CHAPTER XXVII.

PROGRESS OF THE NEW EDUCATION--1883-1898.

Educational Revolution in 1883-4. -- Urgent Demand for Reform -- Existing Schools Denounced as Superficial, their Methods as Automatic, their System as a Mixture of Cram and Smatter -- The Controversy between the School-master of the Old Régime and the Reformer -- The Leaders of the Movement, Col. Parker, Dr. MacAlister, and Others -- Followers of Rousseau, Bacon, and Spencer -- “The End of Man is an Action, not a Thought” -- The Conservative Teachers Fall into Line -- The New Education Becomes an Aggressive Force, Pushing on to Victory -- The Physical Progress of Manual Training -- Its Quality Not Equal to its Extent -- The New System of Training Confided to Teachers of the Old Régime -- Ideal Teachers Hard to Find -- Teachers Willing to Learn Should Be Encouraged -- The Effects of Manual Training Long Antedate its Introduction to the Schools -- Bacon’s Definition of Education -- Stephenson and the Value of Hand-work -- Manual Training is the Union of Thought and Action -- It is the Antithesis of the Greek Methods, which Exalted Abstractions and Debased Things -- The Rule of Comenius and the Injunction of Rousseau -- Few Teachers Comprehend Them -- The Employment of the Hands in the Arts is More Highly Educative than the Acquisition of the Rules of Reading and Arithmetic -- What the Locomotive has Accomplished for Man -- Education Must be Equal, and Social and Political Equality will Follow -- The Foundation of the New Education is the Baconian Philosophy as Stated by Macaulay -- Use and Service are the Twin-ministers of Human Progress -- Definitions of Genius -- Attention -- Sir Henry Maine -- Manual Training Relates to all the Arts of Life -- Mind and Hand -- Newton and the Apple -- The Sense of Touch Resides in the Hand -- Robert Seidel on Familiarity with Objects -- Material Progress the Basis of Spiritual Growth -- Plato and the Divine Dialogues -- Poverty, Society, and the Useful Arts -- Selfishness Must Give Way to Altruism -- The Struggle of Life -- The Progress of the Arts and the Final Regeneration of the Race -- The Arts that Make Life Sweet and Beautiful -- The Final Fundamental Educational Ideal is Universality -- Comenius’s Definition of Schools -- The Workshops of Humanity -- That One Man Should Die Ignorant who had Capacity for Knowledge is a Tragedy -- Mental and Manual Exercises to be Rendered Homogeneous in the School of the Future -- The Hero of the Ideal School.

Fifteen years ago a great wave of educational awakening swept over this country. It penetrated every nook and corner of the land, pervading both cities, large and small, and the rural districts. It took the shape of a demand, often almost inarticulate, for reform. The schools were denounced as superficial; their methods as automatic; their teachers as unintelligent and untrained, their system of instruction as a mixture of cram and smatter.

The school-master is a conservative, and with his champions he came promptly to the defence of the old schools and their old methods. The controversy became heated, and soon the rival forces joined battle. Col. Francis W. Parker, of the Chicago Normal School, and Dr. James MacAlister, now President of the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and others were prominent leaders of the new reform movement, whose banner was “Manual Training,” or “The New Education.”

Under this brilliant and enthusiastic leadership the movement became a crusade in the interest of the educational ideas of Montaigne, Rousseau, Bacon, Locke, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, Mann, and their long array of sympathizers and supporters, who, with Bacon, declare that “the end of man is an action, not a thought.”

But the work of the reformers was too serious to be long controlled, either by emotion or passion. The more intelligent and better educated and trained teachers gradually came to the support of the new system and methods, and the mass of the teaching fraternity caught something of the enthusiasm by which the reformers were inspired to struggle for a great cause. Thereafter Manual Training became an aggressive force openly demanding recognition, and pushing for victory and ultimate control.

In the Appendix hereto the physical progress of Manual Training is shown in tabulated form; and the extent of such progress is all, if not more, than its most ardent friends and advocates could rationally desire. But it is not to be doubted that the quality of the progress the new education has made in the period of fifteen years under consideration is far inferior to its extent. The statistics here presented relate mainly to the village, town, and city schools of this country, and especially to its public schools, with some general observations and facts in relation to the progress of the new education in England and the chief countries in Europe. In a few instances the tabulations include institutions designed for industrial rather than strictly educational purposes. But it is deemed wise to retain them, on the ground that whether so designed or not all industrial training is educative.

It is worthy of intelligent inquiry whether as a matter of fact, not only in this country, but in all countries, the progress of Manual Training has not been very unsatisfactory in quality. In most cases the new education was necessarily confided to teachers of the old régime, who, as a preliminary, were compelled to unlearn what was false and erroneous in the old system, to overcome the prejudices of years, sometimes of a lifetime, and to become faithful and laborious students of a new and scientific scheme of education. The main difficulty in matters educational has always been to secure ideal teachers. Education is the first of human considerations, and its professors should be the most learned of human beings. If the teachers who have been called to the Priesthood, of the New Education, have proved incompetent in many instances, instead of being hastily condemned they should be helped forward towards the goal of competency by all friends of that progress in education which is the sole hope of human perfection.

The most striking effects of Manual Training long antedate its introduction to the schools. For thousands of years, in every shop where the humble mechanic wrought; at every fireside where the domestic arts obtained a foothold; in every field where a step forward was made through the invention of some less crude implement of husbandry than the one that preceded it, the mind and the hand expressed their joint struggle towards the achievement of that skill in useful things which constitutes the very kernel of civilization. Bacon’s definition of education--“the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things”--is a recognition of the philosophic fact that the hand is the source of wisdom; and the life of George Stephenson, the inventor of the locomotive, affords a most impressive illustration of the educative value of hand-work. At the coal-pit’s mouth Stephenson, meantime learning his “A B C’s,” invented the “Rocket,” while the bookish engineers were declaring it to be a mechanical impossibility. Stephenson’s achievement was the realization in things of Bacon’s luminous precept--“The end of man is an action, not a thought.”--This is the philosophy, the rationale, of Manual Training; it is the union of thought and action, and it therefore demands the elimination from educational methods of the abstract philosophy of the Greeks. In his declaration, “All the useful arts are degrading,” Plato defined the character of the revival of learning which was to occur hundreds of years afterwards; it was a revival of Greek methods, which exalted abstractions, and debased things. Mr. Herbert Spencer refers to its baleful effects upon the schools of England in the severest terms of condemnation. That Mr. Spencer’s arraignment of the schools is just, is shown by its antithesis expressed in the dictum of Dr. Dwight, of Yale College, who says: “Education is for the purpose of developing and cultivating the thinking power. It is to the end of making a knowing, thinking mind.”

Bacon discovered, and did not hesitate to declare, that “the understanding is more prone to error than the senses”; and this fact constitutes the basis of his philosophy of “things,” which is another name for the law of induction. “For if we would look into and dissect the nature of this real world,” he says, “we must consult only things themselves.” If we would find the corner-stone of education, we must consult labor. Nothing great is accomplished without a due mingling of drudgery and humility; for of all the virtues humility is the most excellent. The Greeks failed to comprehend the true educational idea because of their pride. They associated use with slavery, because in Greece all labor was performed by slaves; and, scorning labor, they scorned use, and, by consequence, service, the greatest of the moralities.

Upon the foundation laid by Bacon, Rabelais, and Montaigne, Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel raised a great superstructure of educational ideas. Words were subordinated, and things ennobled.

Comenius’s rule, to “leave nothing until it has been impressed by means of the ear, the eye, the tongue, the hand,” and the injunction of Rousseau that “the student will learn more by one hour of manual labor than he will retain from a whole day’s verbal instructions; that the things themselves are the best explanations”--these are the maxims of the new education.

But to what extent has the old school-master adopted the new education, to what extent occupied the old school-room with new ideas? How many school-masters of even the present _régime_ comprehend with John Ruskin that “the youth who has once learned to take a straight shaving off a plank, or to draw a fine curve without faltering, or to lay a brick level in its mortar, has learned a multitude of other matters which no lips of man could ever teach him?” In other words, to what extent does the conviction pervade the ranks of the fraternity of teachers, whether of public-schools, private schools, colleges, or universities, that the employment of the hands in the useful arts is more highly educative than the acquisition of the rules of reading, writing, and arithmetic? Or, considering the subject of the history and career of George Stephenson, for instance, what, in the opinion of the modern school-master, contributed most to his development as a man and citizen of the world--the mental exercise of learning to read, write, and cipher, which task he accomplished while engaged in inventing the locomotive, or the combined mental and manual exercise of taking apart, repairing, and putting together the stationary engine used at the colliery where he was employed? If, in the course of our investigation, it should be found that doing things as Stephenson did is more conducive to intellectual development than memorizing words and reciting poetry, as the Greeks did, some light may be thrown on the general subject of existing educational methods. Their chief defect is their lack of moral power. Morality does not reside in the letters of the alphabet, but there is in the locomotive, for example, a great moral principle--the principle of the brotherhood of man. For, in devising the locomotive, Stephenson made man’s neighborhood coterminous with earth’s utmost bounds; thus, in a single act, achieving his own apotheosis, and assuring, ultimately, the moral and intellectual kinship of the race. For the hand stands for use, for service, and for unyielding integrity; and it may be confidently asserted on the conviction of observation, experience, and a studious consideration of historic facts, that its drill and discipline as enforced in the world’s workshops, and in the best of existing Manual-training schools, results in a far greater degree of mind development than is produced by any exclusively academic course, and hence that Manual Training is the most important of all methods of education.

The most sacred of human rights is the right of the poor child, born in a highly civilized, wealthy community, to the same kind and degree of education as that received by the child of the most opulent citizen.

It was long ago remarked that “the inequalities of intellect, like the inequalities of the surface of our globe, bear so small a proportion to the mass that in calculating its great revolutions they may safely be neglected;” and the late Henry George declared that the differences in men, intellectually, are no greater than their physical differences.

The perpetuity of free institutions depends upon social not less than upon political equality. But social equality is impossible without educational equality: the very thought of intimate relations with the ignorant is repulsive to the learned. Education, impartial and universal, is, therefore, the sole guarantee of an ideal civilization, and so of an imperishable state.

Old social evils constantly recur because the old crime of inequality in education is forever and ever repeated. It follows that we shall make all things equal through equal education. But what sort of education? We shall not train the child, as the ancients did, “to dispute in learned phrase as to whether we can be certain that we are certain of nothing!” Nor shall we stuff his memory with the grammar and rhetoric of an ancient tongue, in view of the profound observation of Dr. Draper, that a living thought can no more be embodied in a dead language than activity can be imparted to a corpse. But we shall rather instruct him in the principles of the Baconian philosophy, of which Macaulay so aptly says: “Its characteristic distinction, its essential spirit, is its majestic humility--the persuasion that nothing can be too insignificant for the attention of the wisest which is not too insignificant to give pleasure or pain to the meanest.”

The end sought in education by the ancients was ornament, and its strict analogy is found in barbaric life. Spencer has pointed out that the savage smeared his body with yellow ochre before he covered it with clothes, and that he adorned his head with feathers before he built a hut. So, under the laws of evolution, before a Bacon could arise, whole generations of philosophers were born, lived, speculated, and died, without leaving to mankind the smallest heritage of that common sense by which we nevertheless live.

A philosophy which scorned the useful in all its aspects was essentially barbaric; for art differentiates civilized from savage life: its law was stagnation, as the law of scientific investigation is progress. Use is the greatest thing in the material world, as service is the greatest thing in the moral world; and they are united in the philosophy of Bacon, which, beginning in observation and ending in art, multiplies useful things that are beautiful, and beautiful things that are useful.

The old education was an outgrowth of the old philosophy; the new education springs as logically from the new, or Baconian, philosophy. The old education was ornamental; the new is scientific, or useful. The old education was designed to make masters; the new is designed to make men.

President Eliot, of Harvard University, admits that his method of education is to compel the student to work. On the other hand, the method of the new education is to attract him. Genius has many definitions, one of which is “a capacity for taking infinite pains.” But its humblest equivalent is “attention”; and we propose to secure the student’s attention through his hands: for the most significant fact in all the realm of certitude is the fact that man impresses himself upon nature through the hand alone!

Let us then, in the new school, unite mind and hand in a crusade after the truths that are hidden in things. For Manual Training, educationally, is the blending of thought and action. The thought that does not lead to an act is both mentally and materially barren. For as it confers no benefit upon the human race, neither does it profit the mind that conceives it. Nay, more. An unprolific thought exhausts the mind to no purpose, as an unfruitful tree cumbers the ground. It follows that the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission of its immature judgments to the verification of things. Hence the correlation of thoughts and things is as necessary to mental and moral growth as the application of the principles of abstract mechanics to the arts of peace is essential to human progress.

Sir Henry Maine supports this doctrine in a graphic paragraph: “Unchecked by external truth the mind of man has a fatal facility for ensnaring and entrapping and entangling itself. But happily, happily for the human race, some fragment of physical speculation has been built into every false system.”

Things are the source of ideas. Action generates thought. He who has tools in his hand thinks best as well as acts best. The man whose finger is on Nature’s pulse feels her heart-throbs, and so discovers and utilizes her secrets. The men and women who do the world’s work are better educated than the schoolmen who vainly tell them how to do it; and they are better educated because they are in closer relationship with things, through the supreme sense of touch, which refines and spiritualizes the hand--that wonderful member which differentiates man from the other animals, and makes him their master.

Manual Training educationally, then, relates to all the arts whose sum is the art of living. For whether it be the chair on which we sit; or the bed on which we lie; or the garments we wear; or the house that shelters us; or the railway train on which we cross continents; or the ship that takes us over seas; or the unspeakable marvels of the world’s museums and galleries upon which we gaze with rapture; or the orchestra of an hundred instruments, whose music enchants us; or the treasures of dead cities--long buried--now unearthed; or the temples in which we worship; or the monuments which commemorate our heroes and martyrs; or the tombs in which we moulder away to dust--they are all the work of the hand!

Manual Training is the acquisition by the hand of the arts through which man expresses himself in things. It is a series of educational generalizations in things. The purpose of it is to put the mind and hand _en rapport_ with each other; to make the hand acquainted with the elementary manipulations of the typical arts, by actual exercises, as the mind is familiarized with the fundamental principles of the sciences by studying their laws.

Superior observation is only another name for genius. To the dull eye the falling apple taught no lesson, but to Newton’s quick apprehension it revealed the law of gravitation!

It is not alone, however, in the sense of sight that observation resides; nor is it keenest there. We have recently learned the value of object teaching; but we have yet to learn, popularly and practically, what has long been known to science--that the sense of touch is the master sense, whence all the other senses spring. It is because of this fact, and of the further fact that the sense of touch is most highly developed in the hand, that man is the wisest of animals.

It follows that more than in the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting, or smelling--nay, more than in all these senses combined--the faculty of observation resides in the hand.

Dr. Wilson declares that touch “reigns throughout the body, and is the token of life in every part”; and Dr. Maudsley says: “It is the fundamental sense, the mother-tongue of language.”

How apt is this definition of the sense of touch--“the token of life in every part”--and how comprehensive this--“the mother-tongue of language!” And of this master sense the hand is the chief organ and minister. How versatile it is; what adaptability it possesses; what helpfulness! In the moment of danger how reassuring its supporting grasp; how consoling its gentle touch when grief overwhelms! In defeat how it trembles with emotion, and how tense with exaltation it becomes in the hour of victory! With what infinite loathing it shrinks from a hated contact, and with what sympathetic vibrations of ardor responds to the clinging pressure of love!

If we would become familiar with objects we must subject them to the test of touch, we must handle them. As Robert Seidel, a great teacher, well says: “We must stretch them, beat them, cool them, expose them to the sun, the water, the air--we must work them.”

It is through these processes of loving manipulation that the mechanic and the artisan transform things crude and ugly into forms of use and beauty. And it is in this way, and this way only, that man has trod the path of progress. It is a rugged road, whose steeps are to be climbed alone by those whose hearts are warm with holy zeal, whose souls are aglow with enthusiasm, and whose hands are endowed with the rich experiences of thoughtful toil. And we shall fit all mankind for this noble task by training them to usefulness--that is, by teaching them, not merely how to think, but how to act, how to work.

It is a broad and conclusive generalization of Herbert Spencer that since literature and the fine arts are made possible by the useful arts, manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which makes it possible. Nor does this rational and sober view of art detract in the least from its dignity or sentiment. On the contrary, it provides a foundation for works of the imagination--a basis for that spirituality which is the fruit of the happy conjunction of a multitude of material conditions evolved from the humblest as well as the noblest of the useful arts--a basis without which the beautiful arts could never exist.

It thus becomes plain that social and economic conditions are the product of education in things. Art education differentiates the civilized from the savage man. The pathway of progress which now blazes with the glory of electricity stretches back to the gloom of the caves where our early ancestors dwelt; and the steps of this advance consist of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts. From gesture to speech; from pictures to types; from the canoe to the steamship, and from the canal to the locomotive, the race has moved forward, always and only, through art triumphs.

So all the generations of men have lived and toiled for us. We are the heirs of the hoarded learning, of the accumulated mental and moral fibre, and of the treasured arts of the ages. And we are hence the elders, as Bacon says, of the philosophers, the sages, and the inventors and discoverers of all time. Their achievements are heights whence we may discern and occupy new and wider fields of human endeavor.

The precise relation of the useful arts to social and economic conditions is, therefore, that of creator. As your art education is, so shall your society be. There are persons who unconsciously dissociate art and civilization--who think that things are not essential to spiritual development, who fail to realize the fact that the main reason of the barbaric character of the savage is the absence from his environment of the arts of peace and plenty. If, for example, Plato had not been provided with food and clothing and shelter, he would doubtless not have composed the divine dialogues; and if there had been neither mechanics, nor architects, nor sculptors to adorn with palaces and temples the Greek cities, his ideal republic would not have had a place in classic literature; and finally, if there had been no (slave) hand-workers in Greece (for art products are all, directly or indirectly, the work of the hand), instead of being the most venerated of philosophers, Plato might have been, perhaps, the most wretched of savages, prolonging a miserable existence by means the most inglorious. But so unconscious was he of the true relation of the useful arts to life that he denounced them all as “degrading”!

Poverty is the chief scourge of society; and it is a familiar economic fact that where the useful arts are most flourishing poverty is least pressing, so that to abolish poverty it would seem to be only necessary to multiply and extend the arts. And if poverty is to be abolished; if there is ever to be an ideal civilization, the controlling motive of humanity must be changed from selfishness to altruism; and this change can come only through love of work. So long as work shall be regarded as a “curse,” the paramount purpose of the individual will be to avoid it, and to compel others to submit to it. Hence the antagonisms that arise at every point of human contact. The sum of these antagonisms is what we call the struggle of life, which is merely the struggle of each to survive at the expense of his fellows, and is therefore barbaric.

Now as we have seen that it is through the arts that man has been civilized--that, in a word, the arts differentiate the civilized from the savage man--it is evident that the further regeneration of the race is to be wrought by analogous means--that is to say, by a wider expansion of the arts of peace. And the way to achieve this result is to transform our schools, which were modelled after the classic methods of Greece and Rome, into laboratories for the development of useful men and women, through the mastery of the useful arts; the arts that make life sweet and beautiful; the arts that adorn our homes, that render the earth fertile and make it blossom as the rose; the arts that annihilate distance and so promote man’s brotherhood by enlarging his neighborhood--these are the arts that inspire us with just and generous impulses, the arts in which the noblest moral sentiments are made manifest in things.

These, then, are the arts which ought to be made the subject of thorough and exhaustive education--the arts that led Comenius to define schools as the workshops of humanity. The final essential educational condition is universality; for it is obvious that inequality of educational opportunity is the grossest injustice of which organized society is capable. It is against this injustice that Carlyle exclaims: “That there should one man die ignorant, who had capacity for knowledge, this I call a tragedy, were it to happen more than twenty times in the minute.”

This is indeed the tragedy of tragedies--the tragedy on the heels of which slavery stalks; in whose train caste rides in scornful state; in whose hideous shadow war waits to shed blood and spread pestilence and famine. All these are the satellites of ignorance, and hardly less of partial education than of total unenlightenment; and hence the only hope that civilization shall finally triumph over barbarism rests in universal, impartial, and scientific education.

The contrasts between the old and the new school methods pointed out in this chapter show along what lines educational progress is to be sought. The ideal school is to consist, not of one academic department, and a department of Manual Training, but of mental and manual exercises so related as to produce homogeneity.

The tabulations of facts which will be found in the Appendix show that a vast number of schools have been dedicated to the new education. If they are to be developed into ideal schools thousands of ideal teachers must devote themselves to the arduous task. Each school transformed from the dull routine of mediocrity to the vigor and elasticity which wait on development will cost the life of a hero. The school that has no hero to struggle for its salvation will surely languish and die. Every great school of the future must therefore have its hero, for it is only the hero who toils without thought of reward. As Carlyle so well says: “The wages of every noble work do yet lie in heaven or else nowhere.” And he has left this message of advice and encouragement to the hero of the school of the future which is to revolutionize the world: “Thou wilt never sell thy life in a satisfactory manner. Give it like a royal heart; let the price be nothing: thou hast then, in a certain sense, got all for it!”

APPENDIX

STATISTICS.--MANUAL TRAINING, 1883-1898, IN THE UNITED STATES

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOLS

-----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- | | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils | | |Training| of | Taking | | | Estab- | Manual | Manual NAME OF SCHOOL |CITY OR TOWN |STATE| lished |Training|Training -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- High-school |Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 41 Polytechnic High-school|Baltimore |Md. | 1883 | 16 | 674 High-school |Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | 50 Central Manual-training| | | | | School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1885 | 13 | 406 Industrial Training | | | | | High-school |Indianapolis |Ind. | 1885 | 10 | 676 Rochester Free Academy |Rochester |N. Y.| 1885 | .. | 908 High-school |Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 394 Central Manual-training| | | | | School | Cleveland |Ohio | 1885 | 4 | 200 Central High-school |Washington |D. C.| 1886 | .. | 235 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |New Haven |Conn.| 1886 | 13 | .. Manual-training School |Springfield |Mass.| 1886 | 3 | 34 High-school |Minneapolis |Minn.| 1886 | 4 | 375 Newburg Free Academy |Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | 2 | 133 Manual-training School |Galesburg |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 74 High-school |St. Paul |Minn.| 1887 | 5 | 350 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Stillwater |Minn.| 1887 | 1 | 12 High-school |Jamestown |N. Y.| 1887 | 1 | 48 Central High-school |Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | .. High-school |Easton |Md. | 1888 | .. | .. Ridge Manual-training | | | | | School |Cambridge |Mass.| 1888 | 9 | 178 High-school |Concord |N. H.| 1888 | 4 | 52 Orange High-school |Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 3 | 180 High-school |Albany |N. Y.| 1888 | 3 | 750 Dist. 20 Central High- | | | | | school |Pueblo |Col. | 1889 | 1 | 160 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 82 West Des Moines High- | | | | | school |Des Moines |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 50 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Fall River |Mass.| 1889 | 1 | 62 High-school |Duluth |Minn.| 1889 | 2 | 80 High school |Omaha |Neb. | 1889 | .. | 100 High-school |Union |N. J.| 1889 | 3 | 200 High-school |Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | 4 | 240 English High and | | | | | Manual-training School |Chicago |Ill. | 1890 | 17 | 430 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Louisville |Ky. | 1890 | 13 | 212 Approved High-school |Vineland |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150 High-school |Passaic |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 53 High-school |South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150 West Manual-training | | | | | School |Cleveland |Ohio | 1890 | 3 | 100 East and West High- | | | | | schools |Milwaukee |Wis. | 1890 | 4 | 144 Norwich Free Academy |Norwich |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | 33 High-school |Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | .. High-school |Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 20 Moline High-school |Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 47 Manual training High- | | | | | school |Waltham |Mass.| 1891 | 2 | 18 High-school |Bay City |Mich.| 1891 | [120] | [120] Ridgewood High-school |Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | 3 | 35 Manual training High- | | | | | school |Camden |N. J | 1891 | 3 | 150 Manual training High- | | | | | school |Seattle |Wash.| 1891 | 2 | 70 High-school |Menominee |Wis. | 1891 | 5 | 103 High-school |Bristol |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 30 Willard Hall High- | | | | | school |Wilmington |Del. | 1892 | 3 | 210 Fremont Manual-training| | | | | School |Fremont |Ohio | 1892 | 1 | 50 North East Manual- | | | | | training School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1892 | 9 | 369 High-school |Norristown |Penn.| 1892 | 2 | 290 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 18 | 280 High-school |Spokane |Wash.| 1892 | 3 | 85 Polytechnical High- | | | | | school |San Francisco|Cal. | 1893 | 4 | 250 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Mason City |Iowa | 1893 | 1 | 125 High-school |Manchester |N. H.| 1893 | 1 | 12 High-school |Atlantic City|N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 235 East Orange High-school|East Orange |N. J.| 1893 | 3 | 125 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Denver |Col. | 1894 | .. | 400 High-school |Frankfort |Ky. | 1894 | 2 | 100 Mechanics Arts High- | | | | | school |Boston |Mass.| 1894 | 11 | 324 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1894 | .. | 800 Washington High-school |Washington |Penn.| 1894 | .. | 27 Townsend Industrial | | | | | School |Newport |R. I.| 1894 | 2 | 26 Ryan High-school |Appleton |Wis. | 1894 | 1 | 26 Manual-training School |Lowell |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 50 English High-school |Somerville |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 75 English and Classical | | | | | High-school |Worcester |Mass.| 1895 | 4 | 283 High-school |Medford |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 20 English High-school |Lynn |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 72 High-school |Lawrence |Mass.| 1895 | 1 | 33 Royen High-school |Youngstown |Ohio | 1895 | 1 | 200 High-school |Fitchburg |Mass.| 1895 | .. | .. High-school |Burlington |Wis. | 1896 | .. | .. High-school |Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 6 | 315 High-school |Rockford |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 27 High-school |Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 2 | 36 Brookline High-school |Brookline |Mass.| 1896 | 1 | 50 High-school |Janesville |Wis. | 1896 | .. | .. High-school |Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 60 Hackley Manual-training| | | | | School |Muskegon |Mich.| 1896 | 4 | 350 Ishpeming Manual- | | | | | training School |Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 75 Menominee Manual- | | | | | training School |Menominee |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 25 High-school |Summit |N. J.| 1896 | 1 | 40 Barlow School of | | | | | Industrial Art |Binghamton |N. Y.| 1896 | 3 | 173 High-school |Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | 50 High-school |Akron |Ohio | 1896 | 2 | 180 Cross Creek School |Washington |Penn.| 1896 | .. | 14 High-school |Waupaca |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 16 High-school |Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 16 High-school |Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 50 Manual-training High- | | | | | school |Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | 27 | 800 High-school |Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 3 | 250 Central and Martin Park| | | | | High-schools |Buffalo |N. Y.| 1897 | 1 | 50 High-school |Mayville |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 30 High-school |Red Bank |N. J.| 1897 | 1 | 375 High-school |Hartford |Conn.| 1898 | 4 | 140 Manual-training High | | | | | school |Newark |N. J.| 1898 | .. | .. Howard School |Wilmington |Del. | [121] | 1 | 45 High-school |Iowa City |Iowa | [121] | .. | .. High-school |Brockton |Mass.| [121] | .. | .. High-school |South Omaha |Neb. | [121] | .. | .. High-school |Stamford |Conn.| [121] | .. | .. -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+-------- |101 Cities |23 | | 320 |15,942 | |States| | | -----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+--------

[120] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds.

