Part 59

Persons, especially those living in the interior of our great country, are apt to think, and to say, that there is little chance of our becoming embroiled with any of the nations of whose great navies we have just been speaking. But we have to go back a very few years to show in what danger we have been of having our coasts invested by hostile fleets for want of proper force to resist them. Spain was very threatening in the troubles about Cuba in 1873. The attitude of Italy, with her powerful vessels, at the time of the difficulty about the New Orleans riots, was disquieting for a time, and, had her financial condition been better, that country would have certainly made a naval demonstration here. Then there was the still more threatening attitude of Chili, which might have been very serious. However sure we might be of eventually putting down that warlike little country, immense damage might have been done by her in a naval raid on our west coast. There is constant need for ships in China; not only for the protection of Americans, but to assist in keeping down piracy, a very present danger in that part of the world. Few months pass that it is not necessary to send ships to Hayti, always on the verge of revolution, or actually in the throes of civil war; and the same may be said of the countries comprising Central America. Then Brazil may be added to the list of unsettled countries, and we have a large and important trade there. Of the troubles in Hawaii, and of the cruising against the seal robbers in the North Pacific, the whole country has heard more than enough, and everyone knows that without a navy we should be perfectly helpless in such emergencies. The very establishment and maintenance of great dock-yards and naval stations at Vancouver, Halifax and Bermuda by England admonishes us to at least partially prepare to resist the threats of naval coercion which was that nation’s favorite mode of treating with us not so many years ago.

The necessary police of the seas is recognized by all nations, and all who can afford to do so should take a part in it. Frequent visits to foreign ports by men-of-war increase the influence and materially assist the business consideration of citizens who may reside abroad for business purposes, and thus directly increase the national revenue; while there is damage to our national pride when men-of-war of other nations have to protect our citizens abroad, as has frequently happened in times of trouble, from want of a sufficient number of ships in our navy to permit of wide distribution. There are many persons in our large country who would be mortified and shocked at such a thing as the bombardment of New York or of San Francisco with long-range guns--either of which events has been possible within the last ten years. Such a proceeding would not only be humiliating to us as a nation, but would probably cause more damage than a powerful fleet of defensive ironclads would cost to build and maintain--not to speak of such a thing as ransom-money demanded.

There is no fear of any nation making an effectual landing upon our shores: the only danger is that some swift and sudden blow, when we are unprepared, might cause immense damage to our great seaboard and lake cities, which would not only cost untold millions in damage, and in the subsequent expenditure necessary to repay the blow, but in the injury to our national pride and _prestige_ among nations.

MERCHANT VESSELS.

The decay of merchant shipping in our country from the proud position it held before the great Civil War is due to many causes, chief among which is the substitution of iron for wood, and steam for sails. There are very many people living, and still active, who remember the time when the whole of the passenger traffic between Europe and the United States was in the hands of Americans--for the reason that their ships were more staunch, more comfortable, and very much faster, while their seamen were more enterprising. The same was the case with the China trade; the American clippers carried all before them: while, in the race to the Pacific, in the early days of California, none could compare with our vessels in rapidity and the comfort of passage.

For some years those interested in such matters almost despaired; but there is a brighter outlook ahead now. The great lake fleet of steamers and sailing vessels has vastly increased. The tonnage passing through the Sault de Ste. Marie is really greater than our whole ocean tonnage of forty years ago: and the improvement in the quantity and size of merchant vessels built during the last few years for ocean service, while not keeping pace with the lake traffic, on account of foreign competition, is still very gratifying.

We have already spoken of the ability shown by Americans, during the last few years, to produce the best armor in the world, guns equal to any, and war-ships of the very first class, in hull and machinery.

This is all a preparation and education for taking our proper place as builders of the very best merchant vessels. Builders could not afford the extensive apparatus and machinery necessary for such construction unless they had been encouraged by government orders in the beginning. Such works as those at Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania, would never have constructed the largest steam-hammer in the world, if it had not been for the encouragement afforded by government orders. Now they are prepared to forge shafts, and other great pieces, for the largest merchant steamers, for the obtaining of which we formerly had to send abroad.

