Chapter 25
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
242. 1. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of _emphasis_, _contrast_, or _clearness_. Thus ordinarily:--
videō, _I see_; amat, _he loves_.
But ego tē videō, et tū mē vidēs, _I see you, and you see me_.
2. The Genitives meī, tuī, nostrī, vestrī are used only as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus:--
memor tuī, _mindful of you_;
dēsīderium vestrī, _longing for you_;
nēmō vestrum, _no one of you_.
a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.
3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'
4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus:--
virtūs amīcitiās conciliat et cōnservat, _virtue establishes friendships and maintains them_ (not eās cōnservat).
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
243. 1. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of _clearness_. Thus:--
patrem amō, _I love my father_;
dē fīliī morte flēbās, _you wept for the death of your son_.
But--
dē morte fīliī meī flēbās, _you wept for the death of my son_.
a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or contrast, it precedes; as,--
suā manū līberōs occīdit, _with his own hand he slew his children_;
meā quidem sententiā, _in my opinion at least_.
2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive; as,--
metus vester, _fear of you_;
dēsīderium tuum, _longing for you_.
3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsīus or ipsōrum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,--
meā ipsīus operā, _by my own help_;
nostrā ipsōrum operā, _by our own help_.
a. So sometimes other Genitives; as,--
meā ūnīus operā, _by the assistance of me alone_.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
244. 1. The Reflexive Pronoun sē and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a double use:--
I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand,--'Direct Reflexives'; as,--
sē amant, _they love themselves_;
suōs amīcōs adjuvāt, _he helps his own friends_;
eum ōrāvī, ut sē servāret, _I besought him to save himself_.
II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause,--'Indirect Reflexives'; as,--
mē ōrāvit ut sē dēfenderem, _he besought me to defend him_ (lit. _that I defend himself_);
mē ōrāvērunt, ut fortūnārum suārum dēfēnsiōnem susciperem, _they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes_.
a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.
2. The Genitive suī is regularly employed, like meī and tuī, as an Objective Genitive, _e.g._ oblītus suī, _forgetful of himself_; but it occasionally occurs--particularly in post-Augustan writers--in place of the Possessive suus; as, fruitur fāmā suī, _he enjoys his own fame_.
3. Sē and suus are sometimes used in the sense, _one's self_, _one's own_, where the reference is not to any particular person; as,--
sē amāre, _to love one's self_;
suum genium propitiāre, _to propitiate one's own genius_.
4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning _his own_, _their own_, etc., referring not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,--
Hannibalem suī cīvēs ē cīvitāte ējēcērunt, _his own fellow-citizens drove out Hannibal._
a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque; as,--
suus quemque error vexat, _his own error troubles each_.
5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and tū (§ 85); as,--
vōs dēfenditis, _you defend yourselves_.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
245. 1. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun ('each other'), but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases: inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē; as,--
Belgae obsidēs inter sē dedērunt, _the Belgae gave each other hostages_ (lit. _among themselves_);
amāmus inter nōs, _we love each other_;
Gallī inter sē cohortātī sunt, _the Gauls exhorted each other_.
a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Hīc, Ille, Iste.
246. 1. Where hīc and ille are used in contrast, hīc usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.
2. Hīc and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'; as,--
Themistoclēs hīs verbīs epistulam mīsit, _Themistocles sent a letter (couched) in the following words_;
illud intellegō, omnium ōra in mē conversa esse, _I understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward me_.
3. Ille often means _the famous_; as, Solōn ille, _the famous Solon_.
4. Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homō, _that fellow!_
5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun; as, hīc est honor, meminisse officium suum, _this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty._
Is.
247. 1. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative quī. Thus:--
Maximum, eum quī Tarentum recēpit, dīlēxī, _I loved Maximus, the man who retook Tarentum_.
a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of _such_ (= tālis); as,--
nōn sum is quī terrear, _I am not such a person as to be frightened_.
b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire clause; as,--
nōn suspicābātur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multōs testēs nōbīs reliquōs esse, _he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses enough left_.
Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use.
2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, '_he_,' '_she_,' '_it_,' '_they_,' '_them_.'
3. When the English uses '_that of_,' '_those of_,' to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun: as,--
in exercitū Sullae et posteā in Crassī fuerat, _he had been in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus_;
nūllae mē fābulae dēlectant nisi Plautī, _no plays delight me except those of Plautus_.
4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense: _and that too_; as,--
vincula, et ea sempiterna, _imprisonment, and that too permanently_.
Īdem.
248. 1. Īdem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of _also_, _likewise_; as,--
quod idem mihi contigit, _which likewise happened to me_ (lit. _which, the same thing_);
bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellāmus, _a good man, whom we call also wise_.
For īdem atque (ac), _the same as_, see § 341, 1. c.
Ipse.
249. 1. Ipse, literally _self_, acquires its special force from the context; as,--
eō ipsō diē, _on that very day_;
ad ipsam rīpam, _close to the bank_;
ipsō terrōre, _by mere fright_;
valvae sē ipsae aperuērunt, _the doors opened of their own accord_;
ipse aderat, _he was present in person_.
2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject; as,--
sēcum ipsī loquuntur, _they talk with themselves_;
sē ipse continēre nōn potest, _he cannot contain himself_
3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of _marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity_; as,--
Persae pertimuērunt nē Alcibiadēs ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et cum suīs in grātiam redīret, _the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen_;
ea molestissimē ferre dēbent hominēs quae ipsōrum culpā contrācta sunt, _men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault_ (as opposed to the fault of others).
