e. if one should make the trial);
crēdiderim, _I should believe_.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms of statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus:--
velim mihi ignōscās, _I wish you would forgive me_;
nōlim putēs mē jocārī, _I don't want you to think I'm joking_.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as,--
diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, _time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons._
3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.--In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with _indefinite_ force; § 356, 3) of a few verbs of _perceiving_, _seeing_, _thinking_, and the like; as,--
videās, cernās, _one can see_, _one can perceive_;
crēderēs, _one could believe_;
vidērēs, cernerēs, _one could see_, _perceive_;
putārēs, _one could imagine_.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as,--
vellem id quidem, _I should wish that_ (i.e. were I bold enough).
The Imperative.
281. The Imperative is used in _commands_, _admonitions_ and _entreaties_ (negative nē), as,--
ēgredere ex urbe, _depart from the city_;
mihi ignōsce, _pardon me_;
valē, _farewell_.
1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed--
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences; as,--
rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, _I will lay the matter before you; do you (then) consider it_;
sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, _if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature._
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,--
cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, _the consuls shall have supreme power_;
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, _no one shall bury a dead body in the city_;
amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus et condiciōnibus estō, _let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions_;
quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, _let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property_);
ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, _forgive your neighbor often, yourself never_.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (_why not?_) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,--
quīn abīs, _go away!_ (lit. _why don't you go away?_);
quīn vōcem continētis, _keep still!_ (lit. _why don't you stop your voices?_);
quīn equōs cōnscendimus, _let us mount our horses_ (lit. _why do we not mount our horses?_)
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō (_that_, _in order that_), nē (_in order that not, lest_), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,--
edimus ut vīvāmus, _we eat that we may live;_
adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, _help me, in order that this may be done more easily;_
portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, _he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury._
a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,--
haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, _they are doing this in order to frighten Chremes._
b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus:--
ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, _in order that we may not do anything carelessly_.