[121] Date of establishment not reported.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--GRAMMAR GRADES

-------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- | | Manual | | | | | Training |Separate|Teachers| Pupils | |Established| Manual-| of | Taking | | in Grammar|training| Manual | Manual CITY OR TOWN |STATE | Grades | Schools|Training|Training -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- Montclair |N. J. | 1882 | All | 4 | 530 Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 2 | .. New Haven |Conn. | 1884 | .. | .. | .. Jamestown |N. Y. | 1884 | 2 | 2 | 800 Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | .. | 100 Waltham |Mass. | 1885 | 1 | 2 | 425 Rochester |N. Y. | 1885 | .. | .. | 336 Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 11 | 2,257 Washington |D. C. | 1886 | 40 | 43 | 9,452 Springfield |Mass. | 1886 | 1 | 3 | 267 Boston |Mass. | 1886 | All | 81 | 37,240 Newburg |N. Y. | 1886 | 1 | 2 | 95 Tidioute |Penn. | 1886 | .. | .. | .. Beardstown |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 2 | .. Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | .. | .. Brookline |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 525 Winchester |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 408 Concord |N. H. | 1888 | 2 | 4 | 402 Hoboken |N. J. | 1888 | 6 | 6 | 1,229 Orange |N. J. | 1888 | 5 | 3 | 842 New York |N. Y. | 1888 | 37 | 32 | 10,187 Meadville |Penn. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 263 Wilmington |Del. | 1889 | 1 | .. | 45 Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 1 | 101 Vineland |N. J. | 1889 | All | 1 | 500 Union |N. J. | 1889 | All | All | 643 St. Louis |Mo. | 1890 | 1 | 8 | 116 | | | [122] | [122] | [122] Duluth |Minn. | 1890 | 12 | 25 | 1,000 Passaic |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 2 | 152 Garfield |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 2 | 550 Paterson |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300 Ridgewood |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 4 | 200 Knoxville |Tenn. | 1890 | .. | .. | .. South Orange |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300 Waterbury |Conn. | 1891 | .. | .. | .. Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 50 Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 279 Salem |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 160 Northampton |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 900 Bay City |Mich. | 1891 | [123] | [123] | [123] San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 3 | 2 | 560 St. Paul |Minn. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 2,366 Camden |N. J. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 4,600 Norristown |Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 3 | 1,430 Providence |R. I. | 1892 | 13 | .. | .. Menominee |Wis. | 1892 | 2 | 4 | 200 Bristol |Conn. | 1893 | 2 | .. | 276 Haverhill |Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 190 Manistee |Mich. | 1893 | .. | .. | .. Minneapolis |Minn. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 1,214 St. Cloud |Minn. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 150 Manchester |N. H. | 1893 | All | 1 | 196 Bayonne |N. J. | 1893 | All | All | All East Orange |N. J. | 1893 | All | 2 | 755 Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | 2 | 1 | 3,500 Newport |R. I. | 1893 | .. | 4 | 633 Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200 Santa Barbara |Cal. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 232 San Diego |Cal. | 1894 | 5 | 1 | 270 Portland |Maine | 1894 | 1 | 3 | 900 Medford |Mass. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 400 New Bedford |Mass | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 400 Ithaca |N. Y. | 1894 | 2 | 2 | 420 Mason City |Iowa | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50 Denver |Colo. | 1895 | All | .. | 2,500 Chicago |Ill. | 1895 | 28 | 32 | 8,200 Cape May |N. J. | 1895 | All | 3 | 411 Fitchburg |Mass. | 1895 | .. | .. | .. Buffalo |N. Y. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 200 Pittsburg |Penn. | 1895 | 3 | 2 | 400 Barbadoes Township |N. J. | 1895 | 3 | 3 | 713 Woonsocket |R. I. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 150 Oakland |Cal. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 425 Carlstadt |N. J. | 1896 | All | 5 | 240 Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 7 | .. | 2,080 Summit |N. J. | 1896 | 3 | 3 | 200 Hartford |Conn. | 1896 | All | 5 | 800 Des Moines |Iowa | 1896 | 2 | 2 | 80 Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 1 | .. | .. Menominee |Mich. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 80 Brooklyn |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | .. | .. Glens Falls |N. Y. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 60 Utica |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | 4 | 2,300 Akron |Ohio | 1896 | .. | 2 | 210 Washington |Penn. | 1896 | 5 | 3 | 112 Pueblo Dist. No. 1 |Colo. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 180 Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 48 Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 25 | 28 | 1,400 Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 1,000 North Adams |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 247 Lynn |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 351 Newton |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 135 Worcester |Mass. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 397 Cambridge |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 136 Muskegon |Mich. | 1897 | 2 | 4 | 700 Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | .. Newark |N. J. | 1897 | .. | 3 | 2,265 Milwaukee |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 15 Pueblo Dist. No. 20|Colo. | 1898 | .. | 2 | 300 New Britain |Conn. | 1898 | .. | .. | 190 Peabody |Mass. | 1898 | .. | .. | .. Moberly |Mo. | 1898 | .. | .. | .. Stockton |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Santa Cruz |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Manchester |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Stamford |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Iowa City |Iowa | [124] | .. | .. | .. Augusta |Me. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Baltimore |Md. | [124] | All | .. | All Hyde Park |Mass. | [124] | 3 | 3 | 204 Holyoke |Mass. | [124] | 1 | .. | .. Easton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Fall River |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Dedham |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Malden |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Milton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Waterbury |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Wellesley |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Canton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | .. Richmond |Va. | [124] | .. | .. | .. -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+-------- 119 Cities |24 | | 287 | 444 |118,835 |States| | | | -------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+--------

[122] Colored School.

[123] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds.

[124] Date of establishment not reported.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--PRIMARY GRADES

------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------- | | Manual |Separate| | | | Training | Manual |Teachers| Pupils | |Established|Training| of | Taking | | in Primary| Primary| Manual | Manual CITY OR TOWN[125] |STATE| Grades | Grades |Training|Training ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------- Montclair |N. J.| 1882 | All | All | 1,047 Jamestown |N. Y.| 1882 | All | All | 2,400 Baltimore |Md. | 1884 | .. | .. | .. Washington |D. C.| 1886 | 55 | .. | 12,900 Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | .. | .. | .. Tidioute |Penn.| 1886 | .. | .. | .. Oakland |Cal. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 2,159 Springfield |Mass.| 1888 | All | .. | 29,256 Concord |N. H.| 1888 | .. | .. | .. Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 4 | 3 | 2,132 New York |N. Y.| 1888 | .. | .. | 12,000 Union |N. J.| 1889 | All | All | 560 Vineland |N. J.| 1889 | All | 1 | 700 Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | .. | 1 | .. Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | .. | 1 | 200 South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 1 | 200 Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | .. | 1 | .. Moline |Ill. | 1891 | .. | .. | .. Northampton |Mass.| 1891 | .. | 1 | 900 Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | .. | 3 | 200 San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 1 | 1 | 176 St. Paul |Minn.| 1892 | 40 | .. | 4,500 Camden |N. J.| 1892 | .. | .. | 3,080 Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 50 | .. | .. Bristol |Conn.| 1893 | 2 | 2 | 144 Minneapolis |Minn.| 1893 | 44 | .. | 4,446 Stillwater |Minn.| 1893 | .. | .. | .. Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | .. | .. | 3,500 Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200 Menominee |Wis. | 1893 | .. | 2 | 200 St. Cloud |Minn.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 488 Philipsburg |N. J.| 1894 | All | All | 700 Elyria |Ohio | 1894 | All | All | 700 Newport |R. I.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 101 Denver |Colo.| 1895 | .. | .. | .. Oshkosh |Wis. | 1896 | 20 | 25 | 800 Waltham |Mass.| 1896 | .. | .. | 100 Carlstadt |N. J.| 1896 | All | 5 | .. Utica |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | .. | .. Akron |Ohio | 1896 | All | All | 1,800 San Diego |Cal. | 1897 | 5 | 3 | 250 Newark |N. J.| 1897 | .. | .. | .. Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 500 Moberly |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | .. Passaic |N. J.| 1897 | .. | 1 | 375 Pueblo Dist. No. 1|Colo.| 1898 | .. | 1 | 180 Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | .. | .. | .. Elgin |Ill. | .. | .. | 1 | .. Augusta |Me. | .. | .. | .. | .. Detroit |Mich.| .. | .. | .. | .. Toledo |Ohio | .. | .. | .. | .. Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | .. Shenandoah |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | .. La Crosse |Wis. | .. | .. | .. | .. ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+---------- 54 Cities |20 | | 222 | 62 | 88,398 |States| | | | ------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+----------

[125] Of the 54 cities tabulated, only 9 report the number of separate primary schools in which Manual Training is taught. These 9 cities report 202 schools, or an average of 22.4 schools per city. Nine cities report all. Thirty-four cities do not report. If the average obtained from the cities reporting can be applied to all, then 1120 primary schools have Manual Training. Thirty-one cities do not report the number of teachers. Twenty cities report 34. Applying the above method shows 85 teachers of Manual Training in primary schools. It must be remembered that there are special or supervising teachers; the regular teachers doing most of this work under supervision. Thirty-two cities report 87,598 pupils taking Primary Manual Training; or 2737 on the average to each city reporting. Applying this average to the 51 cities reporting, the total is 139,587.

KINDERGARTENS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- | | Kinder- |Separate| Kinder-|Kinder- | | garten | Kinder-| garten |garten CITY OR TOWN |STATE|Established| gartens|Teachers|Pupils ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- St. Louis |Mo. | 1873 | 60 | 400 | 7,694 Milwaukee |Wis. | 1880 | 42 | 83 | 3,816 Cedar Rapids |Iowa | 1881 | 12 | 16 | 766 Newport |R. I.| 1882 | 4 | 8 | 250 Lowell |Mass.| 1883 | 12 | 25 | 400 Pawtucket |R. I.| 1883 | 4 | 9 | 295 La Porte |Ind. | 1884 | 3 | 5 | 163 Muskegon |Mich.| 1884 | 8 | 10 | 581 Philadelphia |Penn.| 1884 | 135 | 180 | 6,500 Traverse City |Mich.| 1885 | 4 | 4 | 180 San José |Cal. | 1885 | 7 | 17 | 337 Augusta |Ga. | 1887 | 4 | 8 | 183 Des Moines |Iowa | 1887 | 14 | 28 | 807 Marshalltown |Iowa | 1887 | 7 | 10 | 260 Louisville |Ky. | 1887 | 10 | 59 | 750 Albany |N. Y.| 1887 | 19 | 30 | 750 Boston |Mass.| 1888 | 67 | 126 | 3,925 Brookline |Mass.| 1888 | 11 | 18 | 373 Rochester |N. Y.| 1888 | 13 | 68 | 1,972 Sheboygan |Wis. | 1888 | 9 | 27 | 980 Bristol |Conn.| 1889 | 3 | 7 | 253 Richmond |Ind. | 1889 | 2 | 2 | 75 Cambridge |Mass.| 1889 | 11 | 22 | 583 Grand Rapids |Mich.| 1889 | 8 | 7 | 352 Montclair |N. J.| 1889 | 5 | 12 | 273 Louisburg |N. Y.| 1889 | 5 | 10 | 165 North Tonawanda |N. Y.| 1889 | 4 | 4 | 200 Norwich |Conn.| 1890 | 3 | 7 | 120 Lexington |Ky. | 1890 | 5 | 10 | 360 Grand Haven |Mich.| 1890 | 1 | 3 | 105 Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 2 | 80 East Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 6 | 6 | 180 South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 2 | 55 Providence |R. I.| 1890 | 15 | 31 | 700 Los Angeles |Cal. | 1891 | 29 | 78 | 1,800 Covington |Ky. | 1891 | 5 | 10 | 600 Frankfort |Ky. | 1891 | 1 | 2 | 50 Somerville |Mass.| 1891 | 5 | 11 | 200 Iron Mountain |Mich.| 1891 | 11 | 11 | 586 Ironwood |Mich.| 1891 | 3 | 9 | 290 Negaunee |Mich.| 1891 | 2 | 2 | 78 Concord |N. H.| 1891 | 5 | 7 | 288 Passaic |N. J.| 1891 | 6 | 8 | 284 Greenwich |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 1 | 52 Terre Haute |Ind. | 1892 | 16 | 11 | 435 Worcester |Mass.| 1892 | 10 | 19 | 518 Lowell |Mass.| 1892 | 12 | 26 | 900 Duluth |Minn.| 1892 | 16 | 27 | 1,000 Omaha |Neb. | 1892 | 26 | 40 | 1,600 Plainfield |N. J.| 1892 | 5 | 5 | 230 Utica |N. Y.| 1892 | 11 | 26 | 750 Cohoes |N. Y.| 1892 | 2 | 4 | 127 Niagara Falls |N. Y.| 1892 | 4 | 6 | 156 San Diego |Cal. | 1893 | 6 | 6 | 250 Denver |Colo.| 1893 | 25 | 50 | 2,534 Chicago |Ill. | 1893 | 51 | 121 | 2,500 Newton |Mass.| 1893 | 13 | 29 | 569 Lincoln |Neb. | 1893 | 8 | 22 | 700 Menominee |Mich.| 1893 | 5 | 5 | 350 Kansas City |Mo. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 200 Ridgewood |N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 2 | 75 Union |N. J.| 1893 | 2 | 3 | 120 Saratoga Springs|N. Y.| 1893 | 9 | 24 | 500 Flushing |N. Y.| 1893 | 3 | 4 | 60 New Rochelle |N. Y.| 1893 | 5 | 7 | 476 El Paso |Tex. | 1893 | 1 | 3 | 100 Burlington |Vt. | 1893 | 4 | 8 | 137 Racine |Wis. | 1893 | 6 | 11 | 573 Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 250 Hammond |Ind. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 80 Oskaloosa |Iowa | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 210 Sioux City |Iowa | 1894 | 3 | 6 | 125 Springfield |Mass.| 1894 | 8 | 17 | 346 Peabody |Mass.| 1894 | 3 | 6 | 126 Medford |Mass.| 1894 | 4 | 8 | 220 Superior |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 225 Lawrence |Mass.| 1894 | 1 | 2 | 36 Escanaba |Mich.| 1894 | 4 | 4 | 225 Winona |Minn.| 1894 | 8 | 13 | 400 Natchez |Miss.| 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50 Portsmouth |N. H.| 1894 | 4 | 6 | 180 Binghamton |N. Y.| 1894 | 13 | 14 | 600 Geneva |N. Y.| 1894 | 4 | 5 | 150 Sing Sing |N. Y.| 1894 | 3 | 3 | 91 Wilkesbarre |Penn.| 1894 | 2 | 2 | 80 Marinette |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 300 La Crosse |Wis. | 1894 | 3 | 3 | 150 Madison |Wis. | 1894 | 2 | 6 | 134 Oakland |Cal. | 1895 | 1 | 1 | 60 Jeffersonville |Ind. | 1895 | 7 | 7 | 200 Burlington |Iowa | 1895 | 5 | 10 | 200 North Adams |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 6 | 120 Vicksburg |Miss.| 1895 | 4 | 5 | 180 Fremont |Ohio | 1895 | 3 | 5 | 160 Oshkosh |Wis. | 1895 | 9 | 25 | 800 Winnetka |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 5 | 57 Indianapolis |Ind. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 53 Dubuque |Iowa | 1896 | 4 | 8 | 232 Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 5 | 85 Northampton |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 90 Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 2 | 6 | 300 Detroit |Mich.| 1896 | 6 | 12 | 91 Nashua |N. H.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 120 Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 97 Mt. Vernon |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 2 | 30 Cleveland |Ohio | 1896 | 12 | 24 | 500 Stevens Point |Wis. | 1896 | 4 | 5 | 180 New Bedford |Mass.| 1897 | 3 | 6 | 140 Walden |Mass.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 40 Newark |N. J.| 1897 | 26 | 50 | 2,100 Hoboken |N. J.| 1897 | 7 | 15 | 368 Bayonne |N. J.| 1897 | [126] | [126] | [126] Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1897 | 14 | 28 | .. Woonsocket |R. I.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 30 Pueblo |Colo.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 65 Akron |Ohio | 1898 | 1 | 3 | 30 Seattle |Wash.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 51 Appleton |Wis. | 1898 | 4 | 8 | 200 Anniston |Ala. | .. | 2 | .. | 122 Hot Springs |Ark. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16 Sacramento |Cal. | .. | 4 | 8 | 172 Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | 1 | 2 | 53 Manchester |Conn.| .. | 1 | 8 | 210 New Britain |Conn.| .. | 6 | 13 | 410 New Haven |Conn.| .. | 8 | 19 | 676 Hartford |Conn.| .. | 12 | 138 | 1,326 Norwalk |Conn.| .. | 3 | 6 | 95 Rockville |Conn.| .. | 1 | 1 | .. Willimantic |Conn.| .. | 2 | 6 | 229 Rome |Ga. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16 Evanston |Ill. | .. | 2 | 6 | 100 Augusta |Me. | .. | 1 | 1 | .. Portland |Me. | .. | 6 | 10 | 125 Fall River |Mass.| .. | 2 | 4 | 202 Sault Ste. Marie|Mich.| .. | 3 | 5 | 300 St. Paul |Minn.| .. | 28 | 57 | .. Trenton |N. J.| .. | 1 | 1 | 65 Paterson |N. J.| .. | 15 | 17 | 500 [127]Buffalo |N. Y.| .. | 10 | 15 | 925 Gloversville |N. Y.| .. | 4 | 4 | 411 New York |N. Y.| .. | 15 | 16 | 571 Schenectady |N. Y.| .. | 1 | 2 | 40 Newark |Ohio | .. | 2 | 3 | 33 Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | 16 | 48 | 800 Oil City |Penn.| .. | 2 | 2 | 104 Allegheny |Penn.| .. | 3 | 12 | 120 ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+------- 146 Cities |26 | .. | 1,202 | 2,695 |73,543 |States| | | | ----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------

[126] All first-grade schools have kindergartens.

[127] Kindergartens are conducted by a private association financially assisted from public-school funds.

MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE

---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- | | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils | |Grade of |Training| of | Taking NAME OF | |Academic | Estab- |Manual | Manual INSTITUTION |LOCATION |Work | lished |Training|Training ---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- Storrs School |Atlanta, Ga. |Grammar | 1865 | .. | 120 | | | | | Shaw University|Raleigh, N. C. |Collegiate| 1865 | 6 | 216 | | | | | Storer College |Harper’s Ferry,|High | 1867 | 9 | 121 |W. V. | | | | | | | | | Hampton Normal |Hampton, Va. |Gram. and | 1868 | 48 | 658 Institute | |High | | | | | | | | Mt. Hermon |Clinton, Miss. |High | 1875 | 2 | 16 Female Seminary| | | | | | | | | | Southland Col. |Southland, Ark.|Primary to| 1876 | .. | 56 and Normal | |Coll. | | | Inst. | | | | | | | | | | Princess Anne |Princess Anne, |High | 1878 | 7 | 101 Academy |Md. | | | | | | | | | Colored |Huntsville, |High | 1879 | 4 | 150 Industrial |Ala. | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Knoxville |Knoxville, |Gram. and | 1879 | 4 | 125 College |Tenn. |High | | | | | | | | Penn Normal and|Frogmore, S. C.|High | 1880 | 3 | 164 Ind. School | | | | | | | | | | State Colored |Salisbury, |Gram. and | 1881 | 4 | 118 Normal School |N. C. |High | | | | | | | | Allen |Columbia, S. C.|Primary to| 1881 | 4 | 332 University | |Coll. | | | | | | | | Tuskegee Nor. |Tuskegee, Ala. |Gram. and | 1882 | .. | 661 and Ind. | |High | | | Institute | | | | | | | | | | Tougaloo |Tougaloo, Miss.|Primary to| 1882 | .. | 175 University | |Coll. | | | | | | | | Albion Academy |Franklinton, |High | 1882 | 5 | 100 |N. C. | | | | | | | | | Spelman |Atlanta, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 375 Seminary | |High | | | | | | | | Ballard Normal |Macon, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 12 | 415 and Ind. School| |High | | | | | | | | Scotia Seminary|Concord, N. C. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 286 | |High | | | | | | | | Central |Nashville, |Gram. to | 1884 | 7 | 103 Tennessee |Tenn. |Coll. | | | College | | | | | | | | | | Hartshorn |Richmond, Va. |High | 1884 | 8 | 108 Memorial | | | | | College | | | | | | | | | | Biddle |Charlotte, |Gram. to | 1885 | 6 | 136 University |N. C. |Coll. | | | | | | | | Fisk University|Nashville, |Gram. and | 1885 | 4 | 275 |Tenn. |High | | | | | | | | Roger Williams |Nashville, |High and | 1885 | 1 | 68 University |Tenn. |Coll. | | | | | | | | Paul Quinn |Waco, Tex. |High | 1885 | 3 | 31 College | | | | | | | | | | Norfolk Mission|Norfolk, Va. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 320 College | | | | | | | | | | Howard |Washington, |.. | 1887 | 6 | 169 University |D. C. | | | | | | | | | Colored Public |Jacksonville, |Prim. to | 1887 | .. | .. Schools |Fla. |Gram. | | | | | | | | Straight |New Orleans, |High | 1887 | 3 | 50 University |La. | | | | | | | | | Wilberforce |Wilberforce, |Gram. and | 1888 | 7 | 133 University |Ohio. |High | | | | | | | | Mary Allen |Crockett, Tex. |Gram. and | 1888 | .. | 445 Seminary | |High | | | | | | | | Virginia |Petersburg, Va.|High | 1888 | 5 | 389 Institute | | | | | | | | | | Scofield |Aiken, S. C. |Grammar | 1889 | 6 | 155 Industrial | | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Institute for |Philadelphia, |High and | 1889 | 9 | 259 Colored Youth |Penn. |Norm. | | | | | | | | Burrell Academy|Selma, Ala. |Grammar | 1890 | 8 | 238 | | | | | Emerson Mem. |Ocala, Fla. |Gram. and | 1890 | 2 | 30 Home School | |High | | | | | | | | State Normal |Tallahassee, |High | 1890 | 1 | 27 and Ind. |Fla. | | | | College | | | | | | | | | | State Nor. |Frankfort, Ky. |High | 1890 | 3 | 96 School for Col.| | | | | Persons | | | | | | | | | | Southern |New Orleans, |Gram. to | 1890 | 5 | 107 University |La. |Coll. | | | | | | | | Alcon Agr. and |West Side, |Collegiate| 1890 | 5 | 298 Mech. College |Miss. | | | | | | | | | State Normal |Goldsboro, |High | 1890 | 4 | 163 School |N. C. | | | | | | | | | Lincoln Academy|King’s Mount’n,|Gram. and | 1890 | 6 | 186 |N. C. |High | | | | | | | | St. Augustine |Raleigh, N. C. |Gram. to | 1890 | 4 | 88 School | |Coll. | | | | | | | | Lincoln Academy|Jefferson City,|High | 1891 | 8 | 400 |Mo. | | | | | | | | | Arkansas |Pine Bluff, |High | 1892 | 6 | 62 Industrial |Ark. | | | | University | | | | | | | | | | Berea College |Berea, Ky. |High and | 1892 | 2 | 56 | |Coll. | | | | | | | | Colored |Bordentown, |Gram. and | 1892 | 6 | 54 Industrial |N. J. |High | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Bishop College |Marshall, Tex. |Gram. and | 1892 | 5 | 109 | |High | | | | | | | | Brewer Normal |Greenwood, |Gram. and | 1893 | 1 | 120 School |S. C. |High | | | | | | | | Hearne Academy |Hearne, Tex. |High | 1893 | 1 | 35 | | | | | Shorter |Arkadelphia, |Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 20 University |Ark. |High | | | | | | | | Knox Institute |Athens, Ga. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 87 | |High | | | | | | | | Walker Baptist |Augusta, Ga. |High | 1894 | 2 | 67 Institute | | | | | | | | | | Chandler Normal|Lexington, Ky. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 150 School | |High | | | | | | | | Washburn |Beaufort, N. C.|Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 77 Seminary | |High | | | | | | | | State Col’d |Normal, Ala. |High | .. | 10 | 248 Nor. and Ind. | | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Cookman |Jacksonville, |High | .. | .. | .. Institute |Fla. | | | | | | | | | Beach Institute|Savannah, Ga. |Gram. and | .. | 7 | 85 | |High | | | | | | | | Allen |Thomasville, |High | .. | 2 | 80 Industrial |Ga. | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Leland |New Orleans, |High and | .. | .. | .. University |La. |Coll. | | | | | | | | New Orleans |New Orleans, |.. | .. | .. | .. University |La. | | | | | | | | | Mississippi |Holly Springs, |High | .. | 1 | 85 State Normal |Miss. | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | State Colored |Elizabeth City,|High | .. | .. | .. Normal School |N. C. | | | | | | | | | Plymouth State |Plymouth, N. C.|High | .. | .. | .. Normal School | | | | | | | | | | Rankin-Richards|Orangeburg, |Gram. and | .. | 20 | 454 Institute |S. C. |High | | | | | | | | Slater Training|Knoxville, |Gram. and | [128] | 1 | 25 School |Tenn. |High | | | | | | | | Tillotson |Austin, Tex. |.. | .. | 4 | 55 Institute | | | | | | | | | | Emerson |Mobile, Ala. |Gram. and | .. | .. | .. Institute | |High | | | ---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+-------- 67 Manual-training Schools | 327 | 10,332 ---------------------------------------------------+--------+--------