As for plants for iron or steel ship-building, we now have many. Cramps’ establishment, in Philadelphia, is said to be the third largest in the world--and will soon rank higher; there are other great works for merchant vessels on the Lakes and the Mississippi, and at Newport’s News, near Hampton Roads. After these come the works at South Boston and the different establishments at New York. The purely naval building-yards and plants at the New York navy yard, and at Norfolk, are well known; while the Union Iron Works at San Francisco have turned out some of the finest vessels afloat, both men of war and merchantmen. There are also such works in Bath, Maine.

But the least effect of these great plants is shown in their production up to this time. They are not only educational to ship and engine builders, but they foster a number of most valuable trades--such as ship-carpenters, plumbers, copper-smiths, joiners, and many others. Above all come the naval designers or architects. Men so trained are well paid, and are required to turn out the very highest grade of work; and thus we are forming a force, at many points of our great country, fitted, when the time comes (and it must soon come), to build up our sea-going mercantile marine to an equality with the sister service on the Great Lakes, so as to enable it to carry our products abroad, and bring back the returns, without depending upon foreign bottoms for that service. A few years ago there was no place in this country where a young man could go to learn the business of designing and building iron vessels--now there are many such places--and they are constantly increasing in number.

MACHINERY.

Not the least wonder of our day is the improvement in the machinery of steam-vessels of all kinds.

The engineer’s department of a first-class cruiser or battle-ship is a bewildering and wonderful sight to one not accustomed to it. The complicated engines, with their numerous cylinders, which use the steam over and over, seem almost too delicate, and too like a fancy creation, to be capable of driving the propellers at such a rate as they do. Instead of the rude levers of former days, these giant machines are managed by the turning of wheels which look like playthings as compared with the forces which they control so easily.

The boilers not only serve to drive the main engines, but there are others devoted to different uses; among which the principal are the distilling of salt into fresh water, and thus giving an abundant supply of one of the very first necessaries of life, and rendering the vessel and the crew independent of the shore in that respect. It is also most conducive to health; for much of the disease found on ship-board, within even recent times, was due to the character of the water obtained from the shore. Then there are the electric dynamos, and their boilers which must run when the ship is at anchor, as well as when she is under weigh; while her steam steering-gear, when in motion, renders her guidance very easy in the hands of one man, when four or six would be required at the wheels of vessels in the old days.

As for war-ships, the vessel is under complete control of one man, the Captain, who, with the helmsmen, occupies the fighting-tower. He is informed by indicators of what is going on all over the great craft below him, and his orders to the engineers, to the gun divisions, and to all other parts, are transmitted in the same way. But ordinary speaking-tubes and such matters are not forgotten, in case hostile shot should destroy the other means of communication; while, far below the water-line, is the old-fashioned steering-wheel, secure from shot or shell, to be used in case the more delicate and more exposed steering-gear should be shot away. The number of trained and experienced men which such a complicated machine as a modern war-ship or first-class passenger vessel requires, is very great. There is less need for old-fashioned sailors--who could go aloft in any weather to reef and furl--but there is seamanship still required to navigate, to heave the lead, to man and manage boats, and many other things, beside the mere drilling and working of artillery and small arms. It requires some training even to be able to take care of one’s self in bad weather, especially in a large ship, where places to hold on are far apart. Of course, in a modern ship the engineer’s force, as well as those immediately in charge of dynamos, of electric lights, and of search-lights, comprise a much larger proportion of the whole ship’s company than in former times; and the vigilance, experience, and foresight which have to be displayed in the depths of the vessel is equal to that required upon the spar-deck and bridge.

OFFICERS AND MEN.

Now that our administrations, of both political parties, have for some years committed themselves to a gradual increase of our navy, to consist of the very newest ships and guns, it may be safely supposed that in a few years we shall have a _respectable_ navy, in point of numbers, as it is now in point of quality.

After all, the best ships are of no use without the presence of men trained to manage them, and to conduct successfully the well-being and discipline of a large number of people. In a first-class man-of-war, the elements may be compared to a civil organization in this way: the Captain is the Mayor, except that he has much more power and authority than most mayors; the Lieutenants are the executive and police officers, as well as leaders in battle; the Junior officers are in training for such positions. The Marine officer and his men represent the militia, adding police duties; and the medical staff looks out for the general health. Then there is the Paymaster and his clerk, who attend to financial matters of all kinds; the engineer corps, which keeps the whole thing going, and lights as well as propels the great machine. Lastly, there is a Chaplain, who not only attends to divine service (as required by the Articles of War), but in many ways makes his influence known. The subdivision of duties on board a man-of-war often makes landsmen wonder whether such a course is necessary; but the experience of many generations teaches that it is.

