Chapter 21
SUBJECT.
166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.
1. The Subject may be--
a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,--
puer scrībit, _the boy writes_;
hīc scrībit, _this man writes_.
b) An Infinitive; as,--
decōrum est prō patriā morī, _to die for one's county is a noble thing_.
c) A Clause; as,--
opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, _it happened opportunely that you saw_.
2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,--
scrībō, _I write_; videt, _he sees._
a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as,--
ego scrībō et tū legis, _I write, and you read._
3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,--
rēctē ille (_sc_. facit), _he does rightly_; consul profectus (_sc_. est), _the consul set out_.
PREDICATE NOUNS.
167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.
168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,--
Cicerō ōrātor fuit, _Cicero was an orator_;
Numa creātus est rēx, _Numa was elected king_.
1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,--
philosophia est vītae magistra, _philosophy is the guide of life_.
2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are--
a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,--
Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, _Croesus did not always remain king_.
b) Passive verbs of _making_, _calling_, _regarding_, etc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,--
Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, _Romulus was called king_;
habitus est deus, _he was regarded as a god_.
APPOSITIVES.
169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,--
Cicerō cōnsul, _Cicero, the Consul_;
urbs Rōma, _the city Rome_.
2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,--
opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, _the works of Cicero, the orator_;
apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, _in the works of Herodotus, the father of history_.
3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,--
assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, _flattery, the promoter of evils_.
4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,--
Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, _at Corinth, a city of Greece_.
5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,--
mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, _the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy_.
* * * * *
THE CASES.
THE NOMINATIVE.
170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.
* * * * *
THE VOCATIVE.
171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,--
crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, _believe me, judges_.
1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus Albānus, _hear ye, Alban people!_
2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, _O son, alone the source of my great power_.
* * * * *
THE ACCUSATIVE.
172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.
173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:--
A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,--
cōnsulem interfēcit, _he slew the consul_;
legō librum, _I read the book_.
B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,--
librum scrīpsī, _I wrote a book_ (i.e. produced one);
templum struit, _he constructs a temple_.
174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.
a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed _absolutely_; as,--
rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, _it is rumored that my son is in love_.
Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.
175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in--
parentēs amāmus, _we love our parents_;
mare aspicit, _he gazes at the sea_.
2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:--
a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:--
1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,--
hostēs circumstāre, _to surround the enemy;_
urbem praeterīre, _to pass by the city;_
mūrōs trānscendere, _to climb over the walls._
2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,--
adīre urbem, _to visit the city;_
peragrāre Italiam, _to travel through Italy;_
inīre magistrātum, _to take office;_
subīre perīculum, _to undergo danger._
b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as,--
queror fātum, _I lament my fate;_
doleō ejus mortem, _I grieve at his death;_
rīdeō tuam stultitiam, _I laugh at your folly._
So also lūgeō, maereō, _mourn_; gemō, _bemoan_; horreō, _shudder_, and others.
c) The impersonals decet, _it becomes_; dēdecet, _it is unbecoming_; juvat, _it pleases_, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,--
mē decet haec dīcere, _it becomes me to say this._
d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object; as,--
galeam induitur, _he puts on his helmet;_
cīnctus tempora hederā, _having bound his temples with ivy;_
nōdō sinus collēcta, _having gathered her dress in a knot._
Accusative of the Result Produced.
176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as--
librum scrībō, _I write a book_;
domum aedificō, _I build a house_.
2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a _Neuter Pronoun_, or _Adjective_, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:--
a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,--
haec gemēbat, _he made these moans_;
idem glōriārī, _to make the same boast_;
eadem peccat, _he makes the same mistakes_.
b) A Neuter Adjective,--particularly _Adjectives of number_ or _amount_,--multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,--
multa egeō, _I have many needs_;
pauca studet, _he has few interests_;
multum valet, _he has great strength_;
nihil peccat, _he makes no mistake_.
NOTE.--In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as--
minitantem vāna, _making vain threats_;
acerba tuēns, _giving a fierce look_;
dulce loquentem, _sweetly talking_.
3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,--
multum sunt in vēnātiōne, _they are much engaged in hunting_.
a. So also plūrimum, _very greatly_; plērumque, _generally_; aliquid, _somewhat_; quid, _why?_ nihil, _not at all_; etc.
4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,--
sempiternam servitūtem serviat, _let him serve an everlasting slavery_;
vītam dūram vīxī, _I have lived a hard life_.
a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,--
stadium currit, _he runs a race_;
Olympia vincit, _he wins an Olympic victory_.
5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of _tasting_ and _smelling_; as,--
piscis mare sapit, _the fish tastes of the sea_;
ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, _the speeches smack of the past_.
Two Accusatives--Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.
177. Many Verbs of _Making_, _Choosing_, _Calling_, _Showing_, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,--
mē hērēdem fēcit, _he made me heir_.
Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also--
eum jūdicem cēpēre, _they took him as judge_;
urbem Rōmam vocāvit, _he called the city Rome_;
sē virum praestitit, _he showed himself a man_.
2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,--
hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, _covetousness renders men blind_;
Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, _Apollo adjudged Socrates the wisest man_.
a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate Accusative.
3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,--
urbs Rōma vocāta est, _the city was called Rome_.
a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and efficiō, for example, never take it.
Two Accusatives--Person and Thing.
178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:--
a) Verbs of _requesting_ and _demanding_; as,--
ōtium dīvōs rogat, _he asks the gods for rest_;
mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, _you demand two speeches of me_.