[128] The date given is that of establishment of school. Date of establishment of Manual Training was not ascertained in these instances.

PRIVATE MANUAL-TRAINING SCHOOLS

--------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------ | | | |Teachers| | |Grade of|Date of | of | NAME OF | |Academic| Estab- | Manual | INSTITUTION |LOCATION |Work |lishment|Training|Pupils --------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------ Massachusetts Inst. |Boston, Mass. |High | 1876 | .. | .. of Technology[129] | | | | | | | | | | Penn. School of |Philadelphia, |High | 1876 | .. | .. Industrial Arts |Penn. | | | | | | | | | Working-men’s School|New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1878 | 19 | 353 | | | | | Miller Manual-labor |Crozet, Va. |High | 1878 | .. | 198 School | | | | | | | | | | Washington |St. Louis, Mo. |High | 1879 | 14 | 300 University M. T. | | | | | School | | | | | | | | | | Girard College |Philadelphia |Gram. | 1882 | 11 | 650 |Penn. |and High| | | | | | | | Chicago Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |High | 1893 | 13 | 263 training School | | | | | | | | | | Hebrew Technical |New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1883 | 11 | 254 Institute | | | | | | | | | | M. T. School of |New Orleans, |High | 1884 | 6 | 114 Tulane University |La. | | | | | | | | | H. Mann School and |New York, N. Y.|Primary | 1884 | 12 | 257 Teachers’ Coll. | |to Coll.| | | | | | | | Haish Manual- |Denver, Col. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 11 training School | | | | | | | | | | Pratt Institute |Brooklyn, N. Y.|High | 1887 | .. | 125 | | | | | H. S. Newcom |New Orleans, |High and| 1887 | .. | .. Memorial College |La. |Coll. | | | | | | | | Sloyd Manual- |Boston, Mass. |Normal | 1889 | 3 | 104 training School | | | | | | | | | | Tyler School |Providence, |Gram. | 1890 | 6 | 330 |R. I. |and High| | | | | | | | Jewish Training |Chicago, Ill. |Prim. | 1890 | 27 | 700 School | |and | | | | |Gram. | | | | | | | | National University |Chicago, Ill. |.. | 1890 | 5 | 500 | | | | | Miss Sayer’s School |Newport, R. I. |Gram. | 1891 | 2 | 20 | |and High| | | | | | | | Swedenborgian School|Waltham, Mass. |Grammar | 1891 | 1 | 60 | | | | | Thorp Polytechnic |Pasadena, Cal. |Gram. to| 1892 | 8 | 300 Institute | |Coll. | | | | | | | | Friends’ Select |Philadelphia, |High | 1892 | .. | 123 School |Penn. | | | | | | | | | Providence Training |Providence, |Normal | 1893 | 1 | 49 School for Sloyd |R. I. | | | | | | | | | Plainfield Academy |Plainfield, |Prim. to| 1893 | 2 | 25 |N. J. |High | | | | | | | | California School of|San Francisco, |High | 1895 | 7 | 310 Mechanical Arts |Cal. | | | | | | | | | St. Andrew’s |Rochester, |High | 1895 | 1 | 60 |N. Y. | | | | | | | | | Lewis Institute |Chicago, Ill. |High and| 1896 | 10 | 200 | | Coll. | | | | | | | | Free Industrial |San Diego, Cal.|Gram. | 1896 | 2 | 80 School | |and High| | | | | | | | Commons Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Grammar | 1896 | 1 | 40 training School | | | | | | | | | | Hull House Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Gram. | 1897 | 2 | 70 training School | |and High| | | | | | | | Elmwood School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | Franklin School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | Lasell Seminary |Auburndale, |.. | .. | .. | .. |Mass. | | | | | | | | | Talladega College |Talladega, Ala.|.. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | Kenilworth Academy |Kenilworth, |.. | .. | .. | .. |Ill. | | | | | | | | | Y. M. C. A. Manual- |Hartford, Conn.|.. | .. | .. | .. training Dep’t. | | | | | | | | | | Clark University |Atlanta, Ga. |.. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | Private Manual- |Winnetka, Ill. |.. | .. | .. | .. training Class | | | | | --------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------

[129] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology was established in 1865; but in 1876 it adopted Manual Training as a system into all its grades, and thus became the first distinctive Manual-training School without prejudice to its high standing as an Institute of Technology.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS

-----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+-------- | | Manual |Teachers| Pupils | |Training| of | Taking | | Estab- | Manual | Manual NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training -----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+-------- Santee Normal Training |Santee Agency, Neb.| 1870 | 12 | 72 School | | | | | | | | Cook County Normal |Chicago, Ill. | 1883 | .. | 450 School[130] | | | | | | | | State Normal School |Whitewater, Wis. | 1883 | 2 | 100 | | | | State Normal Training |New Britain, Conn. | 1884 | 5 | 253 School | | | | | | | | Industrial Institute |Columbus, Miss. | 1885 | 1 | 123 and College | | | | | | | | West Chester State |West Chester, Penn.| 1889 | 2 | 220 Normal School | | | | | | | | State Normal School |San José, Cal. | 1890 | 3 | 700 | | | | Georgia Normal and |Milledgeville, Ga. | 1891 | 15 | 284 Industrial College | | | | | | | | State Normal and Model |Trenton, N. J. | 1891 | 1 | 225 School | | | | | | | | State Female Normal |Farmville, Va. | 1891 | 2 | 75 School | | | | | | | | Normal College of New |New York, N. Y. | 1892 | 12 | 257 York | | | | | | | | Normal and Industrial |Greensboro, N. C. | 1892 | 5 | 300 School | | | | | | | | Keystone State Normal |Kutztown, Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 106 School | | | | | | | | State Normal School |Framingham, Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 25 | | | | Westfield Normal School|Westfield, Mass. | 1893 | 5 | 70 | | | | State Normal School |Los Angeles, Cal. | 1894 | 2 | 475 | | | | Alabama Normal College |Livingston, Ala. | .. | 1 | .. for Girls | | | | -----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+--------

[130] The Cook County (Illinois) Normal School was originally established as a private school. It is now the public training school for teachers in the public schools.

PRIVATE TRADE SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY

------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------ | |Date of | | | | Estab- | | NAME OF INSTITUTION |LOCATION |lishment|Teachers|Pupils ------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------ Rensselaer Polytechnic |Troy, N. Y. | 1824 | 18 | .. Institute | | | | | | | | Ohio Mechanics’ Institute |Cincinnati, | 1828 | .. | 720 |Ohio. | | | | | | | Massachusetts Institute of |Boston, Mass. | 1865 | 6 | 222 Technology | | | | | | | | Cornell University |Ithaca, N. Y. | 1865 | 36 | 599 | | | | Worcester Polytechnic |Worcester, | 1868 | .. | .. Institute |Mass. | | | | | | | Stevens Institute of |Hoboken, | 1871 | 22 | 256 Technology |N. J. | | | | | | | Lowell School of Practical |Boston, Mass. | 1872 | .. | 65 Designing | | | | | | | | Rhode Island School of Design |Providence, | 1878 | .. | 341 |R. I. | | | | | | | Chicago College of Horology |Chicago, Ill. | 1880 | .. | .. | | | | Case School of Applied |Cleveland, | 1881 | 11 | .. Sciences |Ohio. | | | | | | | School of Ind. Art and Tech. |New York, | 1881 | .. | .. Design for Women |N. Y. | | | | | | | New York Trade School |New York, | 1881 | 26 | 556 N. Y. | | | | | | | Rose Polytechnic Institute |Terre Haute, | 1883 | 6 | .. |Ind. | | | | | | | [131]Textile Schools |Philadelphia, | 1883 | .. | 65 |Penn. | | | | | | | Milwaukee Cooking School |Milwaukee, | 1884 | 2 | .. |Wis. | | | | | | | Newark Technical School |Newark, N. J. | 1885 | 6 | 250 | | | | Technical School of |Cincinnati, | 1886 | .. | .. Cincinnati |Ohio. | | | | | | | Technical Drawing School |Providence, | 1887 | .. | .. |R. I. | | | | | | | Cogswell Polytechnic School |San Francisco,| 1888 | 7 | 150 |Cal. | | | | | | | Institute for Artisans |New York, | 1888 | .. | .. |N. Y. | | | | | | | Watchmakers’ Trade School |La Porte, Ind.| 1888 | .. | .. | | | | Institute for Colored Youth |Philadelphia, | 1889 | 9 | 259 |Penn. | | | | | | | Master-Builders’ Mechanical |Philadelphia, | 1890 | 6 | 67 School of Phil’a. |Penn. | | | | | | | Lawrence Scientific School of |Cambridge, | 1891 | 3 | 64 Harvard Univ’ty |Mass. | | | | | | | Baron de Hirsch Trade School |New York, | 1891 | .. | .. |N. Y. | | | | | | | [132]University of Cincinnati |Cincinnati, | 1891 | .. | .. |Ohio. | | | | | | | Leland Stanford University |Palo Alto, | 1891 | .. | .. |Cal. | | | | | | | Williamson Free School of |Williamson | 1891 | 10 | 160 Mechanical Trades |Schools, Pa. | | | | | | | Springfield Industrial |Springfield, | 1891 | 5 | 105 Institute |Mass. | | | | | | | Drexel Institute |Philadelphia, | 1892 | 38 | .. |Penn. | | | | | | | Armour Institute |Chicago, Ill. | 1893 | 15 | 300 | | | | Mechanics’ Institute |Rochester, | 1893 | 15 | 972 |N. Y. | | | | | | | Private School of Carpentry |Racine, Wis. | 1896 | 1 | 30 | | | | Lafayette College |Easton, Penn. | .. | .. | .. | | | | Vanderbilt University |Nashville, | .. | .. | .. |Tenn. | | | | | | | Boston Normal School of |Boston, Mass. | .. | .. | .. Cookery | | | | ------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------

NOTE.--Private trade schools for teaching watch-making, some fifteen in number, are united, because no data was secured. Private cooking schools, dress-making schools, barber schools, etc., have within the last five years sprung up in various parts of the country. Some of these are of considerable importance, but most are small, and no effort has been made to secure reports from them.

[131] These schools are supported by both legislative appropriations and private endowments. They are not public schools in the usual sense of the term.

[132] The University of Cincinnati is supported by both public funds and private endowments. It is unique in this, that, although a university in its grade of work, it is essentially a part of the public-school system. The city collects a one-tenth mill tax annually for its benefit; and the university, including its technical and Manual-training course, is free to residents of the city. The necessary expenses, such as laboratory fees, are kept to the lowest possible limit; and every family in the municipality is entitled to educate its children in this thoroughly equipped university, practically without cost.

TECHNOLOGY IN PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF COLLEGIATE GRADE--EXCLUSIVE OF PURELY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

-------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------ | |Technical| | | |Training | | | | Estab- | | INSTITUTION |LOCATION | lished |Teachers|Pupils -------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------ United States Naval |Annapolis, Md. | 1845 | .. | .. Academy | | | | | | | | State Agricultural |Agricultural | 1857 | 14 | 332 College |College, Mich. | | | | | | | Maine State College |Orono, Me. | 1864 | 13 | 191 | | | | University of Vermont |Burlington, Vt. | 1865 | 11 | 119 | | | | Illinois University |Urbana, Ill. | 1868 | .. | .. | | | | University of Minnesota |Minnesota, Minn. | 1869 | 9 | 159 | | | | University of Tennessee |Knoxville, Tenn. | 1869 | 6 | 150 | | | | University of Iowa |Ames, Iowa. | 1869 | 9 | 284 | | | | Kansas State Agricultural|Manhattan, Kan. | 1873 | 20 | 530 College | | | | | | | | Ohio State University |Columbus, Ohio. | 1873 | 9 | 373 | | | | University of California |Berkeley, Cal. | 1874 | 3 | 84 | | | | [133]Purdue University |Lafayette, Ind. | 1874 | 10 | 280 | | | | Agricultural and |College Station, | 1876 | 16 | 313 Mechanical College |Tex. | | | | | | | State Agricultural |Fort Collins, Col.| 1879 | 2 | 137 College | | | | | | | | Agricultural and |Agricultural | 1880 | 3 | .. Mechanical College |College, Miss. | | | | | | | Agricultural and |Blacksburg, Va. | 1880 | 18 | 190 Mechanical College | | | | | | | | Mechanical College of |Baton Rouge, La. | 1880 | 1 | 56 State University | | | | | | | | Storrs Agricultural |Storrs, Conn. | 1881 | 4 | 145 College | | | | | | | | Agricultural and |Auburn, Ala. | 1885 | 4 | 200 Mechanical College | | | | | | | | Arkansas Industrial |Fayetteville, Ark.| 1885 | 7 | 150 University | | | | | | | | Michigan Mining School |Houghton, Mich. | 1886 | 11 | 82 | | | | Agricultural College of |Brookings, S. D. | 1887 | 11 | 160 South Dakota | | | | | | | | Florida Agricultural |Lake City, Fla. | 1888 | 2 | 62 College | | | | | | | | Oregon State Agricultural|Corvallis, Ore. | 1888 | 9 | 237 College | | | | | | | | Agricultural College of |Logan, Utah. | 1889 | 7 | 119 Utah | | | | | | | | New Mexico College of |Messilla Park, | 1890 | .. | .. Mechanical Arts |N. M. | | | | | | | University of Michigan |Ann Arbor, Mich. | 1890 | 5 | .. | | | | Delaware College |Newark, Del. | 1891 | 3 | 23 | | | | Agricultural and |Lexington, Ky. | 1891 | 3 | 31 Mechanical Coll. of | | | | Kentucky | | | | | | | | State University |Columbia, Mo. | 1891 | 2 | 145 | | | | College of Mining |Rolla, Mo. | 1891 | 7 | 225 | | | | University of Nebraska |Lincoln, Neb. | 1891 | 3 | 210 | | | | Nevada State University |Reno, Nev. | 1891 | 1 | 106 | | | | University of Wyoming |Laramie, Wy. | 1891 | 4 | 60 | | | | North Dakota Agricultural|Fargo, N. D. | 1892 | 2 | 24 College | | | | | | | | West Virginia University |Morgantown, W. Va.| 1892 | 5 | 79 | | | | Clemson Agricultural |Clemson College, | 1893 | 9 | 635 College |S. C. | | | -------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------

[133] Purdue University is partially supported by endowment, but as it secures regular appropriations, it is here classified as a State University.

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN CHARITY SCHOOLS[134]

---------------------------+---------------+--------+-----------+----- | | Indus- |Teachers| Pupils | | trial | of | Taking | |Training| Indus- | Indus- | | Estab- | trial | trial NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training ---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+-------- | | | | Baltimore Manual-labor |Arbutus, Md. | 1841 | 2 | 60 School | | | | | | | | Wilson Industrial School |New York, N. Y.| 1853 | 3 | 100 for Girls | | | | | | | | Industrial Home School |Washington, | 1867 | 6 | 60 |D. C. | | | | | | | McDonough School |McDonough, Md. | 1873 | 5 | 140 | | | | South End Industrial School|Roxbury, Mass. | 1884 | 21 | 313 | | | | Five Points House of |New York, N. Y.| 1885 | 9 | 331 Industry | | | | | | | | Indiana Soldiers’ Orphans’ |Kingstown, Ind.| 1885 | 7 | 80 Home | | | | | | | | Skyland Institute |Blowing Rock, | 1886 | .. | .. |N. C. | | | | | | | Samuel Ready School for |Baltimore, Md. | 1887 | 3 | 60 Female Orphans | | | | | | | | Chicago Waifs’ Mission and |Chicago, Ill. | 1888 | 3 | 30 Training School | | | | | | | | Industrial School |Brooklyn, N. Y.| 1888 | 8 | 80 Association | | | | | | | | Kalamazoo Industrial School|Kalamazoo, | 1889 | 18 | 224 |Mich. | | | | | | | Industrial School of |Rochester, | 1890 | 5 | 120 Rochester |N. Y. | | | | | | | Industrial School for Boys |Glenwood, Ill. | 1890 | .. | 400 | | | | Jewish Orphan Asylum |Cleveland, Ohio| 1891 | 8 | 157 | | | | St. George’s Boys’ |New York, N. Y.| 1892 | 6 | 259 Industrial Trade School | | | | | | | | Boys’ Club in Carpentry |Lynn, Mass. | 1895 | 1 | 25 | | | | Polish Orphans’ Home |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | .. | | | | Unity Church Manual- |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | .. training School | | | | | | | | Iowa Orphans’ Home |Davenport, | .. | .. | .. |Iowa. | | | ---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------

[134] Industrial Training, rather than Manual Training, characterizes the Charity Schools, the central idea being to prepare the child for some occupation by which it can become self-supporting. As will be seen by the table, this idea found very early expression in the Manual-labor School at Arbutus, Maryland. The co-education of mind and hand, because of its equal, or greater, educational value, was not thought of in these charity institutions until recently, and cannot be said to obtain in any of them even now.

PROGRESS OF MANUAL TRAINING BY YEARS, IN CITIES

The following table shows growth by years, as represented by cities establishing Manual Training or Kindergartens in Public Schools. The number refers to cities adopting this feature of education in the years named.

-------------+--------------+--------------+-------------- HIGH SCHOOLS |GRAMMAR GRADES|PRIMARY GRADES|KINDERGARTENS ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------ |Number| |Number| |Number| |Number Year | of | Year | of | Year | of | Year | of |Cities| |Cities| |Cities| |Cities ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------ .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1873 | 1 .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1880 | 1 .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1881 | 1 .. | .. | 1882 | 1 | 1882 | 2 | 1882 | 1 1883 | 2 | 1883 | 1 | 1883 | 0 | 1883 | 2 1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3 | 1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3 1885 | 5 | 1885 | 3 | 1885 | 0 | 1885 | 2 1886 | 5 | 1886 | 5 | 1886 | 3 | 1886 | 0 1887 | 4 | 1887 | 1 | 1887 | 0 | 1887 | 5 1888 | 6 | 1888 | 8 | 1888 | 5 | 1888 | 4 1889 | 8 | 1889 | 4 | 1889 | 3 | 1889 | 7 1890 | 7 | 1890 | 8 | 1890 | 2 | 1890 | 7 1891 | 10 | 1891 | 6 | 1891 | 4 | 1891 | 9 1892 | 7 | 1892 | 6 | 1892 | 4 | 1892 | 10 1893 | 5 | 1893 | 11 | 1893 | 6 | 1893 | 15 1894 | 7 | 1894 | 7 | 1894 | 4 | 1894 | 20 1895 | 8 | 1895 | 8 | 1895 | 1 | 1895 | 7 1896 | 15 | 1896 | 13 | 1896 | 5 | 1896 | 12 1897 | 8 | 1897 | 13 | 1897 | 5 | 1897 | 7 1898 | 2 | 1898 | 4 | 1898 | 1 | 1898 | 4 [135] | 5 | [135] | 18 | [135] | 8 | [135] | 28 ------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------

[135] Not reported.

NOTE ON STATE LAWS IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING.

Connecticut, in 1888, authorized and empowered school boards to introduce Manual Training in public schools.

Congress appropriated $8000 to Manual Training equipment in the District of Columbia in 1896.

In 1885 the State of Georgia passed a law authorizing and recommending school boards to introduce Manual Training in the public schools of the state. The law was simply a moral indorsement, and had little practical effect.

Indiana has a law authorizing the introduction of Manual Training into the public schools of all cities of 100,000 inhabitants or over.

Massachusetts passed an authorizing act in 1884, and on April 14, 1894, a law was adopted, section one of which is as follows:

“After the first day of September in the year eighteen hundred and ninety five, every city of twenty thousand or more inhabitants shall maintain as part of its high-school system the teaching of Manual Training. The course to be pursued in said instruction shall be subject to the approval of the state board of education.”

In 1887 New Jersey passed a law to encourage the introduction of Manual Training in public schools. The chief provision of the act was, that whenever any school district should raise by taxation, subscription, or both, a sum of money not less than $1000, for the establishment of Manual Training in such school district, the state should appropriate a sum equal to that raised by the district, to aid in the establishment of such school; provided that no one district should receive over $5000 in any one year from state funds. In 1888 this law was amended so as to include districts that should raise not to exceed $500, the state agreeing to duplicate the sum raised. The effect of this law was very marked in 1890, resulting in the establishment of a large number of schools.

In 1888 New York passed a law authorizing local school boards to establish Manual Training within their respective jurisdictions. The same law makes the teaching of Manual Training compulsory in normal schools, subject, however, to recommendations of the state superintendent of public instruction, which provision has practically nullified it.

Ohio has a law authorizing a tax levy of ⁵⁄₁₀ of a mill for cities of a certain size, and ¹⁄₅ of a mill for certain other cities, in excess of other taxes; the sums so raised to be used for the purpose of introducing Manual Training into the public schools.

In 1895 Wyoming authorized school boards to establish Manual Training in the public schools.

In 1895 Wisconsin authorized the establishment of Manual Training in its public schools providing state aid for the same, but limiting the number to receive state aid to ten high-schools to be selected by the state superintendent of schools.