NAVAL ACADEMY.

It may be of interest to our readers to know something about the way in which the officers of the navy are trained for their important duties. For many years after the foundation of the navy, boys of tender years were appointed midshipmen through the influence of friends of the President or the Secretary of the Navy. They then were sent to sea at once, in a cruising man-of-war, and, after five or six years, went to a naval school, as it was called, for a few months. At the end of six years they became passed-midshipmen, if found able to pass a simple examination; after which they had to wait for vacancies in the list above them to become lieutenants, commanders, and captains. The latter was, up to the time of the late civil war, the highest grade in the navy, and corresponded in rank with colonel in the army. Those officers who commanded squadrons or stations were, by courtesy, termed commodores. The manner of education of the young officers who were destined to high command in the navy had long been felt to be faulty, although under it such officers had been reared as Farragut and Rowan, Porter, and John Rodgers; and it was thought that a school something on the lines of West Point, which had long existed for the army, would be of benefit to the service and to the country. About this time a change took place in the manner of appointment of naval cadets, and the Congressmen of the various States had them put in their hands, with a limited number left in the hands of the President, who was apt to bestow them on the sons of worthy officers of the army or navy who had died in the service. This is the usual practice at present. Representatives are notified when an appointment falls due in their district, and some Congressmen put such appointments up for public competition among the lads of proper age and health, who, on going to the Naval Academy to enter, have to pass a close physical examination, as well as one in elementary branches of learning. Many are rejected, from one cause or another, and the custom has arisen of appointing an alternate, who may be examined for the position if the first one fails, either physically or mentally. Those who are successful in the examination receive $500 a year, during their academic course, which is an ample sum for their support at the school. During the course many drop out; some from ill conduct; some from inability to follow the course; and some few from failure of health; although the healthy regimen and good hours often improve boys who are a little delicate or backward. But it must be remembered that it is useless for any lad who is thoroughly lazy and unambitious to enter there, as he is sure to be weeded out. Many classes do not graduate more than half of their original members.

The Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland, was founded in 1845, through the enlightened policy of Mr. Bancroft, the celebrated historian, who was then the Secretary of the Navy, under President Polk. Commander Buchanan (who was afterwards Admiral Buchanan of the Confederate Navy) was the first officer in charge.

The site of the Academy was secured by the transfer from the War to the Navy Department of Fort Severn and its surroundings, one of the defences of Annapolis, at the mouth of the Severn river, near its entrance into Chesapeake bay, and with plenty of water for naval work. In 1849 a Board was organized to make regulations which were to conform, as much as possible, to those of the Military Academy at West Point. In 1851 the course of study was fixed at four years, with annual examinations, and summer cruises in practice ships to familiarize the lads with sea duties. There was also a board of visitors, to be appointed by the President, who reported, annually, upon the annual examinations and the general condition and requirements of the school. This board consisted of Senators and citizens distinguished for their acquirements in science, as well as officers of different corps of the Navy.

Owing to the Civil War the school was transferred, in 1861, to Newport, Rhode Island, where it remained until 1865, when it was returned to Annapolis. The grounds have been greatly enlarged and improvements of every kind made, until now it is one of the most beautiful and perfect establishments in the world. There is no place in Europe, devoted to naval training, which has anything like the space, the buildings and material, and the equable climate which the Annapolis school possesses. Although the country is flat, the fine expanses of water, and the wealth of foliage, give the situation great attractions, while the old and historic town of Annapolis, so connected with the Colonial period and the Revolution, retains its curious plan, and its old church, court-house, and residences, much as they were when Washington resigned his commission.

When the school was re-established at Annapolis the course of studies was rearranged to suit the advance in such matters as steam, gunnery, and mathematics--and has remained much the same ever since--only adopting improved methods as the occasion arose.

