Chapter 12
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SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
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THE ALPHABET.
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.
1. K occurs only in _Kalendae_ and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words--chiefly Greek.
2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.
2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.
3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,--
a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded _without_ voice or vibration of the vocal cords.
b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded _with_ vibration of the vocal cords.
c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_.
4. The Mutes admit of classification also as
Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.
5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.
6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in _sing_,--the so-called n _adulterīnum_; as,--
anceps, _double_, pronounced angceps.
7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.
8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.
9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3, 3.
10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:--
VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES. p, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals). c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, l, r, Nasals, m, n, f, (Labial). Spirants, s, (Dental). h, (Guttural). Semivowels, j, v.
a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.
1. Vowels.
ā as in _father_; ă as in the first syllable _ahá_; ē as in _they_; ĕ as in _met_; ī as in _machine_; ĭ as in _pin_; ō as in _note_; ŏ as in _obey_, _melody_; ū as in _rude_; ŭ as in _put_; y like French _u_, German _ü_.
2. Diphthongs.
ae like _ai_ in eu with its two elements, ĕ and ŭ, _aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession; oe like _oi_ in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in ei as in _rein_; _cui_ and _huic_. These words may au like _ow_ in _how_; be pronounced as though written _kwee_ and _wheek_.
3. Consonants.
b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced _ps_, _pt_.
c is always pronounced as _k_.
t is always a plain _t_, never with the sound of _sh_ as in Eng. _oration_.
g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of _gw_, as in anguis, languidus.
j has the sound of _y_ as in _yet_.
r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.
s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suādeō, suāvis, suēscō, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of _sw_.
v like _w_.
x always like _ks_; never like Eng. _gz_ or _z_.
z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. _zd_, possibly like _z_. The latter sound is recommended.
The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. _p_, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice.
Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.
SYLLABLES.
4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.
In the division of words into syllables,--
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.
2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.
3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-trī, dig-nus, mōn-strum, sis-te-re.
4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grī, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mā-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpō, ad-lātus.
5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tēx-ī.
QUANTITY.
5. A. Quantity of Vowels.
A vowel is _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:--
1. A vowel is long,[6]--
a) before nf or ns; as, īnfāns, īnferior, cōnsūmō, cēnseō, īnsum.
b) when the result of contraction; as, nīlum for nihilum.
2. A vowel is short,--
a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nōndum (nōn dum).
b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahō. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aenēās.
B. Quantity of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for their pronunciation.
1. A syllable is long,[7]--
a) if it contains a long vowel; as, māter, rēgnum, dīus.
b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restō.
2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.
3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, _viz_. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ăgrī, volŭcris.[8] Such syllables are called _common_. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.
NOTE.--These distinctions of _long_ and _short_ are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires _more time_ for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes _less time_ to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rī) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.
ACCENT.
6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tégit, mō´rem.
2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amā´vī, amántis, míserum.
3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserō´que, hominísque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pórtaque; but míseráque.
4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantō´n, istī´c, illū´c.
5. In utră´que, _each_, and plēră´que, _most_, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,--utérque, utrúmque, plērúmque.
VOWEL CHANGES.[9]
7.. 1. In Compounds,
a) ĕ before a single consonant becomes ĭ; as,--
colligō for con-legō.
b) ă before a single consonant becomes ĭ: as,--
adigō for ad-agō.
c) ă before two consonants becomes ē; as,--
expers for ex-pars.
d) ae becomes ī; as,--
conquīrō for con-quaerō.
e) au becomes ū, sometimes ō; as,--
conclūdō for con-claudō; explōdō for ex-plaudō.
2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,--
trēs for tre-es; cōpia for co-opia; mālō for ma(v)elō; cōgō for co-agō; amāstī for amā(v)istī; cōmō for co-emō; dēbeō for dē(h)abeō; jūnior for ju(v)enior. nīl for nihil;
3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,--
vinculum for earlier vinclum.
So perīculum, saeculum.
4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,--
ārdor for āridor (compare _āridus_); valdē for validē (compare _validus_).
CONSONANT CHANGES[10]
8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,--
arbōs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis); genus, Gen. generis (for genesis); dirimō (for dis-emō).
2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,--
pēnsum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum; mīles for mīlet-s; sessus for sedtus; passus for pattus.
3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,--
cor for cord; lac for lact.
4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurrō (adc-); aggerō (adg-); asserō (ads-); allātus (adl-); apportō (adp-); attulī (adt-); arrīdeō (adr-); afferō (adf-); occurrō (obc-); suppōnō (subp-); offerō (obf-); corruō (comr-); collātus (coml-); etc.
5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:--
a) b before s or t becomes p; as,--
scrīpsī (scrīb-sī), scrīptum (scrīb-tum).
b) g before s or t becomes c; as,--
āctus (āg-tus).
c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,--
eundem (eum-dem); prīnceps (prīm-ceps).
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9. Many words have variable orthography.
1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubīdō, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libīdō, etc.
2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspectō, expectō; exsistō, existō; epistula, epistola; adulēscēns, adolēscēns; paulus, paullus; cottīdiē, cotīdiē; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,--
ad-gerō or aggerō; ad-serō or asserō; ad-liciō or alliciō; in-lātus or illātus; ad-rogāns or arrogāns; sub-moveō or summoveō; and many others.
3. Compounds of jaciō were usually written ēiciō, dēiciō, adiciō, obiciō, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciō, objiciō, etc.
4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antīquos, antīquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vīvont, metuont.
The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.
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