The best of existing state-aid laws is that of Maryland, enacted April 7, 1898. It is very liberal and will doubtless greatly stimulate the progress of the new education in that state. The Wisconsin law gives $250 to each of its schools per year, and the New Jersey law duplicates whatever the school board raises for that purpose. But the Maryland law gives $1500 to each school the first year, and $50 per pupil per year thereafter, up to the limit of $1500 per school per year--enough, probably, to pay the entire expense of the system. Following is the text of the statute:

“_Whereas_, The establishment of well-conducted and liberally supported schools, or departments, in one of the large graded schools or high-schools in each county of the state, for the development and training of the manual ability of pupils, must tend to supply a growing want in each county of the state; and

_Whereas_, It is especially the duty of the state to afford the best educational facilities to its youth in those technical studies which are directly associated with the material prosperity of its people; and

_Whereas_, It is for the best interests of this state that the colored population of each county shall have an opportunity for the establishment of separate industrial schools; therefore,

SEC. 1. _Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland_, That it shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners, when a suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the large graded schools or high-schools shall be provided by the county, or money sufficient for the erection of such building, or room or rooms, to accept the same (if, in the judgment of the board, there is any necessity therefor), and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of a Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, for said county, and the salaries of teachers and Manual Training instructors, out of the general school fund and the state aid hereinafter provided.

SEC. 2. _And be it enacted_, That whenever a Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, is opened in any county, the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said county shall report to the secretary of the state board of education, and the state board of education shall, without delay, proceed to appoint the principal of the state normal school, or one of the teachers in said school, well qualified for such service, to visit the school and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted; and thereafter the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners shall report to the comptroller the condition of the school, the number of instructors, and the number of pupils enrolled, on or before the twentieth day of January in each year.

SEC. 3. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury, after receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, according to the provisions of the second section of this act, is hereby authorized and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order of the treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county filing the certificate of approval aforesaid, out of any moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first day of October in each year, for the support of said Manual Training school, or Manual Training department.

SEC. 4. _And be it enacted_, That the county Manual Training school, or the Manual Training department and the school to which it is attached, shall be under the management and control of the board of county school commissioners.

SEC. 5. _And be it enacted_, That it shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners of each county in this state, whenever a suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the colored schools of said county, shall be provided by the county to accept the same, if in the judgment of the said board there is any necessity therefor, and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of such member [number] of separate colored industrial schools as in their judgment may be needed, and the salaries of such teachers as may be required for that purpose shall be paid out of the general fund and the state aid hereinafter provided.

SEC. 6. _And be it enacted_, That whenever any such separate colored industrial school or schools are opened in any county, the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said county shall report the fact to the secretary of the state board of education, and the state board of education shall without delay proceed to appoint a proper person well qualified for such service, to visit the said school or schools and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted, and thereafter the president and secretary of the said board shall report to the comptroller of this state the condition of said school or schools, the number of instructors and the number of pupils enrolled during the school year last ended, on or before the 20th day of August in each year.

SEC. 7. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury upon receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county colored industrial school or schools, as aforesaid, according to the provisions of the sixth section of this act, is hereby authorized and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order [of the] treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county, upon the filing of the certificates of approval aforesaid, out of any moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first day of October in each year, for the support of said colored industrial school or schools, and thereafter the said industrial school or schools shall be under the management and control of the said board of county school commissioners.

SEC. 8. _And be it enacted_, That no entire appropriation for the benefit of any Manual Training school, provided for under this act, shall be paid as authorized, after the first annual appropriation, unless said school have had an average daily attendance of thirty scholars for the preceding year; and in case said attendance shall fall short of said number, then there shall only be paid towards the maintenance of said school at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars for each scholar of its daily average annual attendance, to be determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller.

SEC. 9. _And be it enacted_, That no appropriation for the benefit of the colored industrial schools of any county, provided for under this act, shall be paid after the first annual appropriation, unless the average daily attendance at such school or schools shall have been, for the preceding year, at least thirty scholars; and in case said attendance shall fall short of said number, then there shall be paid to the treasurer of the county school commissioners maintaining said school or schools, only at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars a scholar, for the daily average annual attendance at the same, to be determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller.

Approved April 7, 1898.”

The report of the state superintendent of public instruction for Michigan, for the year 1897, shows that Kindergartens exist in the public schools of the following cities and towns: Cities of over 4000 population as shown by state census of 1894--Albion, Big Rapids, Cadillac, Calumet, Detroit, Escanaba, Grand Haven, Grand Rapids, Holland, Ionia, Ironwood, Ishpeming, Jackson, Menonimee, Mt. Clemens, Muskegon, Negamee, Niles, St. Joseph, Traverse City, West Bay City, Wyandotte--twenty-two cities of over 4000 population. The twenty-four cities and towns with less than 4000 population as shown by state census of 1894, and having Kindergartens in their public schools, are: Algonac, Alma, Au Sable, Caro, Crystal Falls, Dowagiac, Fremont, Greenville, Hartford, Houghton, Ithaca, Lake Linden, Lake View, Mancelona, Manistique, Montague, Morenci, Nashville, Pentwater, Reed City, Sand Beach, Stanton, Union City, Vassar. Such of these cities and towns as furnished reports will be found in the accompanying tables; from the others no data was received.

Two thoroughly equipped Manual Training schools are projected: one, to be in Pullman, Illinois, is to result from a bequest in the will of the late Mr. George M. Pullman, who left a large sum for its construction, and an annuity of $25,000 for its maintenance; the other school is to be built by the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, at Calumet, Michigan. Both these schools will be free, and will probably become a part of the public-school system of their respective towns.

The legislature of Massachusetts in 1898 passed an act establishing a trade-school for weavers, to be located at Lowell, Massachusetts, provided the city would raise half the money necessary for its construction, the state to pay the other half. This is the first well-defined movement in this country to establish public trade-schools to teach the trades prevailing in the locality of the school. Europe has many such schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA.

There is, as yet, no established national school system in Russia. The school systems of Finland and other Russian dependencies are provincial and local. An imperial decree of March 7, 1888, however, contained an elaborate plan for elementary national education, in which Manual Training, Technical, and Trade education were given not only prominence but precedence. The doctrine of state aid to educational institutions is, however, fully and liberally recognized. Manual Training was founded in Russia in 1868, as mentioned in the first edition of this work, by M. Victor Della Vos, and revived and extended in 1884 by the then Minister of Finance, who sent two teachers to Naäs, Sweden, to take a six weeks’ course of instruction, and a workshop for boys’ hand labor was the same year established in connection with the Teachers’ Institute in St. Petersburg. In 1885 this was made a permanent feature of Teachers’ Institute work, and an annual grant of 3000 rubles ($1659) was voted; and in 1887 a course in metal work was added to this school. In 1888 three normal courses for instructing teachers in Manual Training were instituted and subsidized by the imperial government. One of these at Novaia Ladoga trains both city and country school-teachers; at Riga, city teachers only, while at Kiev only country teachers are trained. The instruction of teachers in Manual Training was also made part of the teachers’ institutes at Glookhov, Vilna, and Orenboorg in 1889. Besides these there were in 1890 eleven vacation institutes, training two hundred and fifty teachers for the work of imparting manual instruction. These teachers’ institutes, vacation and permanent (or normal schools), have increased rapidly and received rich subsidies from the imperial treasury. In 1891 the Russian Minister of War introduced Manual Training into all the cadet schools. The most recent available data indicate the introduction of Manual Training into one hundred and sixteen establishments, as follows: four teachers’ institutes, fourteen teachers’ seminaries, four intermediate schools, forty-four higher public schools, and thirty-four elementary common schools. A more recent report--which, however, is not at hand--is said to show remarkable developments in Manual Training in common and rural schools. A brief survey of technical and trade schools in Russia follows.

The technical schools at Moscow and St. Petersburg are imperial schools of university grade, richly endowed, and reputed to be the best equipped schools in Europe. The oldest and best technical school in Moscow below university rank, and making no attempt to teach trades, is the Komisarof Technical School, founded in 1865 by two railroad contractors. It now receives government aid, and has about four hundred pupils. The Society for the Promotion of Technical Education in 1873 founded a school called the “Mechanical Handicraft School of Moscow.” The government contributes $1000 per year to this school. There are five technical schools having a grade of academic work comparable with our high schools--the Komisarof Technical School of Moscow, mentioned above, founded in 1865; the Lodz, in 1869; Irkootsk, 1873; Kungursk, 1877; and the Omsk, in 1882. The five schools had 1052 students at date of latest available report. Trade-schools of grammar grade, twenty-three in number, had 2474 pupils. Of these schools three were established in 1868; one in 1871; two in 1872; one in 1873; one in 1874; one in 1875; two in 1877; one in 1878; two in 1879; one in 1880; two in 1883; two in 1885; three in 1886; one in 1887. Trade-schools of primary grade, sixty-three in number, with 2562 pupils. One was established in 1865; one in 1866; two in 1867; one in 1870; one in 1871; three in 1872; two in 1873; five in 1874; six in 1875; one in 1876; six in 1877; four in 1878; three in 1879; two in 1880; two in 1881; four in 1882; five in 1883; five in 1884; one in 1885; one in 1886; four in 1887; two in 1888; one in 1889.

MANUAL TRAINING IN FINLAND.

Finland was the birthplace of the man who first devised and practised that method of education known as Sloyd--a form of Manual Training.

Otto Cygneans, of Helsingfors Teachers’ Seminary, after a thorough study of Froebel and Pestalozzi (to whom he gives ample credit), originated in 1858 a system for carrying the education of the hand beyond the kindergarten into all grades of schools. To Finland also belongs the credit of being the first country to officially recognize the value of such education. Since 1866 (sometimes stated 1868) Manual Training (Sloyd) has been compulsory in all the elemental and normal schools of Finland. In 1896 there were four normal schools with 569 students, and 75,712 pupils taking Manual Training in the elementary schools of the cities. Statistics of rural schools are not obtainable. In addition to these, there were in 1896 forty-two separate and distinctively Manual-training high-schools, with 1030 pupils, besides eight industrial schools, with 56 teachers and 380 pupils. All are public schools. There are technical and trade schools of all grades, from the Polytechnic School at Helsingfors to the elementary trade and weaving schools. There are seven schools where navigation is taught, twelve weaving, dyeing, and sewing schools, supported wholly or in part by the government, fourteen elementary technical schools, five high-grade technical schools, and ten trade-schools other than weaving and navigation. Government aid is granted to all of these schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN ENGLAND.

The activity of Germany along the line of trade and technical schools, immediately following the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, alarmed the people of England, producing in 1882 what has been termed a “Technical education scare.” The friends of Manual Training, acting upon this popular and commercial anxiety, secured the passage of the “Technical Instruction Act of 1889.” By the terms of this act the schools organized under it were not to be trade-schools; and the construction put upon the expression “Manual Instruction” makes the term practically synonymous with our term Manual Training. The following table shows the growth of these schools. The growth of cooking schools is also statistically represented in the table.

----+-----------------------++--------------------------------- | MANUAL INSTRUCTION || SCHOOLS OF COOKERY AND DATE| NUMBER OF SCHOOLS || DOMESTIC SCIENCE ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+--------- | | Number of || | | | Number of | Schools || Number of | Number of | | Schools |Established|| Schools | Schools | |Existing in| During ||Existing in|Established|Number of YEAR| Year Named| Year Named|| Year Named|During Year| Pupils ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+--------- 1876| .. | .. || 29 | 29 | .. 1877| .. | .. || 125 | 96 | .. 1878| .. | .. || 178 | 53 | .. 1879| .. | .. || 223 | 45 | .. 1880| .. | .. || 276 | 53 | .. 1881| .. | .. || 299 | 23 | .. 1882| .. | .. || 347 | 48 | .. 1883| .. | .. || 420 | 73 | 1,251 1884| .. | .. || 541 | 121 | 7,597 1885| .. | .. || 715 | 174 | 17,754 1886| .. | .. || 812 | 97 | 24,526 1887| .. | .. || 921 | 109 | 30,431 1888| .. | .. || 1,086 | 165 | 42,159 1889| .. | .. || 1,355 | 269 | 57,539 1890| 30 | 30 || 1,554 | 199 | 66,820 1891| 145 | 115 || 1,796 | 242 | 68,291 1892| 285 | 140 || 2,113 | 317 | 90,794 1893| 430 | 145 || 2,419 | 306 | 108,192 1894| 677 | 247 || 2,634 | 215 | 122,325 1895| 949 | 272 || 2,775 | 141 | 134,930 | [136] | || | | ----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+---------

[136] The number of pupils taking Manual Training cannot be given; as an indication, however, it may be said that the London School Board reports that in 1895, 30,508 boys were instructed in wood work in London schools alone.

Governmental aid to drawing and Manual Training, when incorporated in the curriculum of day grammar-grade schools, evening “continuation schools,” and teachers’ training colleges, is bestowed through the executive department, styled “The Science and Art Department.” Special attention is paid to training teachers in the teachers’ colleges, so that they will be able to give instruction in Manual Training. This is specially true to grammar-grade teachers. In 1894 56 teachers’ colleges were giving Manual Training to 4,434 teacher-pupils, the government granting $13,290 in aid of such training. In 1895, the science and art department, upon examinations aided 910 elementary Manual-training schools, giving instruction to 67,470 pupils; the amount of aid granted was $81,537.

In 1890 a law was passed empowering county councils to use the surplus from duties on liquor to aid Manual-training and technical schools. Many districts use the “liquor money” to establish purely Manual-training schools, attaching them to municipal technical schools. Generally, however, the “liquor money” goes to technical and art schools. The report for 1895 shows $5,699,046 applied by local authorities to technical instruction under the “liquor money” law. Scotland secured in 1887 a law empowering local authorities to levy a tax of a penny in the pound for the support of technical schools. In 1889 a similar law was passed for England. The Welsh law of 1889 organizing intermediate schools, recognizes and defines Manual Training. These acts led up to the “liquor money” law referred to.

The City and Guilds of London Institute, organized in 1876, is the principal private promoter of technical education in England. This organization has founded three schools of its own, besides aiding liberally similar schools in all parts of the kingdom. With the exception of the well-known South-Kensington school, the Manchester school, and the Birmingham schools, the technical schools of England, as well as its Manual-training schools and kindergartens, are of recent origin. Huddersfield Technical School, founded as a mechanics’ institute in 1841, is another exceptionally old and especially good school of its class.

MANUAL TRAINING IN SWITZERLAND.

As each canton regulates its own school system, the federal constitution requiring only that education must be obligatory and free, the same diversity of conditions exists in the cantons of Switzerland that is found in the states of our own Union:--

Thus in the canton of Geneva, kindergartens and Manual-training schools are a part of the public-school system, entirely supported by public funds, and Manual Training is compulsory for all male pupils, in all grades of the public schools. The gradual advance from kindergarten work to primary, grammar, and high-school, makes a complete course in Manual Training in the schools of Geneva--perhaps the most complete to be found in any single public-school system. In other cantons, however, kindergartens exist generally as private institutions, aided by public funds and contributions from societies and individuals. The growth of kindergartens in Switzerland by years cannot be shown from any data at hand; the following table, however, shows the status at the date of most recent available data:

PUPILS AND TEACHERS IN KINDERGARTENS OF SWITZERLAND

-----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- | Number of | | | Separate |Number of|Number of CANTON |Kindergartens| Pupils | Teachers -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- Zurich | 61 | 3,532 | 79 Berne | 62 | 2,550 | 63 Lucerne | 3 | 260 | 6 Uri | 1 | .. | .. Schwytz | 4 | 91 | 4 Unterwalden | 2 | 85 | 2 Zug | 5 | 188 | 6 Freyburg | 10 | 912 | 10 Soleure | 8 | .. | .. Basel Town | 32 | 2,117 | 46 Basel Land | 8 | 452 | 8 Appenzell Outer Rhodes | 16 | 843 | 19 Appenzell Inner Rhodes | 1 | 60 | 2 Grisons | 2 | 80 | 4 Aargau | 13 | .. | 13 Ticino | 23 | 1,351 | 43 Vaud | 160 | 4,000 | 160 Valais | 3 | 249 | 3 Neuchâtel | 36 | 997 | 36 Geneva | 65 | 3,872 | 85 -----------------------+-------------+---------+--------- Total | 515 | 21,639 | 589 -----------------------+-------------+---------+---------

Manual Training for boys was introduced into the Switzerland schools in 1884 by M. Rudin, who in that year instructed a class of forty teachers; in 1891 over one hundred teachers were taking a Manual-training course under his instruction. The following table shows the growth of Manual Training to 1889, or five years after its introduction. More recent data are unfortunately not available.

MANUAL-TRAINING CLASSES IN SWITZERLAND

------------+---------+---------+--------- |Number of|Number of|Number of CANTON | Classes | Pupils | Teachers ------------+---------+---------+--------- Zurich | 19 | 305 | 13 Basel | 32 | 558 | 19 Saint Gall | 6 | 122 | 8 Schaffhausen| 2 | 120 | 2 Grisons | 2 | 48 | 2 Thurgau | 2 | 46 | 1 Soleure | .. | 40 | 1 Aargau | 1 | .. | 1 Berne | 5 | 175 | 5 ------------+---------+---------+---------

Classes in Manual Training are reported from the cantons of Vaud, Neuchâtel, Appenzell, Freyburg, and Glarus; but statistics are not given. Manual Training for girls has been an integral part of the public schools of Switzerland for many years, and in practically all of the cantons this instruction is obligatory. The instruction consists in knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, and fitting, with lectures on house-keeping, and was introduced into the schools rather for its industrial use than in recognition of its educational value. Switzerland early recognized the importance of technical instruction and the development of artisan skill. The Municipal School of Art at Geneva was founded in 1751, and is intended as a school for working-men. It is the oldest in Switzerland. The working-man’s school at Berne was founded in 1829, and, though a private institution, it is subsidized by the federal government. The Polytechnic School at Zurich was founded by the federal government in 1854. The Industrial School in that city, founded in 1873 by a society, is subsidized by the city, canton, and federal government. “The Tecknikum” of Winterthur, probably the most complete of its class of schools, was founded as a cantonal institution in 1873. The most extensive are the technical institutions for the education of working-men. The government began the establishment of these at the beginning of this century. By 1865, ninety-one had been established; in 1889, eleven hundred and eighty-four of these schools, having 26,716 pupils, were reported. Trade-schools have sprung up everywhere, adapting themselves to local industries and common needs. The School of Watchmaking, at Fleurier, was founded as a private institution in 1850, but has been municipal property since 1875. Municipal Schools of Watchmaking exist at Chaux-de-Fonds, 1865; St. Imier, 1866; Locle, 1868; Neuchâtel, 1871; Bienne, 1872; Porentruy, 1883, is a municipal and state school, as is also that at Soleure, 1884. The Trade School for Women is a private institution of Basel, founded in 1879; that of Berne, in 1888. These schools are founded by Societies for the Advancement of Public Utility, and teach women the millinery and dress-making trades, and give instruction in household work, and all the means by which women can become self-supporting. The societies have also founded numerous House-keeping Schools, and Schools for Domestic Servants.

No attempt is here made to give a complete list of Switzerland’s trade-schools, or the efforts being made to advance the skill of her artisans. It is but proper, however, to mention the latest efforts to overcome the difficulties growing out of the decline in apprenticeship. In 1884 the Mannheim Trade Unions asked for a committee of investigation into the condition of the small trades. The committee reported, recommending the adoption of a suggestion received from the Karlsruhe Trades Union. It was in effect, that master-workmen who are willing to train apprentices systematically, according to regulations prescribed by school authorities, shall be aided by the state treasury. In 1888 Baden appropriated 5000 marks per annum for this purpose, and in 1892 twenty-two trades, or one hundred and twenty-two workshops, having one hundred and eighty apprentices, were subsidized. In 1895 the appropriation was increased. In 1898 the federal government of Switzerland adopted the plan and purposes to greatly extend it. The result of this is, practically, that every skilled master-workman who desires may become to a certain extent a public-school teacher, and every factory or workshop is, or may become, a school-house.

MANUAL TRAINING IN GERMANY.

The officials of the regular school systems of Germany, while for some years past active in advancing trade-schools, have never recognized Manual Training as worthy a place in the public schools, except as regards female handiwork, which is everywhere a part of the course in grammar and high schools for girls. Individuals, and “societies for the promotion of practical education,” must therefore take the initiative in Manual Training, and this results either in private schools, or in persuading municipal or state authorities to annex a Manual-training department to some public school.

Of the 328 Manual-training schools for boys existing in 1892, 126 were independent schools, and 202 were annexes attached to other educational institutions of various kinds. Special societies maintain 50 schools and 72 annexes, of the above total, while municipal authorities maintain 70 schools and state authorities 66 annexes. The growth by years since 1878 is shown in the following table:

-------------+-----------+------------- ESTABLISHED |Independent| Annexes to | Schools |Other Schools -------------+-----------+------------- Prior to 1878| .. | 26 1878 | 1 | .. 1879 | 3 | .. 1880 | 4 | 4 1881 | 9 | 6 1882 | 4 | 3 1883 | 2 | 6 1884 | 3 | 10 1885 | 2 | 11 1886 | 1 | 9 1887 | 8 | 11 1888 | 13 | 11 1889 | 19 | 23 1890 | 21 | 30 1891 | 27 | 36 1892 | 9 | 16 -------------+-----------+------------- Total | 126 | 202 -------------+-----------+-------------

In 1892 there were 285 teachers and 7374 pupils in the independent schools; 363 teachers and 6841 pupils in the annexes, or 648 teachers and 14,235 pupils in both. While something had been done in Germany in the way of trade-schools prior to that date, the general interest and official zeal was created by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, when Professor Reuleaux cabled to Bismarck, “Our goods are cheap but wretched.” The various states began to inaugurate the educational system that had made the manufactures of France so superior to those of her competitor, and from 1879 to 1890 over 50 trade-schools were established in Prussia.

Some of the German states, notably Saxony and Würtemberg, had early established trade-schools. In 1837 three royal labor-schools were established by the state of Saxony; one in 1838, and two in 1840. Special schools for instruction in weaving, embroidery, and lace-making were established; one in 1835, one in 1857, one in 1861, one in 1866, and one in 1881. Of the 32 trade-schools in Saxony seven have been established since 1886. In the 20 “_Kleinstaaten_” or so-called small states of Germany there were, in 1895, 218 trade-schools having 2047 pupils. Practically all of these have been established since 1879. The city of Berlin in 1895 reported 21 trade-schools with 8992 pupils, 332 teachers, and expenditures (exclusive of state aid) for these schools of $129,102; besides $80,339 spent for trade education in so-called “continuation” schools. In February, 1897, the number of students attending these schools in Berlin was 14,750, or 1 per cent. of the population.

It will be interesting, in view of the antagonistic attitude of the school authorities to the introduction of Manual-training methods in public schools from kindergartens up, to note how long Germany will follow the trade-school experiment of France, without learning, as did France, to fit her boys for the trade-schools by putting their little hands to school in the kindergarten, the primary school, and so on through grammar and high school; so that by the time the trade-school comes in to differentiate and accentuate special skill, the boy will have learned equally the use and control of muscle and of mind.

The highest results of trade-schools upon a nation’s manufactures, and therefore upon its exports and its wealth, cannot be realized until the Manual-training school has furnished the educated hand as raw material for the trade-school to work upon. The nation that begins with the trade-school first will have a long and expensive lesson to learn. France learned it. Will Germany require as long and expensive a tuition? Germany has, however, the advantage, in that many of her private citizens, and “societies for practical education,” are, as usual, far more intelligent than her school authorities.

MANUAL TRAINING IN FRANCE.

The thorough reorganization of the public schools of France by the law of June 16, 1881, renders any reference to the prior system unnecessary here.

By this law primary education was rendered absolutely free; and by the law of March 28, 1882, compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 13 years was established. The law of October 30, 1886, systematized the public schools, classifying and grading them, and fixing a curriculum. Kindergartens admitting pupils from the ages of 2 to 6 years were made general by this law, and in 1886-87 there were 3597 kindergartens with 543,839 pupils. In 1895 this number had grown to 4734 kindergartens, 714,734 pupils, and 9199 teachers, all women.

The government programme contemplates that Manual Training proper shall begin where its elements in the kindergarten leave off, and be continued throughout the four grades of primary instruction. But the full purpose of the law seems slow of realization, for in 1890, four years after the passage of the law, only 400 shop-schools of primary grade had been established, 101 of these in Paris. Manual Training has been compulsory in all public high-schools of France since 1886. These may be either independent schools or classes annexed to an elementary school. In the latter case they are called _cours complémentaires_. In 1886 there were 16,217 boys and 5150 girls in public high-schools; in 1895 there were 21,996 boys and 8660 girls, a rise of 35 per cent. for boys and of 68 per cent. for girls in the ten years.