The course of instruction is a long one--too long to be given here, but we may mention some of the studies pursued. There are seamanship and naval construction, naval tactics, practical exercises, signals, swimming, gymnastics, etc., ordnance and gunnery, including infantry tactics, field-artillery and boat-howitzer exercise, great guns, mortar practice, and fencing; mathematics up to the calculus; steam engineering, with practical exercise, and the theory, fabrication, and designing of steam engines; astronomy, navigation, and surveying; physics and chemistry; mechanics, and applied mathematics, and theoretical naval architecture; English studies, and history and law; French and Spanish; drawing and chart-making; and other kindred studies.

Any one who shows great aptitude is put into the engineering branch, and enters the Engineer Corps; others enter the Marine Corps, as second lieutenants; and sometimes, when there are no vacancies, those who graduate honorably, although at the foot of their class, are enabled, by Act of Congress, to take an “honorable discharge” from the service, with a year’s pay.

When a lad succeeds in passing the examination and entering the Naval Academy, he is required to sign articles which bind him to serve in the Navy eight years, including his time at the Academy, unless sooner discharged. The system of examination comprises monthly, semi-annual, and annual examinations, which are conducted in writing, the members of a class all receiving the same questions. If a cadet fails to pass the semi-annual or annual examinations he is dropped.

With the theoretical studies there are the sail, spar, boat, gun, and small-arm drills, all of which, with good conduct, go to make up the total of “marks” of the cadet. Misconduct or insubordination leads to the receipt of “demerits,” which may become so numerous as to prevent a cadet from continuing at the Academy, even when distinguished in his studies. Some of the same officers who have charge of the cadets during the scholastic year are detailed for the practice ships during the summer cruise, so that they have complete knowledge of the acquirements of their pupils. The summer cruise of the cadets at Annapolis corresponds to the encampment of the West Point cadets; being almost entirely practical in its nature. The cadet engineer class, instead of a long voyage, go on board a practice steamer, and visit navy-yards, and ship-yards, rolling-mills, foundries, machine-shops, etc., where practical illustration may be had of a part of their studies. The academic grounds, inside the walls, consist of fifty acres, while outside there are one hundred acres more. On this fine property there are a great number of buildings, for quarters, mess-halls, class rooms, armory, steam-building, etc., beside an observatory, all of which are amply provided with models and apparatus. There is a fine library, contained in a lovely old house formerly inhabited by the governor of Maryland; a chapel; and numbers of houses for officers’ quarters. There is also a hospital, and, on the outlaying land one of greater size, which is used in epidemics, and for the seamen of the practice-ships, and the marines of the guard. At large and convenient docks upon the Severn are moored the practice ships, steamers, steam and sailing launches, and cutters, for the use and instruction of the cadets. The average number of these is about two hundred, and they are, as a rule, exceedingly well-trained in battalion drill, so that a dress-parade during the evenings of the spring and fall months, with the faultless drill and evolutions, and the music afforded by the fine band, never fails to attract crowds of strangers, as well as the town’s people and officers’ families.

MARINE CORPS.

It is proper, at this point, to give some account of the United States Marine Corps, of which many persons not familiar with naval affairs have a very vague idea.

They are sea-soldiers, or soldiers enlisted for service either on shore or on board ships-of-war, and who are known as _Marines_, although all sea-going persons are really marines.

Most powers which possess navies have also marines, France being an exception. They constitute a separate military body from the seamen and other enlisted men of a war-ship, and are trained to fight either as infantry or as artillerists, and especially for participation in naval engagements. They are organized, clothed and equipped very much like soldiers of the army, and their preliminary instruction is the same. In fact, some of their very best service has been on shore; while their being accustomed to the sea makes them doubly valuable for expeditions by water. Their headquarters, barracks and depots are on shore, and from them details are made when required for service on shipboard. These detachments vary in size with the ship, from a dozen men under a sergeant to a hundred under one or more commissioned officers.

The history of sea-soldiers is very ancient, dating back to at least five centuries before the Christian Era, when there was a class of soldiers which constituted the fighting men of a war-ship, while an entirely different class navigated, managing the oars and sails. Some of the most gallant acts which have distinguished our own navy have been performed by the marines, who have served without blemish in every quarter of the world, and in all the wars in which we have been engaged. The marines have generally manned some of the broadside guns whenever hard fighting was going on, and have always been relied upon under the most desperate circumstances; nor have they failed to justify that reliance.