So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,--
opem ā tē poscō, _I demand aid of you_.
b) Verbs of _teaching_ (doceō and its compounds); as,--
tē litterās doceō, _I teach you your letters_.
c) Verbs of _inquiring_; as,--
tē haec rogō, _I ask you this_;
tē sententiam rogō, _I ask you your opinion_.
d) Several Special Verbs; _viz_. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,--
hōc tē moneō, _I give you this advice_;
mē id accūsās, _you bring this accusation against me_;
id cōgit nōs nātūra, _nature compels us (to) this_.
e) One Verb of _concealing_, cēlō; as,--
nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, _I have not concealed the conversation from you_.
2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,--
omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, _he was taught all accomplishments_;
rogātus sum sententiam, _I was asked my opinion_;
multa ādmonēmur, _we are given many admonitions_.
a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.
Two Accusatives with Compounds.
179. 1. Transitive compounds of trāns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,--
mīlitēs flūmen trānsportat, _he leads his soldiers across the river_.
2. With other compounds this construction is rare.
3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,--
mīlitēs flūmen trādūcēbantur, _the soldiers were led across the river_.
Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.
180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the _part_ to which an action or quality refers; as,--
tremit artūs, literally, _he trembles as to his limbs_, i.e. his limbs tremble;
nūda genū, lit. _bare as to the knee_, i.e. with knee bare;
manūs revinctus, lit. _tied as to the hands_, i.e. with hands tied.
2. Note that this construction--
a) Is borrowed from the Greek. b) Is chiefly confined to poetry. c) Usually refers to a part of the body. d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.
Accusative of Time and Space.
181. 1. _Duration of Time_ and _Extent of Space_ are denoted by the Accusative; as,--
quadrāgintā annōs vīxit, _he lived forty years_;
hīc locus passūs sescentōs aberat, _this place was six hundred paces away_;
arborēs quīnquāgintā pedēs altae, _trees fifty feet high_;
abhinc septem annōs, _seven years ago_.
2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,
per biennium labōrāvī, _I toiled throughout two years_.
Accusative of Limit of Motion.
182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used--
a) With names of _Towns_, _Small Islands_, and _Peninsulas_; as,--
Rōmam vēnī, _I came to Rome_;
Athēnās proficīscitur, _he sets out for Athens_;
Dēlum pervēnī, _I arrived at Delos_.
b) With domum, domōs, rūs; as,--
domum revertitur, _he returns home_;
rūs ībō, _I shall go to the country_.
NOTE.--When domus means _house_ (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,--
in domum veterem remigrāre, _to move back to an old house_.
2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,--
ad Italiam vēnit, _he came to Italy._
a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,--
Thalam, in oppidum magnum, _to Thala, a large town;_
Genavam ad oppidum, _to the town Geneva_.
b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,--
Thūriōs in Italiam pervectus, _carried to Thurii in Italy;_
cum Acēn ad exercitum vēnisset, _when he had come to the army at Ace._
3. To denote _toward_, _to the vicinity of_, _in the vicinity of,_ ad is used; as,--
ad Tarentum vēnī, _I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;_
ad Cannās pugna facta est, _a battle was fought near Cannae._
4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,--
Italiam vēnit, _he came to Italy._
5. The _goal_ notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase īnfitiās īre, _to deny_ (lit. _to go to a denial_), and a few other similar expressions.
Accusative in Exclamations.
183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in Exclamations; as,--
mē miserum, _ah, wretched me!_
Ō fallācem spem, _oh, deceptive hope!_
Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.
184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,--
videō hominem abīre, _I see that the man is going away._
Other Uses of the Accusative.
185. Here belong--
1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; _viz_.--
id genus, _of that kind_; as, hominēs id genus, _men of that kind_ (originally hominēs, id genus hominum, _men, that kind of men_);
virīle secus, muliebre secus, _of the male sex_, _of the female sex_;
meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., _for my part_, etc.;
bonam partem, magnam partem, _in large part_;
maximam partem, _for the most part_.
2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,--
id temporis, _at that time_; quod si, _but if_; id aetātis, _at that time_; cētera, _in other respects_.
* * * * *
THE DATIVE.
186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for.
Dative of Indirect Object.
187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person _to whom_ something is _given_, _said_, or _done_. Thus:--
I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,--
hanc pecūniam mihi dat, _he gives me this money_;
haec nōbīs dīxit, _he said this to us_.
a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dōnō and circumdō) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative of the thing. Thus:--
Either Themistoclī mūnera dōnāvit, _he presented gifts to Themistocles_, or
Themistoclem mūneribus dōnāvit, _he presented Themistocles with gifts_;
urbī mūrōs circumdat, _he builds walls around the city_, or
urbem mūrīs circumdat, _he surrounds the city with walls_
II. With many intransitive verbs; as,--
nūllī labōrī cēdit, _he yields to no labor._
a. Here belong many verbs signifying _favor_,[48] _help_, _injure_, _please_, _displease_, _trust_, _distrust_, _command_, _obey_, _serve_, _resist_, _indulge_, _spare_, _pardon_, _envy_, _threaten_, _be angry_, _believe_, _persuade_, and the like; as,--
Caesar populāribus favet, _Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the popular party_;
amīcīs cōnfīdō, _I trust (to) my friends_;
Orgetorīx Helvētiīs persuāsit, _Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable to) the Helvetians_;
bonīs nocet quī malīs parcit, _he injures (does harm to) the good, who spares the bad_.
NOTE.--It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are _intransitive_, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are _transitive_ and govern the Accusative; as, juvō, laedō, dēlectō. Thus: audentēs deus juvat, _God helps the bold_; nēminem laesit _he injured no one_.
b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,--
tibi parcitur, _you are spared_;
mihi persuādētur, _I am being persuaded_;
eī invidētur, _he is envied_.