In the _cours complémentaires_ there were 11,518 boys and 5223 girls in 1895, an increase of 37 per cent. for boys and 26 per cent. for girls over the figures for 1886. This result was not, however, accomplished at once. There had been the usual struggle for Manual-training schools before the law of 1886 made them universal and compulsory. The school authorities of Paris introduced sewing into the public schools in 1867, and in 1873 M. Salicis began the introduction of Manual Training into what we would term grammar-schools. Shops were annexed to the boys’ school in the Rue Tournefort in 1873. From that time until the general law of 1886 the growth was gradual. There are in France a large number of Manual Apprenticeship schools. They are a kind of primary trade-school. Prior to 1880 various cities, as Paris, Havre, Rheims, etc., had founded apprenticeship schools. Private schools of the same character had been established by individuals and industrial associations. The law of 1880 organized these efforts, assimilated all these institutions, and brought them under the control of the public. The tendency to bring all industrial institutions, whether classical, manual, trade, or technical, under control of the state has been very marked since 1880 in France, and still more so since the law of 1886. Of the six industrial and house-keeping schools for girls in Paris four were founded by the city; the others were private institutions absorbed by the city--one in 1884, the other in 1886. They are of high-school grade, and, in addition to general domestic economy, teach special trades to women, such as millinery and artificial flower work. The nation maintains high-class trade and technical schools in all industries important to her commerce. And there can be no doubt that the excellence of her manufactures has its origin in the large number, variety, and excellence of her free schools. The National School of Watch-makers was founded in 1848 by the government of Savoy, and reorganized by the French government in 1890. The National Schools of Arts and Trades, four in number, are the oldest and most important of the public institutes of technology and trades. The first of these was founded as a private institution in 1780, and became national property during the First Republic. The second of these schools was established in 1804, the third in 1843, and the fourth completed in 1892. These schools instruct fully in the mechanical arts, the purpose being to educate at public expense thoroughly equipped superintendents and masters of workshops for industrial establishments. Such, too, is the purpose of the Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, which, founded as a private institution in 1829, became the property of the state in 1857.

Schools of Mining, such as the one at Houghton, Michigan, are located, one at Paris (National High-school of Mines); one at St. Étienne (School of Mines); and schools for master miners at Alais and at Douai. The National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, founded by the National Convention in 1794, began in 1819, under special ordinance of the government, gratuitous courses of instruction upon the application of the sciences and industrial arts. It is to industrial education what the College of France is to classicism and “pure science”--whatever that may mean. No attempt is here made to give a complete list of the trade and technical schools of France, whether public or private. They are exceedingly numerous, and cover every phase of industry. The purpose here, however, is to call attention to the fact that France began with trade-schools, and, after a hundred years of experimenting with trade and technical institutions, she reached the wisdom embodied in the laws of 1886 and 1890, which provide for the training of the hand of the child in the kindergarten and continuously throughput the school age, thus furnishing aptest possible pupils for her higher trade and technical institutes, and the greatest possible development of skill for her industries. The character of her manufactures shows the importance of the scholar in industry.

MANUAL TRAINING IN ITALY.

Discussions in 1882 and 1885 led to an official adoption of Manual Training in normal schools in 1892, when twenty selected teachers were given one month’s gratuitous training. In 1893 Sloyd was made obligatory in the practice department of all normal schools. In 1893, 34 men and 34 women teachers were taking the Manual-training course at Repatrausone. The school authorities in Italy acting upon the English idea of teaching Manual Training to the teachers first, and so interest them that they will introduce Sloyd into the elementary schools of their districts.

Beyond the statement that Manual Training was experimentally taught to 400 pupils in Genoa in 1892, no data is at present obtainable as to the success of this plan. There are 194 industrial schools, seeking to teach special industries. In 1887 there were 419 technical schools, of more or less importance, and 74 institutes of secondary technology. With the exception of the Aldini-Valeriani institute in Bologna, founded in 1834, and the _Scuola Professionale_ at Foggia, established by the state in 1872, the trade and technical schools of Italy seem to be of recent origin.

MANUAL TRAINING IN BELGIUM.

The law of July 1, 1879, reorganizing the public-school system of Belgium, made kindergartens a universal and integral part of the public schools. Children are admitted at 3 years of age, remaining till seven. “At Brussels, Liege, and Verviers, experimental transition classes exist, which prolong kindergarten methods in the primary grades, the Manual-training exercises of Froebel reappearing in the primary schools, and there developing into some simple form of actual hand labor, with paper, pasteboard, or clay. The results have been very satisfactory.” In 1891 the city of Liege reported 4717 children attending public kindergartens. A normal school for training kindergarten teachers is maintained at Liege. In 1890 Belgium maintained 1042 kindergartens having 104,760 pupils. The movement to generalize Manual Training in the public schools began in 1882, took definite shape three years later, and by 1887 the state made Manual Training obligatory in all state normal schools, sixteen in number. Fifty cities also reported Manual Training established in their public schools in 1888. The more recent reports, while not given much to statistics, show satisfactory growth in the system. Schools of apprenticeship and of trade have received more encouragement in Belgium than Manual Training has in the schools of grammar and high-school grades.

Apprenticeship schools to teach lace-making to the indigent peasantry were established by the state as early as 1776. With the introduction of machinery, and the expansion of industries, the character of these schools was changed. Abuses grew up. Academic tuition was abandoned for work, and the schools practically turned over to financial interests of the exploiters of the labor of children. A reorganization occurred in 1890 when the state subsidized some forty of these apprenticeship schools, and abolished many others.

Trade-schools of every variety, from the schools for fishermen at Ostend and Blankenberg to the famous trade-schools of Brussels, abound in Belgium. While these schools are for the most part private schools, they are usually subsidized by the city or local government. The industrial school at Ghent is a technical school of importance founded in 1828. That at Tournay was opened in 1841. These are the oldest schools of their type in Belgium. A new impetus was given to these schools in 1885, and from that date many have sprung up in all parts of the country, the local industries determining the character of the trade-schools. The trade-school at Ghent, established in 1890, is the best expression of modern methods, as distinguished from the early ideas represented by Tournay. This school was overcrowded with pupils in 1892. The state grants a subsidy of 6000 francs ($1158), and the province also aids the school. In 1889, 54 industrial schools were reported in Belgium. In 1872 a house-keeping school for girls was established by M. Smits, of Couillet, the first of its kind in Belgium. In 1890 there were 160, and in 1892, 250 such schools, and classes in house-keeping attached to other schools. Practically all of these were either public schools or free classes in private institutions.

MANUAL TRAINING IN AUSTRIA.

In Austria no attempt is made to combine in the same institutions the discipline of shop-work and the academics of the public schools. The first shop-school was established in Vienna by a private association, August 10, 1883. The second followed, February 16, 1887. In 1884 a normal school for the training of Manual-training teachers was established. At Budapest a Manual-training school was organized by private initiative in 1886.

The municipal statutes almost immediately required one such school to be maintained by each school district, and in 1889 there were in the twelve districts sixteen such schools. One unimportant trade-school dates back to 1871; but with the exception of the work done in Vienna and Budapest, and a few so-called “continuation schools” and trade-schools, nothing of importance was done by Austria until 1896. The activity of the empire since the latter date has been directed towards the establishment of apprenticeship schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND DENMARK.

From Finland the new educational ideals developed by Otto Cygnaeus spread to Sweden, and thence to the world at large. Dr. Salomon of Naäs introduced Manual Training (Sloyd) into his school in 1872, and in 1878 there were 103 Sloyd schools in Sweden. In 1879 there were 163; in 1880, 234; in 1881, 300; in 1882, 377; in 1883, 463; in 1884, 584; in 1885, 727; in 1886, 872; in 1887, 991; in 1888, 1167; in 1890, 1278; in 1891, 1492; in 1892, 1624; in 1893, 1787; in 1894, 1887; in 1895, 2483; or an increase of 2380 in 17 years. In 1877 parliament voted $4000 per annum to advance Sloyd instruction; in 1891 this was increased to $30,000 per annum, in addition to amounts given by provincial authorities, agricultural and private societies, and parish authorities. The Naäs seminary for the instruction of teachers of Sloyd (Dr. Salomon’s school) reports that 2627 teachers of Sloyd had been taught between 1875 and 1896. In the Sloyd teachers training-school at Stockholm 573 women instructors were taught in the years from 1885 to 1897, inclusive. There are 32 evening and holiday schools, which in 1895 received a subsidy of $12,060.

There is no definite data on Manual Training in Norway earlier than 1889, though Sloyd had doubtless been introduced from adjacent countries prior to that time. By law, however, Sloyd was made compulsory in all city elementary and intermediate grade schools in 1892, and optional in village schools. In 1891, $5060 was given as a subsidy for teaching Sloyd in 178 schools. The number of students in rural elementary schools in which Sloyd is optional is given at 236,161; number of students in city schools where Sloyd is compulsory, 58,871.

In 1883 the first Danish Sloyd school was established. The Copenhagen Seminary for instructing teachers of Sloyd was established in 1885. In 1888, 46 schools reported Sloyd courses with 2000 pupils under instruction; this number in 1889 had grown to 59, and in 1896 to 114. Of this latter number 30 are regular Sloyd schools; the others educational institutions having Sloyd as a part of the course. In 1890, $4368 was appropriated to further the introduction of Sloyd into the schools of Denmark. In this connection must be mentioned the “Home Industry” schools of Denmark. Not less than 500 of these schools exist, generally attached to other schools, and supported by 400 societies for promotion of home industries and by state aid. It was the powerful advocacy of these schools by their champion, Clauson-Kaas, that delayed the introduction of Sloyd into Danish schools until 1883, when the influence of Professor Mikkelsen began to gain the ascendency. Not only was Clauson-Kaas a powerful man in his advocacy of these home industry schools, but equally vociferous and partisan in his opposition to Manual Training or Sloyd as a means of education and intellectual development. In the terrific strife of partisan school-teachers as to what constituted education, the schools of Denmark not only deteriorated but were wellnigh closed. That the home industry schools had their use is witnessed by the fact that practically every Danish housewife is not only an expert needlewoman and house-keeper, but expert in all those arts that go by the name of female handicraft. Grade schools and technical education have not developed greatly in Scandinavian countries. Sweden has two important schools for weaving, the Eskilstuna school for metal-workers, and four technical schools. Norway has two schools for teaching the wood-carver’s trade, two of carpentry, a school for mechanics, three technical schools, and four industrial schools for women. Apart from the numerous schools of home industries, difficult if not impossible to classify, Denmark has a trade-school for shoemakers, and one of considerable importance for watch-makers.

MANUAL TRAINING IN THE NETHERLANDS.

The normal course in the Netherlands includes Manual Training for boys, it being the intention to teach teachers first, and to establish Manual Training in the schools later. There are a large number of trade and apprenticeship schools, the government taking far more interest in these than in Manual Training. In 1895 there were twenty “_Ambachtscholen_” (for training tinners, carpenters, and dyers), with 2295 students. There are forty-eight industrial schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

January 13, 1896, a commission was appointed to report a plan for the introduction of kindergartens and Manual Training into the public-school system. In 1897 the report was made, and its recommendations were enacted into a law going into effect January 1, 1898. The introduction of Manual Training is to begin with the national colleges, sixteen in number, with 2629 pupils; the normal schools, thirty-five in number, with 1770 pupils. Ultimately under the law Manual Training will be adopted in the 3749 elementary schools, having 264,294 pupils, though no statistics are at hand showing to what extent this has been already accomplished. The papers presented before the commission which sat through February, 1896, were upon the importance of kindergartens as a basis for Manual Training; Manual Training as a means of education; Manual Training from the hygienic standpoint, etc. Some speakers favored industrial rather than Manual-training schools, but the commission reported that the system of Sloyd used at Naäs, Sweden, with certain modifications to suit local conditions, was the proper one to adopt. The kindergarten system recommended is purely Froebelian. From one of the papers read before the commission it is learned that Manual Training is a recognized part of the course of instruction in the national colleges of Uruguay, and to some extent in its elementary schools. Definite data for Uruguay schools are not, however, at hand.

INDEX.

A.

Abstract ideas regarded as of more vital importance than things, 185.

Adam, legend of, and the stick, 157.

Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., arraigns the schools of Massachusetts for automatism, 201; declares that, in the public schools, children are regarded as automatons, etc., 205.

Adler, Prof. Felix, declaration of [in note], that manual training promotes rectitude, 142; unique educational enterprise of, in New York City, 342; extracts from report of, as to purposes of the “model school,”, 344, 345.

Age of force, the, is passing away, 303.

Age of science and art, the, has begun, 303.

Agricola, noted for the practice of the most austere virtue, 274; after great services, was retired, 274.

Agricultural colleges, manual training in twelve, of the State, 341.

Agriculture nearly perishes in the Middle Ages--prevalence of famines, 281.

Alabama, Agricultural and Mechanical College of, adopts manual training, 355.

Alcibiades kept not his patriotism when he was being wronged, 255.

Alison, his theory of the cause of the decline of Rome, 63.

Altruism, stability of government depends upon, 135.

America, discovery of, the crowning act of man’s emancipation from the gloom of the Dark Ages, 286; gives wings to hope, 287; startles the people of Europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years, 287; a great blow to prevailing dogmatisms, 307; completes the figure of the earth, rendering it susceptible of intelligent study, 307.

America, early immigration to, consisted of Puritans and Cavaliers, Germans, Frenchmen, and Irishmen, 306; destined to become the home of an old civilization, 306; the manner in which the colonists of, treated the natives showed the Roman taint of savagery, 306; European social abuses exaggerated in, 323; the eyes of mankind rest upon, alone with hope, 323.

Americans, are transplanted Europeans controlled by European mental and moral habitudes, 323; will not vote away their right to vote, 324, 325.

Anaxagoras, his characterization of man as the wisest of animals because he has hands, 152.

Ancients, reverence due them for their art triumphs, 73; temples of, remained long as instructors of succeeding generations, 73; educational theory of, contrasted with that of moderns, 123; ignorance of, on the subject of physiology, 153; speculative philosophy the only resource of, 153; slow growth of, in morals due to the fact of their neglect of the education of woman, 366; contempt of, for children, 367.

Anossoff, a Russian general, experiments of, in the effort to produce Damascus steel, 72.

Antwerp, Flemish silk-weavers of, flee to England upon the sacking of, 34.

Apollo, bronze statue of, at Rhodes, 47.

Apprentice system, the, gives skilled mechanics to England, 181.

Apprentices better educated than school and college graduates, 239.

Architecture, limit of, attained in Greece and Rome, 73.

Aristocracy, alliance of, with the kings, 290.

Arithmetic, automatism in teaching it in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 197; Colonel Parker’s declaration in regard to the defective methods of instruction in, 206, 207.

Arnold, John, inventor of the chronometer, 86; his ingenious watch, of the size of twopence and weight of sixpence, 86.

Art, its cosmopolitan character, 12; the product of a sequential series of steps, 73; the preservation of a record of each step essential to progress, 73; printing makes every invention in, the heritage of all the ages, 286; triumphs due to the laborer, 294; ignored in educational systems, 326.

Artisan, the, embodies the discoveries of science in things, 13; more deserving of veneration than the artist, 74; regarded with disdain by statesmen, lawyers, _littérateurs_, poets, and artists, 185; education of, more scientific than that of merchants, lawyers, judges, etc., 227; training of, is objective, 231; intuitively shrinks from the false, and struggles to find the truth, 231; always in the advance, 242.

Artists more highly esteemed than engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185.

Arts, the fine, not so fine as the useful, 74; can exist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth of the useful arts, 279; the so-called fine arts must wait for the expansion and perfection of the useful arts, 383; civilization and the, are one, 384.

Arts, the useful, finer than the so-called fine arts--their processes more intricate, 74; no limit to their development except the exhaustion of the forces of nature, 74; neglect of, by all the governments of the world is amazing, 176; Plato’s contempt of, 176; no instruction is given in the public schools, 181; slavery’s brand of shame still upon, 190; no such failure of the, as there is of justice, 227; the true measure of civilization, 247; depend upon labor, 278; precede the fine arts, 279; unknown in the Middle Ages, 281; stagnation in, is the death of civilization, 283.

Athenians and Spartans as thieves, 255.

Atkinson, Edward, declares that the perfection of our almost automatic mechanism is achieved at the cost not only of the manual but of the mental development of our men, 201.

Attention--the equivalent of genius, 380.

Aurelius, Marcus, sublime moral teachings of, 138.

Austria, Emperor of, has a suit of clothes made from the fleece in eleven hours, 87; increases her debt each year, 296.

Authority, in the Middle Ages, chilled courage, 284.

Automata, of the ancients--hint of modern automatic tools in, 8; of the moderns, triumphs of mechanical genius, 86.

Automatism, of mind and body, 191; of mind promoted by the environment of modern life, 192; promotion of, by the schools, 193; in the schools of Norfolk County, Mass., as shown by the Walton report, 196; as shown in the Walton report in grammar, in arithmetic, in reading, in penmanship, in spelling, and in composition, 197, 198, 199; a final and conclusive test of the prevalence of, in the schools, 204.

B.

Babylon, the hundred brazen gates of, 55; influence of ideas of, in full force in the United States down to the time of the emancipation proclamation of President Lincoln, 190.

Bacon, Lord, the school he wished for, 2; his aphorism, 4; his apothegm on the sciences, 13; condemns the old system of education, 126; his opinion of the universities, 127; his proposal that a college be established for the discovery of new truth, 185; his proposal to bring the mind into accord with things, 245; foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school, 245; celebrated aphorism of, has had but little influence upon the methods of our public schools, 325; the basis of his philosophy of things, 374.

Bacon, Roger, his daring prediction of mechanical wonders, 98.

Ballot, power of, in the United States, 324.

Baltimore, Md., manual training in, 342.

Bamberger, Mr. G., Principal of the Workingman’s School, New York City--extracts from report of, on purposes of the school, 343, 344.

Barnesville, O., manual training in, 342.

Belfield, Dr. Henry H., Director of the Chicago Manual Training School, 346; his early appreciation of the mental value of manual training, 348; extracts from the inaugural address of, 348-351.

Bell, Sir Charles, his great discovery of the muscular sense, 146; his definition of the office of the sixth sense, 146.

Bells, that of Pekin, China, 47; that of Moscow, 47; they show an intimate knowledge of the founder’s art, 48.

Bernot, M., inventor of file-cutting machine, 91.

Bessemer, Sir Henry, his birth and early training, 162; his appearance in London, a poor young man--his first invention, 162; as young Gladstone enters the Treasury, he retires an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and toil, 163; his burning sense of outrage, 163; announcement of his discovery of a new process in steel-making, 164; his declaration that he could make steel at the cost of iron received with incredulity, 165; his process of steel-making a complete success in 1860, 165; compared with Mr. Gladstone, 165, 166; description of the process that revolutionized the steel manufacture, 166, 167; value of process of, 167; the government of England slow in honoring, 168; comparison between the life and services of, to man and those of Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Disraeli, 168, 169; stands for the new education, 169.

Black-walnut, its natural history studied in the wood-turning laboratory, 36; its structure, growth, and uses, 37; the poet Bryant’s great tree, 37.

Blatchford, E. W., President of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Blatchford Literary Society, an organization of students of the Chicago Manual Training School, 348.

Blow, Miss S. E., in formulating the theory of the kindergarten, describes the method equally of the savage and the manual training school, 218, 219.

Board of Trade of Chicago, the speculative trades in futures on, are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions, 322.

Body, contempt of the, by the ancients, led to contempt of manual labor, 155.

Book-makers, the, writing the lives of the old inventors in the temple of fame, 171.

Books, the sure promise of universal culture, 287; the precursor of the common school, 287.

Boston, the streets of, in which patriots had struggled for liberty, now echoed the groans of the slave, 311; manual training in, 341.

Boy, the civilized, is not trained in school for the actual duties of life, 181; is taught many theories, but not required to put any of them in practice, 181; is in danger of the penitentiary until he learns a trade or profession, 181, 182.

Boys, ninety-seven in a hundred, who graduate from the public schools and embark in mercantile pursuits, fail, 227.

Brain, the, its absorbing and expressing powers--diagram illustrating, 193; the healthy education of, consists in giving to the expressing side power equal to that of the absorbing side, 193, 194; the functions of the absorbing side extended, while those of the expressing side are restricted--diagram illustrating, 194; functions of the expressing side of, increased by adding drawing and the manual arts, 195.

Bramah, Joseph, inventor of automatic tools, 84.

Breighton helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15.

Bridge, the first iron, across the Severn, one hundred years old, but likely to last for centuries, 241.

Bridgman, Laura, used the finger alphabet in her dreams, 150.

Brindley, James, sketch of the life of, 172; a common laborer--a millwright’s apprentice--a man of honor--an illiterate, but a genius and an originator of great canal enterprises, 172-175; the engineer of the Duke of Bridgewater, 173; his “castle in the air” and “river hung in the air,” 173; his obstinacy, poverty, and poor pay for splendid services of which he was robbed by the duke, 174; his life and career typical of a score of biographies presented in Mr. Smiles’s “Lives of the Engineers,” 175.

Bronze, castings of, in the ruins of Egypt and Greece, 46.

Brooklyn Bridge illustrates the necessity of practical training for the civil engineer, 97.

Brown, John, Captain, in the presence of his exultant but half-terrified captors, 235; defying the constitution, the laws, and public sentiment in the interest of the cause of justice, 236.

Bruno, his fate, condemned by the Inquisition and burned as a heretic, 178; persecution of, a link in the chain of progress, 287.

Buckle, Henry Thomas, his testimony to the practical uses of imagination, 38; his scathing arraignment of English statesmen and legislators, 160; his declaration that the best English laws are those by which former laws are repealed, 187; his declaration in regard to the obstinacy and stupidity of English legislators, 242.

Budget, the European, shows that the standing armies are the overshadowing feature of the situation, 290; the portion of, that goes to the maintenance of the standing armies, 291.

Burgos, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 283.

C.

Cæsar preferred to Cato, whose patriotism was above question, 274; commentaries of, in all the world’s universities, 275.

Caligula, his pleasure in witnessing the countenances of dying gladiators, 138.

Camillus honored in the early days of Rome, 274.

Carlyle, his apostrophe to tools, 7.

Carpenter’s laboratory, class of students at the black-board in, discussing the history and nature of certain woods, 21; working drawings of the lesson put on the black-board by the instructor in, 25; parts of the lesson executed by the instructor in, 25; new tools introduced, and their care and use explained, 25; the students at their benches in, making things, as busy as bees, 26; a call to order and a solution of the main problem of the day’s lesson, 26; a tenon too large for its mortise, 29.

Caste, a tendency to, disclosed in all history, 248; illustration of, the earliest--the chief of the brawny arm, 248; illustrations of, in savage and half-civilized communities, 248, 249; in Egypt--in India, 249; in the United States, 313.

Castile, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 283.

Castle of the Middle Ages, the home of music and chivalry, 280.

Cato a type of Roman persistence in the path of conquest, 264; patriotism and virtue of, 274.

Centennial Exposition, exhibit of models of tool-practice in the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, Russia, at the, 331.

Charcoal, the forests of England swept away to provide it for the smith’s and smelter’s fires, in the early time, 63.

Charlemagne, attempt of, to reconstruct a worn-out civilization, 280; neglect of the education of the people the cause of the failure of, 280.

Chatham, Lord, declaration of, that the American colonies had no right to make a nail or a horseshoe, 203.

Chicago, comparison of, with ancient Rome, 138.

Chicago Manual Training School, description of building, 1; its main purpose intellectual development, 3; theory of, 4; engine-room of, 14; engine of, doing duty as a school-master, 14; an epitome of, in the engine-room, 15; its purpose not to make mechanics, but men, 38; conditions of admission to, 106; detail of questions used in examination of candidates for the first class in, 106-110; curriculum of, 110, 111; optional studies of, 111; blending of manual and mental instruction in, 111; missionary character of, 111; the only independent educational institution of the kind in the world, 345; owes its origin entirely to laymen, 345; established by an association of merchants, manufacturers, and bankers, 345, 346; incorporated April 11, 1883, 346; corner-stone of, laid September 24, 1883, 346; opened February 4, 1884, 340; officers and trustees of association of, 346; object of, mental and manual culture, 347; equipment of, 347; library of, 347; Dr. Henry H. Belfield director of, 348.

_Chicago Tribune_, criticism of the methods of the public schools by the, 346; columns of, opened to the author, 346; effect of advocacy of manual training by the, 346.

Child, the, becomes father of the man, in the cradle, the nursery, and at the fireside, 365; contempt of, by the ancients, 367.

