CHAPTER X

ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL

A. LICHENS AS FOOD.

_a._ FOOD FOR INSECTS, ETC. Some of the earlier botanists made careful observations on the important place occupied by lichens in nature as affording food to many small animals. In 1791 Jacques Brez[1226] wrote his _Flore des Insectophyles_, and in the list of food-plants he includes seven species of lichens. The “insects” that frequented these lichens were species of the genera _Acarus_ (mites) and _Phalena_ (moths). A few years later Persoon[1227] noted that lichens formed the main food supply of many insects, slugs, etc. Zukal[1228], quoting from Otto Wilde (_Die Pflanzen und Raupen Deutschlands_, Berlin, 1860), gives a list of caterpillars that are known to feed on and destroy lichens.

A very considerable number of small creatures feed eagerly on lichens, and traces of their depredations are constantly to be seen in the empty fruit discs, and in the cortices eaten away in patches so as to expose the white medulla. It has been argued by Zukal[1229] that the great formation of acid substances in lichens is for shielding them against the attacks of animals; Zopf[1230] on the contrary insists that these substances afford the plants no real protection. He made a series of experiments with snails, feeding them with slices of potato smeared with pure lichen acids. Many snails ate the slices with great readiness even when covered with bitter acids such as cetraric, or with those which are poisonous for other animals such as rhizocarpic and pinastrinic. The only acid they refused was vulpinic, which is said to be poisonous for vertebrates. The crystals of the acids passed unchanged through the alimentary canal of the snails, and were found in masses in the excreta. They were undissolved, but, enclosed in slime, their sharp edges did no damage to the digestive tract.

Stahl[1231] however upholds Zukal’s theory of the protective function of lichen acids against the attacks of small animals. Some few snails, caterpillars, etc., that are omnivorous feeders consume most lichens with impunity, and the bitter taste seems to attract rather than repel them; but many others he contends are certainly prevented from eating lichens by the presence of the acids. He proved this by soaking portions of the thalli of certain bitter species for about twenty-four hours in a one per cent. soda solution, which was sufficiently strong to extract the acids. He found that these treated specimens were in most cases preferred to fresh portions that had been simply moistened with water.

Even the omnivorous snail, _Helix hortensis_, was several times observed to touch the fresh thallus and then creep away, while it ate continuously the soda-washed portion as soon as it came into contact with it. Calcium Oxalate, on the other hand, formed no protection; omnivorous feeders ate indifferently calcicolous lichens such as _Aspicilia calcarea_ and _Lecanora saxicola_, whether treated with soda or not, but would only accept lichens with acid contents, such as _Parmelia caperata_, _Evernia prunastri_, etc., after they had been duly soaked.

Experiments were also made with wood-lice (_Oniscus murarius_), and with earwigs (_Forficula auricularia_), and the result was the same: they would only eat bitter lichens after the acids had been extracted by the soda method. Stahl therefore concludes that acids must be regarded as eminently adapted to protect lichens which otherwise, owing to their slowness of growth, would scarcely escape extinction.

The gelatinous Collemaceae, as also _Nostoc_, the alga with which these are associated, are unharmed by snails, etc., on account of their slippery consistency when moist, which prevents the creatures from getting a foothold on the thallus. These lichens however do not contain acids, and if, when dry, they are reduced to powder and then moistened, they are eagerly eaten both by snails and by wood-lice. _Peltigera canina_, on account of a disagreeable odour it acquires on being chewed, is avoided to a certain extent, but even so it is frequently found with much of the thallus eaten away.

Hue[1232] in his study of Antarctic lichens, comments on the abundance and perfect development of the lichens, especially the crustaceous species, which cover every inch of rock surface. He ascribes this to the absence of snails and insects which in other regions so seriously interfere with the normal and continuous growth of these plants.

Snails do not eat lichens when they are dry and hard, but on damp or dewy nights, and on rainy days, all kinds, both large and small, come out of their shells and devour the lichen thalli softened by moisture. Large slugs (_Limax_) have been seen devouring with great satisfaction _Pertusaria faginea_, a bitter crustaceous lichen. The same _Limax_ species eats many different lichens, some of them containing very bitter substances. Zopf[1233] observed that _Helix cingulata_ ate ten different lichens, containing as many different kinds of acid.

Other creatures such as mites, wood-lice, and the caterpillars of many butterflies live on lichens, though, with the exception of the caterpillars, they eat them only when moist. Very frequently the apothecial discs and the soredia are taken first as being evidently the choicest portions. All lichens are, however, not equally palatable. Bitter[1234] observed that the insect _Psocus_ (_Orthoptera_) had a distinct preference for certain species, and restricted its attention to them probably because of their chemical constitution. He noted that in a large spreading thallus of _Graphis elegans_ on holly, irregular bare spots appeared, due to the ravages of insects—probably _Psocus_. In other places, the thallus alone had been consumed, leaving the rather hard black fruits (lirellae) untouched. In time the thallus of _Thelotrema lepadinum_, also a crustaceous lichen, invaded the naked areas, and surrounded the _Graphis_ lirellae. The new comer was not to the taste of the insects and was left untouched.

Petch[1235] says that lichens form the staple food of _Termes monoceros_, the black termite of Ceylon. These ants really prefer algae, but as the supply is limited they fall back on lichens, though they only consume those of a particular type, or at a particular stage of development. Those with a tough smooth cortex are avoided, preference being given to thalli with a loose powdery surface. At the feeding ground the ants congregate on the suitable lichens. With their mandibles they scrape off small fragments of the thallus which they form into balls, varying in size from 1·5 mm. to 2·5 mm. in diameter. The workers then convey these to the nests in their mandibles. It would seem that they carry about these balls of food, and allow the ants busy in the nest to nibble off portions. Lichen balls are not used by termites as fungi are, for “gardens.”