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
250. Agreement. 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands; as,--
mulier quam vidēbāmus, _the woman whom we saw_;
bona quibus fruimur, _the blessings which we enjoy_.
2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see § 235, B, 2). Thus:--
pater et fīlius, qui captī sunt, _the father and son who were captured_;
stultitia et timiditās quae fugienda sunt, _folly and cowardice which must be shunned_;
honōrēs et victōriae quae sunt fortuīta, _honors and victories, which are accidental_.
3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,--
carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, _the prison, which is called Lautumiae_;
Belgae, quae est tertia pars, _the Belgians, who are the third part_.
4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent; as,--
pars quī bēstiīs objectī sunt, _a part (of the men) who were thrown to beasts._
5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent; as,--
nātus eō patre quō dīxī, _born of the father that I said_.
251. Antecedent. 1. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted; as,--
quī nātūram sequitur sapiēns est, _he who follows Nature is wise_.
2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective); as,--
nostra quī remānsimus caedēs, _the slaughter of us who remained_;
servīlī tumultū, quōs ūsus ac disciplīna sublevārunt, _at the uprising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted_ (servīlī = servōrum).
3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,--
erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, _there were two routes, by which (routes)._
4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus:--
a) When the relative clause stands first; as,--
quam quisque nōvit artem, in hāc sē exerceat, _let each one practice the branch which he knows._
b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,--
nōn longē ā Tolōsātium fīnibus absunt, quae cīvitās est in prōvinciā, _they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is in our province._
c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,--
Themistoclēs dē servīs suīs, quem habuit fidēlissimum, mīsit, _Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had_.
d) In expressions of the following type--
quā es prūdentiā; quae tua est prūdentia, _such is your prudence_ (lit. _of which prudence you are; which is your prudence_).
5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus _the boy I saw_ must be puer quem vīdī.
6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,--
quō factum est, _by this it happened_;
quae cum ita sint, _since this is so_;
quibus rēbus cognitīs, _when these things became known_.
7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,--
numquam dignē satis laudārī philosophia poterit, cui quī pāreat, omne tempus aetātis sine molestiā possit dēgere, _philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass every period of life without annoyance_ (lit. _he who obeys which, etc._).
Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia; but cui is governed by pāreat, which is subordinate to possit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
252. 1. Quis, _any one_, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with sī, nisi, nē, num; as,--
sī quis putat, _if any one thinks_.
2. Aliquis (adj. aliquī) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usually to the English _some one_, _somebody_, _some_; as,--
nunc aliquis dīcat mihī, _now let somebody tell me_;
utinam modo agātur aliquid, _oh that something may be done_.
3. Quīdam, _a certain one_, is still more definite than aliquis; as,--
homō quīdam, _a certain man_ (i.e., _one whom I have in mind_).
a. Quīdam (with or without quasi, _as if_) is sometimes used in the sense: _a sort of_, _kind of;_ as,--
cognātiō quaedam, _a sort of relationship_;
mors est quasi quaedam migrātiō, _death is a kind of transfer as it were_.
4. Quisquam, _any one_, _any one whoever_ (more general than quis), and its corresponding adjective ūllus, _any_, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and in clauses of comparison; as,--
jūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam, _justice never harms anybody_;
sī quisquam, Catō sapiēns fuit, _if anybody was ever wise, Cato was_;
potestne quisquam sine perturbātiōne animī īrāscī, _can anybody be angry without excitement?_
sī ūllō modō poterit, _if it can be done in any way_;
taetrior hīc tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiōrum, _he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors_.
5. Quisque, _each one_, is used especially under the following circumstances:--
a) In connection with suus. See § 244, 4, a.
b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,--
quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, _what falls to each, that let him hold_.
c) In connection with superlatives; as,--
optimus quisque, _all the best_ (lit. _each best one_).
d) With ordinal numerals; as,--
quīntō quōque annō, _every four years_ (lit. _each fifth year_).
6. Nēmō, _no one_, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives used substantively; as,--
nēmō mortālis, _no mortal_;
nēmō Rōmānus, _no Roman_.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
253. 1. Alius, _another_, and alter, _the other_, are often used correlatively; as,--
aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, _he says one thing, he thinks another_;
aliī resistunt, aliī fugiunt, _some resist, others flee_;
alter exercitum perdidit, alter vēndidit, _one ruined the army, the other sold it_;
alterī sē in montem recēpērunt, alterī ad impedīmenta sē contulērunt, _the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves to the baggage_.
2. Where the English says _one does one thing, another another_, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement; as,--
alius aliud amat, _one likes one thing, another another_;
aliud aliīs placet, _one thing pleases some, another others_.
a. So sometimes with adverbs; as,--
aliī aliō fugiunt, _some flee in one direction, others in another_.
3. The Latin also expresses the notion '_each other_' by means of alius repeated; as,--
Gallī alius alium cohortātī sunt, _the Gauls encouraged each other_.
4. Cēterī means _the rest_, _all the others_; as,--
cēterīs praestāre, _to be superior to all the others_.
5. Reliquī means _the others_ in the sense of _the rest_, _those remaining_,--hence is the regular word with numerals; as,--
reliquī sex, _the six others_.
6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of _some one or other_; as,--
causidicus nescio quis, _some pettifogger or other_;
mīsit nescio quem, _he sent some one or other_;
nescio quō pactō, _somehow or other_.
* * * * *