Chipping, filing, and fitting laboratory, 88; course in the, 88; the ante-room to the machine-tool laboratory, 88.

Christian religion, the, its failure to save Rome, 140.

Cicero, his doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man, 139; forecasts the doom of the Roman Republic, but has no remedy for the public ills to propose, 272; without moral courage, 273.

Cincinnatus found at the plough, 268.

Cities, rapid concentration of population in, 137; plague-spots on the body politic, 137; dominated by selfishness, 137; statistics of increase of population in, 313, 314; the chief sources of society disturbances, 314.

City, the modern, the despair of the political economist, 137; the centre of vice, 137; pen-picture of its vices and crimes, 140; picture of vice in, 314.

City of New York, College of, manual training in, 352; first report of the industrial educational association of, gives a list of thirty-one schools in, where industrial education is furnished (_note_), 352.

Civil engineer, the modern, must be familiar with all the processes of the machine-tool shop, 97; his works may be amended, but never repealed, 187; more competent than the railway president, the lawyer, the judge, or the legislator, 225; trained in things, 225.

Civilization, progress of, depends upon progress in invention and discovery, 65; a growth from the state of savagery, 131; evils of, flow from mental development wanting the element of rectitude, 132; contrast presented by that of Italy in the fifteenth century, and that of America in the nineteenth, 234; difference between, and barbarism, 244; the useful arts the true measure of, 247; the product of education, 248; of Greece sprang from mythology and ended in anarchy, 254; languishes in an atmosphere of injustice, 278; the trinity upon which it rests is justice, the useful arts, and labor, 278; American, has not borne new social fruits, 323.

Clark, John S., his elaborate exposition of the defects of existing educational methods, 193, 194, 195.

Claudius, under the favor of, Seneca amassed a vast fortune, 273.

Clement, Joseph, great English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; his two improvements in the slide-rest, and the medals he received for them, 92.

Cleveland, O., manual training in, 342.

Coal, subject of production, cost, demand, and supply discussed in forging laboratory, 62; history of application of, to useful arts, 63; prejudice against use of mineral, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, 64; smelting with mineral, successfully introduced in England in 1766, 66.

Coalbrookdale Iron-works, mineral coal first used at, for smelting purposes, 65, 66.

Columbus, in proving that the world is round, frees mankind, 286; sounds the death-knell of intellectual slavery, 286, 287.

Comenius, the school he struggled in vain to establish, 2; his theory of learning by doing, 13; condemns the old system of education, 126; his definition of education, 127; foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school, 245.

Commerce, early, of America, so insignificant that in 1784 eight bales of cotton shipped from South Carolina were seized by the custom authorities of England on the ground that so large a quantity could not have been produced in the United States, 203.

Commercial Club, the, founds the Chicago Manual Training School, 2; guarantees $100,000 for its support, 3; meeting of, March 25, 1882, 346.

Common-school system of the United States, glaring defects of, shown by the Walton report, 197, 198, 199.

Composition, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 199.

Compton, Prof. Alfred G., on the exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new education, 352.

Concrete, progress can find expression only in the, 151, 152; a lie always hideous in the, 224.

Connecticut, manual training in State Normal School, 342; legislature of, adopts manual training as part of the course of public instruction, 360.

Contempt, in the Middle Ages, withered hope, 284.

Convent, of the Middle Ages, the home of religion and of art, 280.

Cook County Normal School, Ill., manual training in, 342.

Cooley, Lieut. Mortimer E., letter of, to the author on effects of manual training in the University of Michigan, 363.

Cordova the abode of wealth, learning, refinement, and the arts, 282.

Corporate power unduly promoted by reckless legislation on the subject of land in the United States, 320.

Corporations, a creation of yesterday, the product of steam, 320; almost as indestructible as landed estates, 320; men trained from generation to generation to the care of, 320.

Cort, Henry, an English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; experiments of, with a view to the improvement of English iron, 115.

Cotton-gin, the, trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the South, 160.

Cotton Exchange of New York, speculative trades in futures on, thirty times more than the actual cotton sales, 322.

Crane, R. T., Vice-President of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Cranege, the Brothers, inventors of the reverberatory furnace, 66.

Crerar, John, Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Crusaders, their astonishment at the splendors of Constantinople, 285; they expected to meet with treachery and cruelty--they found chivalry and high culture, 285; they returned to Europe relieved of many illusions, 285, 286.

Crusades, the, pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were, shed a great light upon Europe, 285; brought the men of the West face to face with a progressive civilization, 285.

D.

Dædalus, invention of turning ascribed to, by the Greeks, 33.

Damascus blades, the most signal triumph of the art of the smelter and the smith, 72; the material of which they were made, and their temper, 72; first encountered by Europeans during the Crusades, 72; triumphs of genius not less pronounced than the Athena of Phidias, 74.

Dark Ages, the shame of, caused by the neglect of the useful arts, 64; maxims of Machiavelli explain the fact of the existence of, 284; gloom of, dispelled by the discovery of America, 286.

Darwin, Charles, declares that a complex train of thought cannot be carried on without the aid of words, 149; law of reversion of, in operation during the decay of the Roman civilization, 275.

Da Vinci, Leonardo, took up the work of Archimedes, and the science of mechanics made progress, 287.

De Caus helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15.

Della Vos, M. Victor, Director of the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, 121; testimony of, as to value of manual training, 121; author of the laboratory process of tool instruction, 331.

Democratic idea, the, not new when adopted in America, 309.

Democratic principle in the United States Government does not prevent class distinctions, 313.

Denmark appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools, 368.

Denver (Col.) University, manual training in, 355.

Dickens, Charles, his pen-picture of “Tom All-alone’s”--philosophy of, 315.

Dinwiddie, Prof. H. H., his account of the manner in which the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas was revolutionized in the interest of manual training, 359.

Disasters, mercantile and other, show that business is done by the “rule of thumb,” 214.

Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), his tribute to the value of the imagination as a useful quality, 38; his alternations of political power with Mr. Gladstone--from Liberalism to Toryism an easy transition, 164; England heaps honors upon him while it neglects Mr. Bessemer, 168; comparison between the life services of, to man and those of Sir Henry Bessemer, 169.

Doane, John W., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Dogmatist, the, no place for, in the modern order of things, 124.

Domestic economy made a department of the Iowa Agricultural College, 360; part of the curriculum of the Le Moyne Normal Institute, 362.

Draper, Dr. John W., profound observation by, 377; drudgery and humility, the value of, 374.

Drawing, thoroughness of training in, 16; definition of, 16; sketches of certain geometric forms, 17; working drawings, pictorial drawings, and designs applied to industrial art, 18; its æsthetic element, 18; geometry its basis, examples of, 18; from objects in the school laboratories, 19; value of, as an educational agency, 19; language of, common to all draughtsmen--pen-picture of class in, 20; first step of expression, 208.

Drayton, W. Heyward, historical sketch of origin of manual training in Girard College by, 353-355.

Dudley, Dud, inventor of machinery for the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes, 64; sketch of career of, 64, 65; combinations against, by the charcoal iron-masters, 64, 65; furnaces of, destroyed by mobs, and their owner reduced to beggary and driven to prison, 64, 65.

Dun, R. G., & Co., statistics of, in relation to commercial failures, 211.

E.

Ear not a more important organ than the hand because situated nearer the brain, 154.

Eau Claire, Wis., manual training in, 342.

Edict of Nantes, revocation of, drove artisans to England, 34.

Education, the philosopher’s stone in, 2; laying the foundation of, in labor, 3; the power to do some useful thing the last analysis of, 12; definition of, 12; confined to abstractions in the past, 13; the new--claims made in its behalf, 105; universal, a modern idea, 123; difference in systems of, constitutes difference between ancient and modern civilizations, 123, 124; every child entitled to receive, 124; certain fundamentals of, upon which all are agreed, 125; Rousseau’s definition of, 125; begins at birth and continues to the end of life, 126; Froebel’s definition of, 126; old system of, condemned by Bacon, Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, 126; of woman more important than that of man, 128; develops innate mental qualities and forms character, 130; all, is both mental and moral, 133; any system of, that does not produce altruism is vicious, 136; first step in, to eliminate selfishness and put rectitude in its place, 136; a system of, consisting exclusively of mental exercises, promotes selfishness, 141; methods of, controlled by the Classicism of the Renaissance, 154; of the hands as well as the brain necessary, 172; the old, designed to make lawyers, doctors, priests, statesmen, _littérateurs_, and poets, 179; that is not practical, in the Age of Steel, is nothing, 179; not broad enough on the expressing side of the brain, 194; illustrations of defects of, shown by the Walton report, 196, 197, 198, 199; in existing systems of, the memory is cultivated while the reason is allowed to slumber, 200; defective methods of, result in vast mercantile and railway disasters, 215; defective morally, since the truth is to be found only in things, 224; the New England system of, very defective, but to it the country owes the quality of its civilization, 235; in South Carolina the monopoly of a class, 235; a scientific system of, would have averted the War of Rebellion in the United States, and kept down the debt of England, 237; why popular, is provided for by the State, 237; the sole bulwark of the State, 238; the best is the cheapest, 239; of New England does not produce great lawyers, great judges, or great legislators, 239; exclusively mental, stops far short of the objective point of true, 243; the last analysis of, is art, 243; any system of, which separates ideas and things, is radically defective, 244; the object of, is the generation of power, 244; the system of, which does not teach the application of facts to things, is unscientific, 245; among the ancients, was confined to a small class, and consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many, 253; of the Greeks responsible for the destruction of Greek civilization, 256; defects of the Roman, 265; Roman, deified selfishness and so realized its last analysis--total depravity, 267; a false system of, wrecks the Roman civilization, 277; scientific, essential to the salvation of the trinity upon which civilization rests, 278; how to make it universal in Europe, 292, 293; possible only in Europe through the disbandment of the standing armies, 295; in Germany, has taught the people to hate standing armies, 298, 299; is causing the emigration of Germany’s best citizens, 302; is the arch-revolutionist whose march is irresistible, 302; the new, will come in as the standing armies go out, 304; had made little progress at the time of the organization of civil society in America, 309; the system of, under which the kings and ruling classes of Europe had been trained to selfishness, cruelty, and injustice, put into the New England common schools, 309; sordid view of, generally held in the rural districts of New England, 310; Herbert Spencer’s view of the prevailing methods of, 310; positive ill effects of the prevailing methods of, 310, 311; a false system of, in the United States, led to political incongruities of the grossest character, 311; complete failure of, to promote rectitude, 311; defects of system of, in the United States, shown by the ignorance and crimes of legislators, 317; may be made universal through the ballot, 324; all property may be taken for, by the ballot, 324; American, is scant in quantity and poor in quality, 325; no radical change in methods of, for 3000 years, 325; a complete revolution in, essential to social reform, 327; must begin with the child and be directed by the mother, 366; the new, becomes one aggressive force, 372; the new, confided to the teachers of the old régime, 372; the first of human considerations, 373; its professors should be the most learned of human beings, 373; the new, maxims of, 375; what form and character shall our education take?, 377; the old, was designed to make masters, the new to make men, 378; universality and equality of, the first and last essential, 384.

Edward III. of England uses the smiths at the siege of Berwick, 72.

Egypt, how the castes of, arose, 249; progress of the civilization of, 249; civilization of, the product of education, 250; selfishness the basis of the system of education of, 250; wealth, commerce, and military and naval power of, 250; learning of, 251; luxury of, 251; conquered by Persia, 251, 252; no provision in, for the training of woman, 366.

Electricity must be “harnessed” at the forge and in the shop to enable it to do its work, 170.

Elizabeth, Queen, use of iron by, to defeat the Spanish Armada, 61.

Emerson, his declaration that Napoleon was typical of the modern man, 134; his observation that during the Crusades “the banker with his seven per cent. drove the earl out of his castle,” 286.

Emigrant, the, withdraws his support from the fatherland, 290.

Emigration, social questions cannot much longer be settled by, 299.

Empire, art of mechanism greatest of modern times, 61.

England, history of the early iron manufacture of, 63; decline of the iron industry of, during the seventeenth century, 65; the people of, import their pots and kettles, 65; workshops of, originate great inventions during the period 1740-1840, 115; apprentices of, become learned men, 115; material condition of, 250 years ago, 158, 159; civilization and transformation of--how accomplished, 159; studded with workshops, filled with automatic machines through the apprentice system, 181; debt of, to the French and Flemish immigrants, 185; constitution of, grew out of the feudal system, 190; safer to shoot a man than a hare in, 190; school system of, indescribably poor, 224; a scientific system of education in, would have averted wars and kept down the national debt of, 237; criminal laws of, 241; draws from her people a larger _per capita_ revenue than any nation of Europe, 297; has nearly reached the limit of the power of her people to pay taxes, 297; land system of--its terrible effect upon the English, Scotch, and Irish, 317.

English history, the great names in--the names without which there would have been no English history, 175.

Enterprise, in the Middle Ages, the slave of superstition and ignorance, 277.

Epictetus, lofty patriotism of, 139.

Equality, social and educational, essential to an ideal civilization, 375.

Europe, face of, and civilization of, changed during the Crusades, 286; growth of the middle class of, 286; the artisan became a factor in the social problem of, 286; art treasures of, destined to follow in the track of her fleeing population, 294; may restore to productive employments three millions of men, 302; may place at the disposal of her educators seven hundred million dollars per annum, instead of seventy million dollars, as at present, 302; may extinguish her national debts in fifty-four years, 303; progress in, previous to the discovery of America, 307, 308.

Ewing, Mrs. Emma P., Dean of the Domestic Economy Department of the Iowa Agricultural College, 361; on the importance of the study of domestic economy, 361, 362.

Expression, power of, quite as important as that of absorption, 208; susceptible of being made clear only in things, 208.

Eye, not a more important organ than the hand, because it is situated nearer the brain, 154.

F.

Fairbank, N. K., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Faneuil Hall, slavery justified in, 311.

Feudalism emasculated human energy, 281; the ruin of, set thousands of serfs free, 290.

Field, Marshall, Treasurer of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

File, the, older than history, dating back to the Greek mythological period, 91; of the Swiss watch-makers, 91; dexterity of the hand-working cutter of, 91; invention of file-cutting machine in 1859, 91.

Finland, all the schools of, give instruction in hand-cunning, 368.

Fire, legend in regard to its discovery, 62.

Foley, Thomas, on the excellence of the laboratory methods of instruction, 217, 218.

Force, new elements of, to be discovered and applied to the needs of man, 180.

Forging, laboratory of, 58; pen-picture of a class of students in, 61; story of the origin of the Turkish Empire related by the instructor in, 61; the management of the forge fires in, 62; lessons in, on the black-board and at the forges, in detail, 66; the instructor in, at the forge, 69; questions by the students in, 69; the school-room converted into a smithy which resounds with the clang of sledges, 69, 70; healthful effects of the exercise--the anvil chorus, 70; the tests of merit in, applied, 75; the instructor in, gives a lecture on the steam-hammer, 75; extent of the course in, 77.

Founding, laboratory of, 45; history of the art of, 46; first applied to bronze, 46; lesson of the day, casting a pulley, 48; the process in detail, 51; pen-picture of the students pouring the steaming metal into moulds, 52.

France, permanently weakened by the increase of her national debt, 296; debt, statement of--what the war with Germany cost her, 296; cannot double her debt again and make her people pay interest on it, 297; a law of, makes manual training obligatory, 368; supports a school for training teachers of manual training, 368; Prof. G. Solicis the chief supporter of manual training in, 368.

Franklin, the famous selfish maxims of, 311.

Froebel, the school be struggled in vain to establish, 2; first applies Rousseau’s ideas to school life, 126; his definition of education, 126; condemns the old system of education, 126; a character of, 127; his discovery of the superior fitness of woman for the office of teacher, 127, 128; foresees the manual training school, 245; it was reserved for him to rescue woman from the scorn of the ages, 367.

Fuller, William A., Secretary of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Fulton, Robert, an American inventor, 84.

G.

Galileo, persecution of, for his great discovery, 177, 178; persecutors of, believed and trembled, 287.

Galton, Francis, declaration of, that brain without heart is insufficient to achieve eminence, 134; his testimony to the great value of artisan immigration, and the worthless character of political refugees, 186; his neglect of the artisan class in his speculations on the subject of the science of life, 186, 187; reason of his neglect of the artisan class stated by Horace Mann--the influence of slavery, 188.

George III. an expert wood-turner, 34; gives John Arnold five hundred guineas for a miniature watch, 86.

Germanicus noted for the highest public virtue, 274; after great services, is exiled and poisoned, 274.

Germany, Emperor of, experience of, in a needle factory, illustrative of the delicacy of mechanical operations, 240.

Germany, foundation of her educational system, 295, 296; superior training of her people enabled her to humiliate France, 296; freedom from debt of, the significant feature of the European situation, 296; low rate of taxation in, 296; weakness of, through emigration, 297; the educated subject of, has become a thoughtful citizen, who rebels against the standing army, and flees from it, 297, 298; high value of citizenship of, 298; citizenship freely abandoned, because the educated German revolts at the standing army, 298; the military records of, show the cause of German emigration to be disgust of the policy of international hate, 299; increase in the number of military delinquents in, is the measure of the growth of German intelligence, 300; the chief power of, becomes her chief weakness, 300; cannot recoup her losses to America through gains from neighboring countries, on account of the policy of international hate, 300, 301; losing the flower of her population--the strong--the weaklings, the paupers, the aged, and the infirm remain, 301; is growing weaker each year, 301; agitation on the subject of manual training in, 368.

Gibbon on the wealth of the Saracens in Spain, 283.

Girard College, manual training in, 353; Dr. Runkle’s influence in promoting the adoption of manual training in, 354.

Gladiatorial games, atrocities of, in Rome, contrasted with the sublime precepts of Seneca, Plutarch, and Marcus Aurelius, 138; extent of slaughter of animals at their celebration, 138.

Gladstone, William Ewart, political power and popularity of, 161; enters upon his long official career as young Henry Bessemer retires from the Stamp-office without his just reward, 163; a great orator, and a great financier, a talker, a maker of laws and treaties, constantly in the public eye, 163; in office and out of office, 163, 164; from Toryism to Liberalism--an easy transition, 164; compared with Sir Henry Bessemer, 165, 166; England heaps honors upon him while she neglects Mr. Bessemer, 168; comparison of the life and services of, to man, with those of Mr. Bessemer, 169; stands for the old system of education, 169; admission of, that the great mechanics of England had no aid from the government, 175.

Gold, once the king of metals, surrenders its sceptre to iron, 124.

Goss, William F. M., his exposition of the methods of the manual training school in detail, 219, 220, 221, 222; pronounced success of the Manual Training Department of Purdue University, under directorship of, 341.

Grammar, automatism in teaching, in the common schools of the United States, as shown in the Walton report, 197; criticism of Colonel Parker on methods of instruction in, 206.

Great Powers of Europe all hampered by great debts, 296.

Greece, Egypt the University of, 251; every intellectual Greek made a voyage to Egypt, 251; the destiny of, was controlled by renegades--there was disloyalty in every camp, a traitor in every army, and a band of traitors in every besieged city, 254; the orators of, never refused bribes, and oratory ruled in, 255; philosophy and education of, responsible for decay of the civilization of, 256; ruined by metaphysics and rhetoric, 256; no schools in, for girls, 366.

Greeks, the people of youth, 254; religion and patriotism of, 254; were treacherous, cruel, and their sense of honor dull, 254; they enslaved women and robbed the bodies of the slain on the battle-field, 254; declaration of Thucydides that there was neither promise that could be depended upon, nor oath that struck them with fear, 255; in the Pantheon the highest niche was reserved for the God of Gain, 255; the early, were pirates, and some sold themselves into slavery, so great was their lust of gold, 255; armies of the, bribed by Persia, 255; young, taught the arts of sophistry in the schools of rhetoric, 256; never emerged from the savage state, 256.

Guttenberg and the printing-press, 152.

H.

Habit, all reforms must encounter the stolid resistance of, 191.

Hand, it is through the, alone, that the mind impresses itself upon matter, 141; the skilled, confers benefits upon man, 141; and the mind are natural allies, 144; tests the speculations of the mind by the law of practical application, 144; explodes the errors of the mind, 144; finds the truth, 145; if it works falsely, publishes its own guilt in the false thing it makes, 145; Dr. Wilson’s graphic picture of the versatility of the, 145; not less the guide than the agent of the mind, 145; influences the mind through the muscular sense, 148; how its habit of labor leads to the discovery of the truth and the exposure of the false, 149; the preserver of the power of speech through the endless succession of objects it presents to the mind, 151; the, ceasing to labor in the arts, to plant and to gather, speech would degenerate into a mere iteration of the wants of savages subsisting on fruits, 151; the most potent agency in the work of civilization, 152; mobility of, multiplies its powers in a geometrical ratio, 154; contempt of, an inheritance from the speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages, 155; the works of, comprise all the visible results of civilization, 155; marvels wrought by the, 155, 156; James MacAlister on the power and versatility of the [_note_], 156; wields the mechanical powers--its works, 158; the wise counsel of the practical, steadies the mind, 225; not a nicer instrument than the mind, 240; the, stands for use, for service, and for integrity, 376; its drill and discipline more highly educative than any exclusively academic course, 376; through it alone man impresses himself upon Nature, 378; is refined and spiritualized by the sense of touch, 379; the multitudinous works of the, 379, 380.

Hand-work, difficulties of, illustrated, 86; educative value of, 375.

Hargreaves, James, inventor of the “spinning-jenny,” 84.

Herbert, the famous selfish maxim of, 311.

Hero, of Alexandria, the inventor of the steam-engine, 14.

Hero, the, is an honest man, 233; the, in education, 385.

Herodotus, his description of the hundred brazen gates of Babylon, 55; his contempt for the artisan, 56.

Heroes, the thin ranks of, constitute the measure of the poverty of the systems of education that have prevailed among mankind, 234; are normally developed men who honor the truth everywhere, 234; the fact that they are honored after death evidence of progress, 234.

Heroism rendered grand by contrast with the debased standards of public judgment, 233.

Herophilus opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind, 153.

Hippocrates opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind, 153.

Holtzapffels, speculation of, as to the origin of the invention of the lathe, 33.

Honesty, only another name for heroism, 233; scientific education will make it universal, 233.

Hood, Tom, his song of the shirt, 87.

Huntsman, Benjamin, an English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84; sketch of the career of, 116; his invention of cast-steel, and its effect upon the Sheffield cutlery market, 116; how his secret was stolen, 117; declines a membership of the Royal Society, 117; how resplendent his name is now, 171.

I.

Ideas are mere vain speculations till embodied in things, 243; and things are indissolubly connected, 244.

Ignorance, illustration of, in the opposition of a Roman Emperor to the use of improved machinery, 178; reverences the past, never doubts, is suspicious, an enemy of all progress, 179; in the schools of Norfolk County, Mass., 197.

Illinois Penitentiary, statistics of show that four out of five of the inmates of have no handicraft, 182.

Imagination, Buckle’s tribute to the, 38; Disraeli on Sir Robert Peel’s want of, 38; Disraeli’s career an illustration of the value of, 39; the discovery of America appealed powerfully to the, 287; blazes the path to glorious achievements, 287.

Imperial Technical School, Moscow, manual training adopted as part of curriculum of the, in 1868, 331; sketch of the history of manual training in, by Director Della Vos, 331-333.

India, how the castes of, arose, 249.

Injustice, civilization languishes in an atmosphere of, 278.

Inquisition, the, its persecution of Galileo, 177, 178.

Instructors, lack of competent, in the new education, 352, 353.

Intelligence, the basis of morality, 113.

Inventions, a growth, 14; each step of constitutes a link in the chain of progress, 187; contain the germs of imperishable truth, 243.

Inventive genius, to the, mankind owes more than to the philosophers, _littérateurs_, professors, and statesmen of all time, 84.

Inventor, the, produces a machine that will make a thousand things in the time required by the hand-worker to make one, 86; helps on the cause of progress, 160; rules the world, 161; his works are never repealed, 187; is always in the advance, 242.

Iowa, Agricultural College of, makes domestic economy a part of its curriculum, 360; faculty and course of study in the department of domestic economy of, 360, 361.

Iron, Locke’s famous apothegm on the value of, 45; the most potent instrument of power, 61; use of by Queen Elizabeth to defeat the Spanish Armada, 61; the equivalent of civilization, 62; is king, and the smelter and smith are his chief ministers, 62; to make a ton of, required hundreds of cords of wood before the introduction of “pit” coal for smelting purposes, 63; the foundation of every useful art, 81.

Italy, government of, during the Middle Ages, consisted of a menace and a sneer, 284.

J.

Jacobson, Col. Augustus, on the demand for a more comprehensive system of education, 180; on the proper equipment of the boy upon leaving school, 209.

Jerusalem, when conquered, its smiths and other craftsmen were carried away as captives by the Babylonians, 70.

Jews, learning of, exerted an ameliorating influence upon the darkness of the Middle Ages, 285.

Judges, training of, is exclusively subjective, 230; rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought, 231; venerate the past, 242.

Justice assumes the place of selfishness in the mind of the hero, 233; cause of the failure of, 242.

K.

Keith, Edson, Trustee of Chicago Manual Training School Association, 340.

Kindergarten, the, father of the manual training school, 5; fills a place unoccupied until the time of Froebel, 126; educational principles of, susceptible of universal application, 126; analysis of, 128; leads logically to the manual training school, 129; method of, is scientific, 207; method of, is the expression of ideas in things, 245; realizes the dream of Bacon, Comenius, and Pestalozzi, 245; exhibits of work of, at the meeting of the National Educational Association in 1884, 342; endorsed by the National Educational Association, 363; the growth of, prevented by prejudice and indifference, 367.

Kings, alliance of, with the aristocracy, 286.

L.

Labor class, the real flower of a population, 293; all other classes depend upon the, 294; a drain upon the, is a drain upon the most vital resource of the State, 294; where the flower of gathers, wealth most abounds, 294.

Labor, manual, scorn of, among the ancients, 56; its slow recovery of independence, its destined dignity through scientific and art culture, 57; repugnance to, has multiplied dishonest practices, 155; respect for, would be increased by the adoption in the public schools of a comprehensive system of mechanical training, 182; cause of the scorn of--the slavery of the laborer, 188; of to-day alone maintains the value of property, 252; of men cheaper than that of cattle, in Rome, 266; the useful arts depend upon, 278; the foundation of national prosperity, 293; essential to triumphs in literature, music, and the fine arts, 293; not gold and silver, is the source of wealth, 294; draws to itself the art treasures of the world, 294, 295; contempt of, inculcated by educational systems, 326.

Laborer, the, degraded through slavery, 10; contempt of, ingrained in the public mind, 177; contempt of, leads inevitably to social disintegration, 247; the battles of antiquity were contests for the possession of, 253; reduced to slavery in Rome, 265; spurned in Rome, 266; the useful arts decline if he is degraded, 278, and advance if he is honored, 278; the standing armies of Europe have cost him all his noble ambitions, 295; surplus of, goes to the tax-gatherer, 295; forced to sacrifice his desire for education, his love of the beautiful, of dignity, and of a home adorned by art, 295.

Laborers thrown into the arena in Rome to be scrambled for, 269.

Landed estates, effect of concentration of, in a few hands, 320; vast, conferred upon a few corporations in the United States--double the area of that owned by the lords of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 321.

Language, thought impossible without, 150; changes in, arise out of new discoveries in science and new inventions in art, 151; stagnates when the State ceases to advance, 151; invention of, 248; when nations shall dwell together in unity there will be but one, 299 [_note_].

Lawyers more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185; training of, is exclusively subjective, 230; rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought, 231; look for precedents in an age whose civilization perished with its language, 242.

Layard, discoveries of, in the ruins of Nineveh, 46.

Learning, the revival of exalted abstractions and debased things, 374.

Legislation, restrictive, in England, to prevent the conversion of timber into charcoal for smelting purposes, 63; the best, in England, is that by which former statutes were repealed, 226; of the United States no better than that of England, 226; cause of failure of, 242; reckless, in the United States, on the subject of the public domain, 319; of the States of the Union vicious and corrupt, 322.

Legislators, not the authors of English progress, 159; Buckle’s scathing arraignment of, 160; wiser in the statutes they repeal than in those they enact, 226, 227; training of, is exclusively subjective, 230; rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought, 231; become selfish, and venerate the past, 242; refuse to grant reforms until awed into submission, 242.

Le Moyne Normal Institute, manual training and domestic economy in, 356.

Life Insurance, ethical aspect of, 214.

Literature, full of maxims in honor of selfishness, 134; polite, must rest upon a basis of general culture, or it is valueless, 279.

_Littérateurs_ more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185.

Livy characterizes Valerius as the first man of his time, 264; deplores the decay of virtue, 272.

Lloyd, Henry D., his history of the land system of the United States--syllabus of, 317; opening paragraphs of the history of the United States by, 318, 319; declaration of, that we must hereafter find freedom in the society of the good, 326.

Locke, the school he dreamed of, 2; famous apothegm of, on iron, 45.

Locomotive, the--stands for the brotherhood of man, 376.

Locomotives, no such failure of, as there is of legislation, 227.

Lombardy, five famines in, 281.

Louis XVI. an expert locksmith, 34.

Lubbock, Sir John, on the skill of the savage, 216.

Lucan, his gospel of universal love, 139.

Lucretia, political effects of the tragic fate of, 264.

Luther, the reformation of, opened the way to the last analysis of dissent in America, 309.

M.

MacAlister, James, declaration of, that there has been but little change in the ideas that have controlled our methods of education in four hundred years, 154; his graphic description of the power and versatility of the hand [_note_], 156; observation of, that a skilled hand, to the majority of men, is quite as important as a well-filled head, 208; has revolutionized the public schools of Philadelphia in two years, 355; one of the most accomplished as well as sternly practical educators in the United States, 357; opinion of, that every child should receive manual training, 358; opinion of, that the great principles which underlie the system mean nothing less than a revolution in education [_note_], 358, 364.

Macaulay’s, Lord, analysis of the Baconian philosophy, 377.

Machiavelli, philosophy formulated by, 284; political maxims of, not invented by him, 284; maxims of, atrocious character of, 284, 285; maxims of, promote barbarism, 285.

Machines, automatic, nails, screws, pins, and needles flying from the fingers of, by the thousand million, 82; more powerful to be constructed in the future, 180.

Machine-tool laboratory, the students of, enter upon a most important inquiry, 82; the study of minute and ponderous tools in, 83; delicacy of the processes of, 91; the poverty of words as compared with things asserted in, 91; silence of, how eloquent, 91, 92; a screw-engine lathe taken to pieces in, 92; improvements in the lathe explained in, 92; fundamental and auxiliary tools of, explained, 93; course of training in, orderly, 93; students work from their own drawings in, 94; why skill is required to handle steam-driven tools of the, 94; aspect of the, when in repose, 97; aspect of the, when steam is on, 98; pen-picture of students of, 99; students of, at work on graduating projects in, 100; dream of instructor in, 100-103; completing graduating projects in, 103, 104.

Machine-tool shop, the modern, an aggregation of hand-tools made automatic, and driven by steam, 8; revolution in the useful arts caused by the, 78; what this creation of modern times, a huge automaton with steam coursing through its veins, does, 78-81; its arms, its hands, its brain, its food, and its products, 81; lines of modern development converge in the, 81; human pursuits widely diversified by, 82.

Macomber, A. E., on the Toledo Manual Training School, 365.

Madrid, people of, threatened with starvation, 283; lost half its population in the seventeenth century, 283.

Maine, Sir Henry--his tribute to things, 379.

Man, the two states of--with and without tools--contrasted, 7; the gulf between the civilized and savage, spanned by the seven-hand-tools, 8; the wisest of animals because he has hands, 152; the most powerful of animals because he has hands, 157; powers of, increased by steam, 161; the most highly civilized, familiar with all the arts, 278; in the Middle Ages, shrunk into a state of moral cowardice and intellectual lethargy, 284.

Mann, Horace, cause of the degradation of labor stated by, 5; reason for the scorn of labor given by, _in extenso_, 188.

Manual training, promotes rectitude, 132; promotes altruism because it is objective, 141; its effects relate to the human race, 141; Prof. Felix Adler in support of its tendency to promote rectitude, 142; idea of, grasped by the Ionic philosopher, 153; exactly what it is, 200; is natural and hence efficient, 218; required to render mental operations more true, 225; possible in Europe only through the disbandment of the standing armies, 295; in all the technical schools of Russia, 333; theory of, by Dr. John D. Runkle, 338; in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 333, 334; in the St. Louis school, 338, 339; in twelve of the State agricultural colleges, 341; in Purdue University, 341; in Boston and Milford, Mass., New Haven, and the State Normal School, Conn., Omaha, Neb., Eau Claire, Wis., Moline, Peru, and the Cook County Normal School, Normal Park, Ill., Montclair, N. J., Cleveland and Barnesville, O., San Francisco, Cal., and Baltimore, Md., 342; exhibits of work of, at the meeting of the National Educational Association in 1884, 342; in Prof. Felix Adler’s Workingman’s School, 342; in Chicago, 345; Dr. Belfield on the mental effect of, 350; in the Pennsylvania State College, 351; Prof. Louis E. Reber in support of, 351, 352; in the College of the City of New York, 352; in thirty-one schools in the city of New York [_note_], 352; in the Tulane University, 353; in the Miller School at Crozet, Va., 353; in Girard College, 353; in the Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College, 355; in the Denver (Col.) University, 355; in the public schools of Philadelphia, 356; in twenty-four of the States of the Union, 359; in the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 359; part of the course of public instruction by Massachusetts and Connecticut, 360; in the Le Moyne Normal Institute, 362; in the University of Michigan, 363; laid on the table by the National Educational Association, 363, 364; in the State University, Cleveland, and Toledo, O., 364; is leading captive the imagination of the American people, 367; the purpose of, in the schools of Europe, 368; progress of--its extent greater than its quality, 372; acquisition by the hand of the arts through which man expresses himself in things, 380; a series of educational generalizations in things, 380.

Manual training school the child of the kindergarten, 5; destined to unite science and art, 5; its highest text-books tools, 7; must be made part of the public system of education, 112; gain of the pupil of, 122; pupil of, constructs a machine, breathes into it the breath of life, and with it moves mountains, 201; methods of, twenty times more valuable than the unscientific methods of the trade-shop, 219; pupil of, is an investigator, his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel, 220; pupil of, gets as much again intellectual benefit from the laboratory as he would if the laboratory equivalent in time were given to book study, 221; laboratory exercises of, a great strain upon the mental constitution, and hence highly educational, 222; pupils of, love it--an incident, 223; method of the, is the expression of ideas in things, 245; realizes the idea of Bacon, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, 245.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, its models of mechanical manipulation presented by the Emperor of Russia, 66; first institution of learning in the United States to adopt manual training, 333; manual training adopted by, in 1876, 334; resolution of thanks for a series of models, presented by the Emperor of Russia, adopted by, 334, 335.

Massachusetts, legislature of, adopts manual training as part of the public school course of, 360.

Maudslay, Henry, his improvement of the lathe made it the king of the machine-tool shop, 33; without his slide-rest Watt’s engine could not have been made, 35; through his slide-rest alone the mechanic is able to make two things exactly alike, 92; slide-rest of, an automaton truer than the human eye, more cunning than the human hand, 200, 201.

Maudsley, Dr. Henry, on the contribution of the muscular sense to mental operations, 147; on the impossibility of thinking without physical expression, 149.

Mechanic, the, who makes a machine that multiplies products is in the front rank of the civilizers of the race, 160; prospects of the skilled, in life, 170; did more to hasten the world’s progress from 1740 to 1840 than all the statesmen of previous ages, 171; splendid career which this age opens to the educated, 182; tremendous power wielded by, 183; has wrought an industrial revolution, 185; works of, reflect honor upon, 187; stands the test of scrutiny better than the merchant, 225; trained in things, 225.

Mechanics, skilled, the use of automatic tools increases rather than diminishes the demand for, 94; of the early time had none of the advantages of the manual training school, 172; their sufferings and misfortunes, 172; no such failure of, as there is of merchants, 227; thoroughness of training of, 239.

Mediæval period, the speculative philosophy of, still projects its baleful influence over our institutions of learning, 185; graphic picture of society in, by Winwood Reade, 280, 281; the art of war only flourished in, 281; precarious condition of the serfs in--fate of--to be killed in battle or die of starvation, 281; causes of the moral and intellectual darkness of the, 281, 282; causes of the moral and intellectual torpor of the people of, 284; conferred upon man two great blessings, and left a legacy of evil, 289; degradation of woman in the, 366.

Memory cultivated at the expense of the reason, 200.

Men sold for sixpence apiece in Asia, 269.

Menander, lofty moral precepts of, 139.

Mental acquirement, a, is a theorem--something to be proved, 144.

Mental development, law of, 131; which is most conducive to, doing things, or memorizing words, 376.

Mental training, exclusively, does not produce a symmetrical character, 244.

Merchants, percentage of failure of, in Chicago from 1870 to 1881, 211; three per cent. of, only, succeed, 211; ninety-seven per cent. of, go to the wall, 212; cost of failures of, borne by the public, 212; ninety-seven per cent. of, mistake their avocation, 212; failure of, made too easy, 213; honor of, in France [_note_], 213; ninety-seven in one hundred fail, 225; cause of failures of, 229; selfishness of--do not seek for justice, or to find truth, 230; who compromise with their creditors, and subsequently accumulate fortunes, rarely repay the forgiven debt, 230; cause of failure of, 242.

Mercury, bronze statue of, at the Museum of Naples, 47.

Michigan, University of, manual training in, as described by Instructor Lieut. M. E. Cooley, 363.

Microscope, the work of the hand, 156.

Milford, Mass., manual training in, 342.

Miller Manual Training School, the, of Crozet, Va., 353.

Mind, the, mental laws of, 132, 133; moral laws of, 133; and the hand are natural allies, 144; indulges in false logic without instant detection, 145; the hand its moral rudder, its balance-wheel, 145; influenced by the hand through the muscular sense, 148; steadied by the wise counsel of the practical hand, 225; steadied and balanced by the study of things, 225; devises a watch, and the hand makes it, 240; fails when it attempts to execute its devices, 240; succeeds when the hand executes its plans, but fails in merchandizing, law, and justice, 240; should not be stored with facts unless they are to be applied to things, 245; how it began to assert its empire over matter, 249.

Moline, Ill., manual training in, 342.

Montclair, N. J., manual training in, 342.

Moors, the, in Spain in the Middle Ages constituted a glowing exception to the general prevalence of superstition and ignorance, 282; skilled in all the arts, 282.

Morality, springs from intelligence, 113; is not a mere sentiment, a barren ideality, 142; of Christ and Paul, 142; is a vital principle whose exemplification consists in doing justice, 142; cannot be acquired by memorizing a series of maxims, 143; of a community is in the ratio of its intelligence, 238.

Morrissey, John, his brief autobiography, 314, 315.

Mother, the, in the arms of, the infant mind rapidly unfolds, 365.

Moulding, the oldest of human discoveries, 46.

Murray, Matt, inventor of flax machinery, 84.

Muscular sense, the, its discovery by Sir Charles Bell, 146; its power over the movements of the frame--walking, etc., 146; Dr. Henry Maudsley on the, 147; actions of essential elements in mental operations, 147; sharpened to marvellous fineness by constant use, 148; if trained in the direction of truth, it will react in the direction of rectitude, on the mind, 148, 149.

Mushet, David, an English inventor and author, 84; his discovery of the value of black band iron-stone, 117; his papers on iron and steel, 117; sprung from the labor class, 117.

Mythology, the highest place in its Pantheon given to Vulcan, the God of Fire, 70.

N.

Napoleon, the incarnation of selfishness, 134, 135; the infamous, plundered the conquered capitals of Europe, 294.

Nasmyth, James, invented the steam-hammer in 1837, and applied the principle of it to the pile-driver in 1845, 76.

Nation, the, that degrades labor is ripe for destruction, 253; that loses its population by emigration is in its decadence, 294.

National debts of Europe, amount of, thirty years ago, 286; doubled since 1850, 290; cause of the rapid increase of, 290; represent a series of colossal crimes against the people, 291; with relation to them, the people are divided into two classes--one class owns them, the other class pays interest on them, 291; in one class they are a vested right, in the other a vested wrong, 291; how they can be paid, and education promoted at the same time, 292; can be paid only by disbanding the standing armies, 295; will reduce their governments to bankruptcy unless standing armies are disbanded, 296.

National Educational Association, manual training exhibits at, 1884, meeting of, 342; meeting of 1885 adopts a resolution endorsing the kindergarten, 363; illogical action of, in laying upon the table a resolution endorsing manual training, 363, 364.

Nations, the rise, progress, and decay of, 252, 253; sink as the column of debt rises, 297.

Neilson, James B., inventor of the hot-blast, 84; revolutionizes the processes of iron manufacture, 117; sprang from the labor class, and is made a member of the Royal Society, 117.

New England, system of education of, moulded the character of the civilization of the United States, 235; difference between the civilization of, and that of South Carolina, measured by the difference in their respective educational systems, 235; educational system of, is unscientific, 239.

New Haven, Conn., manual training in, 342.

Newcomen helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15.

Nineveh, bronze castings recovered from the ruins of, 46.

Nobility above price in the eleventh century, for sale in the thirteenth, and soon afterwards offered as a gift, 286.

Norway appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools, 368.

O.

Object teaching, example of, 4; the corner-stone of the kindergarten and the manual training school, 129; an analysis of, with examples, 200.

Observation, the power of, resides chiefly in the hand, 380.

Ohio, high rank of, industrially, 364; making great strides towards a more practical system of education, 364; State University of, manual training in, 364; prosperity of the Case School of Applied Science in, 364; manual training schools of Cleveland and Toledo, in, 364.

Omaha, Neb., manual training in, 342.

P.

Palissy, Bernard, sketch of his career, 231, 232, 233; burns the furniture of his house in the cause of art, 232; is cast into prison for heresy--his defiance of King Henry III., 232; dies in the Bastile, 233; was right, and his devotion to art rendered him immortal, 233, 234; struggle of, over the furnace in the cause of art, was mentally and morally normal, while the opposition he encountered was abnormal, 234; mind of, was developed normally, while the minds of the millions of men who permitted him to die unfriended were developed abnormally, 234; willing to starve for his art, and ready to die for his faith, 234.

Papin helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15.

Paris Exposition, exhibit of models of tool practice in the Imperial Technical School, Moscow, Russia, at the, 331.

Parker, Col. Francis W., declares that the application of science to methods of instruction would produce a radical change in all school work, 205; his forcible exposition of the defects of prevailing methods of instruction, 205, 206, 207; asserts that teachers are faithful, honest, and earnest, but ignorant of the history and science of education, 207, 364.

Patriotism can be indulged with good reason only in the United States, 323.

Penmanship, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 198.

Pennsylvania State College, manual training in the, 351.

Pennsylvania State Prison, statistics--five-sixths of the inmates of, had attended public schools, and the same number were without trades, 182.

Pericles boasted that he could not be bribed, but robbed all Greece to embellish Athens, and was convicted of peculation and fined, 255.

Persia, no provision in, for either the mental or moral training of woman, 366; the boy in, excluded from the presence of his father till the fifth year, 367.

Peru, Ill., manual training in, 342.

Pestalozzi, the school he struggled in vain to establish, 2; his definition of education, 12; his condemnation of the old system of education, 126; foresaw the kindergarten and the manual training school, 245.

Phidias familiar with the turning lathe, 33.

Philadelphia, manual training made part of the public school system of, 353; rules of the public schools of, 355, 356; report of a committee of the Board of Education of, in regard to manual training, 356, 357; hand-training introduced into the public schools of, 358.

Philosophers, the, little time to speculate with, 180.

Philosophy established on a scientific basis--the study of natural phenomena, 153; of the Greeks scorned both science and art, 257.

Physical development, law of, 131.

Pile-driver, the steam-hammer principle applied to the, 76; power of the, 76.

Pilgrims, the product of the progress of all the ages, 308.

Pine, in the forest and in lumber, 21; description of the tree by the son of a lumberman, 21; uses of, commerce in, supply of, 22; sources of information of students in regard to--newspapers and encyclopedias, 25.

Plato, his theory of the divine origin of caste, 123; blinded by half-truths, 124; how he was controlled by his environment, 124; his theory of the importance of early training, 125; his contempt for the useful arts, 176, 177, 369; regarded the soul’s residence in the body as an evil, 256; opinion of, that the majority is always dull and always wrong, 280; the creation of his Divine Dialogues depended upon the useful arts, 383.

Pliny, affection of, for his slaves, 139.

Plutarch, sublime moral teachings of, 138; on the death of his daughter, 139.

Poets, the, little time to sentimentalize with, 180; more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185.

Poole, Dr. William F., courtesy of, to the students of the Chicago Manual Training School, 348.

Poverty, its final abolition depends upon the multiplication of the useful arts, 383.

Power, generation of, the object of education, 244; to generate and store up either mental or physical, not to be exerted, is a waste of energy, 245.

Printing, the art of, essential to progress in the useful arts, 73; not so necessary to progress in the so-called fine arts, 73; removes the seal from the lips of learning, 286; makes every discovery in science and every invention in art the heritage of all the ages, 286; the invention of, paralyzed authority, 287.

Progress, if Guttenberg had rested content with an idea, there would have been no printing-press, 152; if Watt, Stephenson, and Fulton had stopped at words, there would have been neither railways nor steamships, 152; dates from the beginning of the seventeenth century, 153; slow until within one hundred years, 153; due not to the men who make laws, but to the men who make things, 160; of the world towards a higher appreciation of the value of the useful arts, 172; of moral ideas shown by the honors lavished upon the memory of heroes, 234; can find expression only in things, 243; the path of, a rugged road, 381; its steps consist of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts, 382; the lines on which educational, is to be sought, 385.

Property, no security for, in a community devoid of education, 237; intelligence alone confers a sacred character upon, 237; may be protected by a hired soldiery, or by public sentiment enlightened by education, 238; the main purpose of governments is to protect, but nearly all the governments of history have been destroyed in the effort to fulfil this function of their existence, 238; in slaves, failure of the United States to protect, 238; rights of, in English land, about to be disturbed, 238; not sacred unless honestly acquired and honestly held, 238; all in the United States may be devoted to education by the ballot, 324.

Prudence, extreme, consistent with rectitude, 136; selfishness deified under the name of, 311.

Public lands of the United States squandered by Congress, 317; history of waste of, by Henry D. Lloyd, in the _Chicago Tribune_, 317, 318, 319.

Public schools of New England, 309; the old system of education put into the, 303; popular idea of the, 310; neither science nor art taught in the, 310; revived the Greco-Roman subjective system, 310.

Public schools of the United States, attendance in, not compulsory--some children enter them, and some do not, 316; leave out that which most nearly concerns the business of life, 325.

Pugilist, how John Morrissey became a, 314, 315.

Pullman, George M., Trustee of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, 346.

Purdue University, pronounced success achieved in manual training in, under the directorship of Professor Goss, 341.

R.

Railroad, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170; taxes to the utmost nearly every department of the useful arts, 171; incompetency of management of, as shown by shrinkage in values of stocks of, 210; in the proprietor of, the two great elements of modern power, land and steam, are united, 321; proprietor of the, is a king, 321; monstrous claims of the proprietor of, 315.

Reading, automatism of teaching, in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 197; Colonel Parker declares that prevailing methods of instruction in, are “utterly opposed to a mental law about which there can be no dispute,” 206.

Reason, in existing systems of education, allowed to slumber, 200.

Reber, Prof. Louis E., in support of manual training, 352.

Reform--demand for, 371.

Revolution--educational, 1883-4, 371.

Richard I. presents King Arthur’s sword Excalibar to Tancred, 71.

Right, of the poor child to equal education sacred, 376.

Roberts, Richard, a great English inventor of the eighteenth century, 84.

“Rocket,” the, George Stephenson’s first locomotive, 118.

Roebuck, Dr. John, a patron of Watt, 84.

Roman aristocrats, were refined and accomplished, 276, 277; savage contest for supremacy among the, 277.

Roman civilization the product of all that had gone before, 260.

Roman literature, possessed no saving quality, 275; did not represent the Roman people, 275.

Roman State, the, slavery the corner-stone of, 265.

Romans, the, had no peer either in courage or fortitude, 264; vices of, shown in the character of Appius, the Decemvir, 264; virtues of, shown in the character of Virginius, 265; sense of justice of, swallowed up in lust of power, 266; early triumphs of industrial, 268; indebted to slaves for all the arts, 269; philosophy of, so shallow as to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the State rested, 272; debasing influence of the Greek philosophy upon, 274; under the Empire rewarded vice and punished virtue, 274; preferred Cæsar, Caligula, and Nero to Cato, Germanicus, and Agricola, 274; retrograded towards a state of savagery under the Empire, 275; became absolutely selfish, and hence totally depraved, 276.

Rome, the decline of, caused by the failure of the fuel supply, and by her neglect of the useful arts, 63, 64; had she possessed great mechanics her fall might have been averted, 64; her civilization culminated at the limit of the application of iron to the useful arts, 83; a pen-picture of the decline of, 83; her splendors and her degradation, 138; fall of, stopped the study of physiology, 153; the dominion of, logical--vigorous but pitiless, 263; all the great races mingled in, 264; laws of, show the stamina of her people, 265; supply of laborers for, maintained by depopulating conquered countries, 265; in the train of the legions returning to, were men, women, and children destined to slavery, 265; laws of, in regard to slaves, terrible, 265; for the free citizen of, to labor with his hands was more disgraceful than to die of starvation, 266; free citizen paupers of, crying “bread and circuses,” 266; education in, confined to politics and war, 266; became the great robber nation of the world, 266; was on the land what Greece had been on the sea--a pirate, 266; the spoil of conquered countries used to bribe courts, senators, and the populace, 267; nothing safe in, from the hand of rapacity, 267; grew rich through plunder, and poor in public and private virtue, 267; bribery in, 268; great social change in, after the fall of Greece and Carthage and the reduction of Asia, 268; summary of the causes of the fall of, 268; scenes immediately preceding the fall of, 269, 270; the seat of all the world’s learning, 270; the wise men of, powerless to help their fellow-men, because their philosophy was false, 270; metaphysical philosophy of, 270, 271; the philosophy of, furnished an excuse for slavery, 271; suffrage in, the subject of open traffic, 271, 272; noted men of, ignorant of the cause of the disorders which afflicted the body politic, 272; in the city of, vice reigned supreme, while in the provinces there was a middle class by whom all the domestic virtues were practised, 314; no culture in, for girls till late in the Empire, 366.

Romulus and Remus, legend of, 259.

Rousseau, the school he described, 2; his opinion that the poor need no education, 124; his theory of the vital importance of early training, 125; his definition of education, 125; his appreciation of the importance of the education of woman, 125, 126; his condemnation of the old system of education, 126; declaration of, that education is nothing but habit, 245.

Runkle, Dr. John D., his declaration that public education should touch practical life in a larger number of points, 202; the founder of manual training in the United States, 333; excerpts from the report of, in 1876, recommending the adoption of manual training by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 333, 334; letter of, to the author, containing an exposition of the theory of manual training, with an account of its origin in the mind of, 337, 338; assists in introducing manual training into Girard College, 354.

Ruskin, on finding the truth in things [_note_], 145; on disciplining the fingers in the laboratory of the goldsmiths [_note_], 148; on learning by labor what the lips of man could never teach [_note_], 152; tribute of, to labor [_note_], 161; on rogues, a manufactured article [_note_], 237; on how national debts bear upon labor [_note_], 291; on how standing armies are supported [_note_], 293.

Russia, arbitrary act of, in 1770, in relation to the export of iron, 115; solves the problem of tool instruction by the laboratory process, 331; manual training introduced into all the technical schools of, 333.

Russia, Emperor of, presents one hundred models of mechanical manipulations to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 69; offers John Arnold five thousand dollars for a duplicate of his George III. watch, 86.

S.

San Francisco, Cal., manual training in, 342.

Sankey Canal, the, authorized upon condition that boats plying upon it should be drawn by men only, 179.

Saracens, the friends of education, of science, and art, 282; inventors of cotton-paper, promoters of all the industries, including agriculture, 282, 283; driven from the soil they had made to blossom like the rose, 283; ameliorating influence of, upon the ignorance and superstition of the Middle Ages, 285.

Savage, the, how he is trained, 9; helplessness of, 11; how he is taught to hunt and fish, 176; is taught what he needs to know in his condition, and nothing else, 181; if his education were as unscientific as that of the civilized boy, the race would perish, 215; ninety-nine times in a hundred he traces the footsteps of his enemy in the forest, 215, 216; education of, is scientific, 216; in the practical character of the training of, consists its excellence, 217; mystery which envelops skill of, solved, 219; ignorant, in his primitive state, of all the arts, 278.

Savonarola, the hater of abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, 234; at the death-bed of Lorenzo de Medici, 235; shaking thrones and making proud prelates tremble, 235.

Savory helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15.

Saw-mills, opposition to their introduction in England, 178.

School, of the future, 2; proposed by Ruskin [_note_], 180.

Schools, the, have not moved forward with events, 154; are still dominated by mediæval ideas of speculative philosophy, 154; as an industrial agency are a failure, 202; were established as a bulwark of liberty, 202; denounced, 371; must be transformed from the ornamental type of Greece into laboratories for the development of useful men and women, 384; a vast number of, have been dedicated to the new education--are they to be developed into ideal schools?, 385.

Schoolmaster, the, and the Reformer, 371; the old, and the new education, 375.

Schools of England, arraignment of, by Herbert Spencer, 325.

Schwab, Dr. Erasmus, and “The Work School in the Common School,” 368.

Science, effect of divorce of, from art, 11; through printing every discovery in, becomes the heritage of future ages, 286.

Scientific education, simplicity of, 207, 208; difference between, and unscientific, 217; description of, by Miss S. E. Blow, 218, 219; is natural education, 223; brightens, stimulates, and develops, while automatic stupefies, 223, 224.

Scientist, the, a public benefactor, 160; studies the stars, the earth, and the air in the light of the flames of persecution, 287.

Scott, Frank J., contributor to the fund for the founding of the Toledo, Ohio, Manual Training School, 364.

Scott, Jesup W., the founder of the Toledo Manual Training School, 358.

Scott, Maurice, contributor to the fund for the founding of the Toledo Manual Training School, 364.

Scott, William F., contributor to the fund for the founding of the Toledo Manual Training School, 364.

Sculpture, limit of, reached in Greece, 73.

Scythians, among the, the iron sword was a god, 70.

Segovia, manufactures of, destroyed by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 283.

Seligman, Mr. Joseph, munificence of, established Professor Adler’s Workingman’s School in New York City on a firm basis, 345.

Selfishness, the arch-enemy of virtue, 134; maxims in honor of, 134; Napoleon a colossal example of the folly of, 135; in conflict with the true spirit of civilization, 135; causes revolutions and destroys governments, 135; is blind of one eye--sees only one side of a cause, 136; let not prudence be confounded with, 136; extreme, the synonym of depravity, 136; promoted by prevailing systems of education, 136; promoted by a mercantile career, 230; of the lawyer, the judge, and the legislator, 230, 231; as it recedes from the mind, justice assumes its appropriate place as the controlling element in human conduct, 233; the source of all social evil, 247; transformed Roman courage into cruelty, and Roman fortitude into brutal stoicism, 266; transformed the government of Rome from a pure democracy into an oligarchy of wealth, 276; vanquishes itself in Rome, 277; the equivalent of savagery, 277; deified under the name of prudence, 311; calling it prudence led to confounding right and wrong, 311; effects of, in the nineteenth century the same as in the first, 312; the mind charged with, through subjective educational processes, 326; ends in a struggle which ends in a revolution, 326.

Seneca, sublime moral precepts of, contrasted with the horrors of the gladiatorial games, 138; his doctrine of humanity, 139; ignores slavery, the slave, the laborer, and the useful arts, 268; morals of, glittering generalities, politics of, practical, 269; put money in his purse, 269; charged with complicity in the Piso conspiracy, and banished for the crime of adultery, 269.

Serfs of the Middle Ages the mercenary troops of the modern State, 290.

Service--the greatest thing in the moral world, 378.

Seville, silk industry of, 292; looms of, silenced in the seventeenth century, 283.

Sewing-machine, the, its accuracy, 87; it illustrates the interdependence of the practical arts, 87; it multiplies garments beyond the power of figures to express, 87.

Sheffield, Lord, his estimate of the value of Henry Cort’s improvements in iron and the steam-engine of Watt, 115; his declaration of the purpose of the establishment of the American colonies, 202.

Sheffield, town of, its insignificance in 1715, 116; its manufacturing importance now, 116.

Skill being prolific of good should be brought to bear upon educational systems, 132.

Slavery existed in the United States when Horace Mann declared it to be the cause of the degradation of labor and the laborer, 189; aided by England in its struggle for survival, 189; influence of, not yet extinct, 189; has kept its brand of shame upon the useful arts for thousands of years, 190; how the Egyptian was reduced to, 250; and labor were synonymous terms in Rome, 265; a state of, is a state of war, 265; confounded with freedom in the United States, 311; negroes escaping from, called fugitives from justice, 311; justified in Faneuil Hall, the cradle of liberty, 311; tried only by the test of self-interest, 312; in the North it faded away, in the South it flourished, 312; climate conditions, not education, saved this continent from the scourge of, 312, 313; question of continuance of, in the United States, settled by violence, as savages settle controversies, 313.

Slaves, in Rome, laws in relation to, 265; a million killed in the course of the servile rebellion in Sicily, 265; exposed to wild beasts in the arena for the popular amusement, 265; all industrial pursuits in Rome carried on by, 266; labor of, in Rome, cheaper than that of cattle, 266; construct all the great public works in Rome, 269; strike for liberty in Rome, and are slaughtered, 271; clank of the chains of, in the streets of Boston, 311.

Smeaton helps to solve the steam-power problem, 15; the best workman of his time, 85.

Smiles, Samuel, declares that the automata of the Middle Ages led to the useful automatic tools of the eighteenth century, 35; his peculiar views about Maudslay’s great invention, 36; his history of the Dutch and German mechanics who contributed to the solution of the problem of the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes, 64; his graphic picture of the versatility of the smith, 71; his pen-picture of the steamship _Warrior_ “breasting the billows of the North Sea,” 85; shows the true springs of English greatness in his “Lives of the Engineers,” 172; shows the origin of useful arts in England in his great work on the Huguenots, 185.

Smith, the, gives direction to the course of Empire, 62; a man of great consequence in England in the early time, 71; name of, descends to more families than that of any other profession, 71; versatility of, 71, 72; conducts the engineering at the siege of Berwick, 72; ancient, kin to all the ages through his works, 74.

Social evils, are the product of defective education, 325.

Social problems, solution of, to be sought through a radical change in educational methods, 248; the railway and factory are new factors in, 321; of America cannot be settled as those of Europe are, by emigration, 326.

Solicis, Prof. G., the chief supporter of manual training in France, 368.

South Carolina, educational system of, confined to a class, as opposed to universal education in New England, 235.

Spain, ruined by the expulsion of the Moors, 283; destitution in the chief cities of, 283; danger that the royal family of, would go hungry to bed, 283; is bankrupt, 296.

Speculation, rages on the exchanges of all large American cities, 322; affects every class in the community, 322; stimulates bad passions, and creates a distaste for labor, 322.

Speculative philosophy, only resource of the ancients, 153; dominated the world from the fall of Rome to the time of Bacon, 153.

Speech, must be incarnate in things or it is dead, 141; man would lose the power of, if his words should cease to be realized in things, 149; dependent upon objects for its existence, 150; has its origin not less in external objects than in the mind, 150; would be lost if the senses should cease to be impressed by things, 150; freedom of, and of thought, catch-penny phrases, 192.

Spelling, automatism in teaching, in the schools of the United States, as shown by the Walton report, 198, 199.

Spencer, Herbert, on the defects of the schools of England, 325; the contrast between his views and the dictum of Dr. Dwight of Yale University, 374; pointed out, the analogy between early methods of education and barbarism, 377.

Standing armies, a legacy of evil from the Middle Ages, 289; recruited from the ranks of the serfs, 290; the dominant feature of European public economy, 290; number of, 290; collateral evils of, 290; responsible for illiteracy and pauperism, 292; what they cost and what they stand in the way of, 293; how they are supported [_note_], 293; an assumption of the barbarism of man, 300; stand in the way of education and prosperity, 303; must everywhere soon disappear before the march of education, 303; are as abnormal in Europe as slavery was in the United States, 303, 304; are the instruments of tyranny, the last analysis of selfishness, 304; the result of the Greco-Roman methods of education, 304.

State, a, growth of, depends upon progress in the practical arts, 151; ceasing to advance, its language ceases to grow, becomes stationary, stagnates, 151.

Statesmen, not the authors of English progress, 159; Buckle’s scathing arraignment of, 160; more highly esteemed than civil engineers, machinists, and artisans, 185.

Statutes, that wear out in a year, 241.

Steam, power of, known to the ancients, 14; makes all civilized countries prosperous and great, 161; must be harnessed at the forge and in the shop to enable it to do its work, 170; power exerted by, in the manufactories of Great Britain equal to the manual labor of four hundred millions of men, 184; may be likened to an idea which finds expression through the engine--a thing, 245; the railway and the factory two great products of, 321.

Steam-hammer, the, in works of Mr. Crane, Chicago, 75; in Pittsburg, Pa., and at Krupp’s cast-steel works, Essen, Germany, 75; invention of, in 1837, its accuracy, power, and delicacy, 76; application of the principle of, to the pile-driver in 1845, 76.

Steamship, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170.

Steel, Age of, great enterprises of the, dwarf the merely ornamental branches of learning, 179.

Steele, Prof. A. J., Principal of the Le Moyne Normal Institute--letter of, to the Author, 362.

Stephenson, George, inventor of the locomotive, 84; sketch of his remarkable career, 118, 119; declines knighthood and a membership in the Royal Society, 119; the founder of the railway system of the world, 119.

Stephenson, Robert, an English railway engineer, 84.

Stick, Adam and the, 157; the symbol and instrument of power, 158.

Stoics and philosophers of Rome, lofty moral sentiments of, in contrast with the Roman vices, 139.

Suetonius, portrays the cruelties of the Cæsars, but hints at no cause therefor inherent in the social system, 272.

Suffrage, love of country in the United States is a due appreciation of the right of, 323; in the universality of the right of, lies the power of correcting all social evils, 324; destined to preservation forever in the United States, 324; attempt to limit, in New York accounted for by the prevalence of European ideas, 324; the right of, can be taken from the American people only by force, 324; standard of, lowered by ignorance and depravity, 325; when better informed it will be more honest, 325; with increased intelligence it will gain the power to grapple with social abuses, 325.

Superstition, how it arose through ignorance and selfishness, 249.

Sweden, five hundred _slöjd_ schools in, in 1882, 368; supports a school for the training of teachers of _slöjd_ schools at Nääs, 369.

Syria, the founders, smiths, and all the artisans of, were slaves, 56.

T.

Tacitus, his account of the execution of four hundred slaves for the murder of one man, 265; his lament at the decline of public virtue, 267; is silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery, and on the shame of degrading labor, 272.

Tancred the Crusader pays for King Arthur’s sword Excalibar “four great ships and fifteen galleys,” 71.

Tarquins, the banishment of the, 264.

Telegraph, the, influence of, upon the destinies of mankind, 170.

Telephone, the work of the hand, 156.

Telescope, the work of the hand, 155.

Texas, Agricultural and Mechanical College of, 359.

Theodoric, attempt of, to reconstruct the Roman civilization, 279; the order evoked from chaos by, to chaos soon returned, 280.

Theorem, a, always a question solved, 144.

Things both the subject and occasion of speech, 151; regarded as of less vital importance than abstract ideas, 185; the false, easily detected in--examples, 224; the study of, steadies and balances the mind, 225; the truth revealed only in, 243; ideas are mere vain speculations till embodied in, 243; the habit of expressing ideas in, should be formed in the schools, 245; the truths that are hidden in, 378; the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission of its immature judgments to the verification of, 379; the source of ideas, 379; essential to spiritual development, 384.

Thinking, acting is the complement of, 244.

Thought, must be incarnate in things, or it is dead, 141; is not even present to the thinker until he has set it forth, out of himself, 150; independent, of all mental processes the most difficult--habit, tradition, and reverence for antiquity unite to forbid it, 192.

Thoughts must be expressed to have influence, 244; may be expressed most forcibly in things, 244.

Thucydides arraigns the Greeks as falsifiers and perjurers, 255.

Thurston, Robert H., on the tremendous power wielded by the mechanic, 183.

Toledo, O., Manual Training School, inception of, due to the generosity of the late Jesup W. Scott and his three sons, 364; connected with the public high-school, 364, 365; students of, consist of both sexes, 365; the course for girls in, 365.

Toledo, Spain, woollen manufactures of, transferred by the exiled Moors to Tunis, 283.

“Tom All-alone’s” in “Bleak House”--social philosophy of, 315.

Tool practice, quickens the intellect, 114; engenders a thirst for wisdom, 114; history of, in England confirms this view, 114; the foundation of James Watt’s culture, 119; George Stephenson’s career an illustration of the intellectual effect of, 119; testimony of the Director of the Artisans’ School at Rotterdam, Holland, as to intellectual effect of, 121; testimony of Dr. Woodward, Director of the St. Louis Manual Training School, as to intellectual effect of, 121; testimony of M. Victor Della Vos, Director of the Imperial Technical School of Moscow, as to intellectual effect of, 121; effect of, as shown by the experience of the Mechanic Art School at Komotan, Bohemia, 122.

Tools, influence of, upon modern civilization, 9; represent the steps of human progress, 10; the great civilizing agency of the world, 11.

Touch, the master sense, whence all the other senses spring, 380; reigns throughout the body, and is the token of life in every part, 381; is the fundamental sense, the mother-tongue of, language, 381; its versatility, 381.

Townships of New England, their establishment logical, 309.

Tradition, tyranny of, 124.

Truth, the struggle after, 233; the love of, natural, 233; heroes honor it, 234; conspicuous through efforts to suppress it, 287.

Tulane, Paul, founder of the Tulane University of New Orleans, La., 353.

Tulane University, manual training a prominent feature in the, 353.

Turkish Empire, story of its origin through the art of forging, 61.

Tweedism, what made it possible in the city of New York, 315.

Types, through the medium of, the voice of genius is destined to reach to the ends of the earth, 286.

U.

United States, the, not at the front in the race of nations for industrial supremacy, 203; comparison of imports and exports of, with those of England, 203; industrially ill-balanced, 204; suffering from a paucity of skilled labor, 204; educational system of, very poor, as shown by the statistics of railway and commercial disasters, 224; educational system of, as poor morally as mentally, 224; neglect of education by, the most astonishing fact in the history of, 235; a scientific educational system forced upon the South by, would have averted the war of rebellion, 237; could not protect property in slaves, 238; social conditions in, similar to those prevailing in Europe, 313; illiteracy in, 313; increase of illiteracy in, 313; every sixth man who votes in, is unable to write his name, 313; land system of, rivals that of England in injustice, 317; history of the land system of, by Henry D. Lloyd, in the _Chicago Tribune_, 317-319; the sentiment of patriotism justifiable only in, 323; the soldier of, is a citizen of, 323, 324.

Universities, the men who have transformed the face of the earth came not from the, 185; Bacon’s caustic remark in relation to the, 185; on Bacon’s plan would have united science and art, 185.

Use--the greatest thing in the material world, 378.

V.

Valerius, died so poor that he was buried at the public charge, 268.

Venus, made the wife of Vulcan, the God of Fire, 70.

Von Kaas, Rittmeister Claussen, lectures on the subject of manual training in Germany, 368.

Vulcan, the God of Fire, given Venus to wife, the father of Cupid, 70.

W.

Waif, the, description of, by John Morrissey, 314; destined to become an equal citizen, 315; made Tweedism in New York City possible, 315; pollutes the fountains of justice, 315, 316; menaces the government with destruction, 316; permitted by the hundred thousand to develop into a savage, 316; power of, to tax civilized people, 316.

Walton, George A., report of, in regard to investigation of the schools of Norfolk County, Mass., 196-199.

Wars, modern, of European nations involve no principle, 290.

Washington University, manual training department of, established in 1878, 338, 339; excerpts from the prospectus of, 1882-83, showing the progress of manual training, 339, 340; founding of manual training department of, due to the energy and foresight of Dr. Woodward first, and second, to the donations of private citizens, 340, 341.

Watch Company, Elgin National, makes a thousand watches a day--all perfect, 87; makes two hundred thousand watch-screws in a few minutes, 87.

Watt, James, the last link in the chain of steam-engine inventors, 15; Dr. Draper’s eulogy of, 15; chief difficulty of, in perfecting the steam-engine, 84, 85; Smeaton’s opinion that the engine of, could not be made to work with hand-made tools, 85; sketch of the life and career of, 119, 120; a dull boy in school, 120; tribute of Sir Walter Scott to the greatness of, 120; every incident in the life of, now eagerly sought for, 171.

Weaving Machinery, improved, opposition to introduction of, in England, 178.

Whitney, Eli B., inventor of the cotton-gin, 84.

William the Conqueror, his appreciation of the importance of land proprietorship, 317.

Williams, Roger, the champion of absolute freedom of thought and speech, 309.

Wilson, Dr. George, his panegyric on the hand, 145.

Wisdom, the power of discriminating between what is true and what is false, 152; the hand used as the synonym of, because it is only in the concrete that the false is sure of detection, 152.

Woman, tremendous influence of, upon the destinies of the human race, 125; neglect of past ages to educate, a crime, 125; education of, more important than that of man, 128; condition of, in a state of savagery, 249; reform in education must begin with, 365; the education of, more imperative than that of man, 365; neglect of the education of, among the ancients, 366; degradation of, in the Middle Ages, 366; contempt of, by Bacon, Swift, Addison, and Johnson, 366; Shakespeare’s tribute to, 366; Ruskin’s worship of, 366; the purity of the home and the efficiency of the school depends upon, 367; in the van where the imagination leads, 367; less selfish than man, 367; intuitions of, truer, ideals higher, sense of justice finer, and of duty stronger than those of man, 367; the teacher of man from the cradle to the grave, 367.

Woodward, Dr. C. M., Director of the St. Louis Manual Training School, 121; statement of, as to intellectual effect of manual training, 121; his account of the origin of the St. Louis school, 339.

Wood-turning laboratory, radical change of, from carpentry--from angles to spherical, cylindrical, and eccentric forms, 30; the value in the arts of the lathe, 30; its mythical origin, 33; its application and uses among the ancients, 34; fashionable in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in England and France, 34; purpose of, is not to make turners, but to educate boys, 39; the machinery of, in motion, 39; pen-picture of the students in, 39; the lesson in detail in, 40; the students at their lathes in, 43; the instructor passes upon the work of the class in, 44.

Wootz, or Indian steel, produced near Golconda, and used in the fabrication of Damascus blades, 72; millions of dollars expended in efforts to produce the equal of, 72.

Words, weakness of, 141; cannot attain to definiteness save as living outgrowths of realities, 150; easy to juggle with, and make the worse appear the better reason, 224; educational systems still train in, rather than in things, 325, 326.

Workingman’s School and Free Kindergarten of New York City, the most comprehensive educational institution in the world, 342; scope of, 343; purpose of, identical with that of the manual training school, 343; methods of instruction in the, 343, 344.

Y.

Yarranton, Andrew, according to Patrick Edward Dove, was the founder of English political economy, 175.

Z.

Zenophon, after conducting the retreat of the Ten Thousand, led a detachment of Greeks on a pillaging expedition, 255.

THE END

Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, etc. (including in proper names) have been retained, except as mentioned below.

Depending on the hard- and software and their settings used to read this text, not all elements may display as intended.

As explained in the Preface, the book contains both endnotes per chapter and footnotes. This distinction has been kept in this text, with the endnotes being numbered E1, E2, E3, ... and the footnotes having numbers 1, 2, 3, ....

Page 85, “Machine-made tools were unknown ...: either the closing quote mark is missing, or the opening quote mark was included erroneously.

Page 169: there is a footnote marker * on this page, but no footnote.

Page 179, paragraph starting When labor was only another name ... and related foot- and endotes: several quote marks appear to be lacking.

Page 180, Footnote 36: there probably should have been a closing quote mark after ... exercises of humanity.

Page 327, Endnote [E31]: there is no marker in the text for this note.

Page 400, Minnesota, Minn.: as printed in the source document; probably an error for Minneapolis, Minn.

Page 464, Zenophon: the text consistently uses Xenophon.

Changes:

Illustrations and footnotes have been moved out of text paragraphs.

Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently.

Table of Contents: Several page numbers have been corrected to the book’s actual page numbers.

Page 6, Endnote 1: closing quote mark inserted after ... principles of scientific education.

Page 13: closing quote mark inserted after ... be learned by doing them.

Page 58: ... accessaries, as anvils, ... changed to ... accessories, as anvils, ....

Page 77, Endnote 2: opening quote mark inserted before The inquiry of truth ....

Page 171: Maudslay, Clement Murray, Nasmyth changed to Maudslay, Clement, Murray, Nasmyth.

Page 194: Opening quote mark inserted before Applying our popular schemes ....

Page 257: Endnote marker numbering [E1] corrected to [E11] to conform to endnotes for this chapter.

Page 392, footnote [125]: Of the 51 cities tabulated ... changed to Of the 54 cities tabulated ....

Page 432: Chicago Manual Training School, equipment of: 341 changed to 347.