Other observations have been made by Paulson and Thompson[1236] in their study of Epping Forest lichens: “Mites of the family Oribatidae must be reckoned among the chief foes of these plants upon which they feed, seeming to have a special predilection for the ripe fruits. We have had excellent specimens of _Physcia parietina_ spoiled by hidden mites of this family, which have eaten out the contents of the mature apothecia after the lichens have been gathered. One can sometimes see small flocks of the mites browsing upon the thallus of tree-dwelling lichens, like cattle in a meadow.” The Oribatidae, sometimes called beetle-mites, a family of Acarinae, are minute creatures familiar to microscopists. They live chiefly on or about mosses, but Michael[1237] is of opinion that a large number frequent these plants for the fungi and lichens which grow in and about the mosses. In Michael’s _Monograph of British Oribatidae_, four species are mentioned as true lichen-lovers, _Leiosoma palmicinetum_ found on _Peltigera canina_ and allied species; _Cepteus ocellatus_ and _Oribata parmeliae_ which live on _Physciae_, the latter exclusively on _Physcia_ (_Xanthoria_) _parietina_; and _Scutovertes maculatus_ which confines itself to lichens by the sea-shore. Another species, _Notaspis lucorum_, frequents maritime lichens, but it is also found on other substrata; while _Tegeocranus labyrinthicus_, though usually a lichen-eating species, lives either on mosses or on lichens on walls. Zopf[1238] reckoned twenty-nine species of lichens, mostly the larger foliose and fruticose kinds, that were eaten by mites. Lesdain[1239] in his observations on mite action notes that frequently the thallus round the base of the perithecia of _Verrucaria_ sp. was eaten clean away, leaving the perithecia solitary and extremely difficult to determine.

J. A. Wheldon[1240] found the eggs of a species of mite, _Tetranychus lapidus_, attached to the fruits of _Verrucaria calciseda_, _Lecidea immersa_ and _L. Metzleri_, calcicolous lichens of which the thallus not only burrows deep down into the limestone, but the fruits form in shallow excavated pits (Fig. 126). The eggs of this stone mite are found fairly frequently on exposed limestone rocks, bare of vegetation, except for a few crustaceous lichens. “There is usually a single egg, rarely two, in each pit apparently attached to the old lichen apothecium. The eggs are very attractive objects under a lens; they measure ·5 mm. in diameter, and are disc-like with a central circular depression from which numerous ridges radiate to the circumference, like the spokes of a wheel. When fresh, they have a white pearly lustre, becoming chalk-white when dry and old.” Wheldon’s observations were made in the Carnforth and Silverdale district of West Lancashire.

A minute organism, _Hymenobolina parasitica_[1241], first described by Zukal and doubtfully grouped among the mycetozoa, feeds, in the plasmodium stage, on living lichens. The parasitic habit is unlike that of true mycetozoa. It has recently been recorded from Aberdeenshire.

_b._ INSECT MIMICRY OF LICHENS. Paulson and Thompson[1242] give instances of moth caterpillars, which not only feed on lichens, but which take on the coloration of the lichens they affect, either in the larval or in the perfect moth stage. “One of the most remarkable examples of this protective resemblance to lichens is that of the larva of the geometrid moth, _Cleora lichenaria_, which feeds upon foliose lichens growing upon tree-trunks and palings, and being of a green-grey hue, and possessed of two little humps on many of their body-segments, they so exactly resemble the lichens in colour and appearance as to be extremely difficult of detection.” Several instances are recorded of moths that resemble the lichens on which they settle: perfect examples of such similarity are exhibited at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, where _Teras literana_, _Moma orion_, and other moths are shown at rest on lichen-covered bark from which they can hardly be distinguished.

Another curious instance of suggested mimicry is recorded by G.E. Stone[1243]. He spotted a number of bodies on the bark of some sickly elms in Massachusetts. They were about 1/8 of an inch in diameter “with a dark centre and a drab foliaceous margin.” They were principally lodged in the crevices of the bark and Stone collected them under the impression that they were the apothecia of a lichen most nearly resembling those of _Physcia hypoleuca_. Some of the bodies were even attached to the thallus of a species of _Physcia_; others were on the naked bark and had every appearance of lichen fruits. Only closer examination proved their insect nature, and they were identified as belonging to a species _Gossypina Ulmi_, an elm-leaf beetle common in Europe where it causes a disease of the tree. It had been imported into the United States and had attacked American elms.

It is stated by Tutt[1244] that the larvae of many of the Psychides (_Lepidoptera_) live on the lichens of trees and walls, such as _Candelaria concolor_, _Xanthoria parietina_, _Physcia pulverulenta_ and _Buellia canescens_, and that their larvae pupate on their feeding grounds. Each species makes a “case” peculiar to itself, but those of the lower families are usually covered externally with grains of sand, scraps of lichens, etc. The “case” of _Narcyria monilifera_, for instance, is somewhat raised on a flat base and is obscured with particles of sand and yellow lichen, giving the whole a yellow appearance. That of _Luffia lapidella_ is roughly conical and is held up at an angle of 30° to 45° when the larva moves. The “cases” of _Bacotia sepium_ are always upright; they measure about 5·5 mm. in height and 2·75 mm. in width and present a hoary appearance from the minute particles of lichen with which they are covered, so that the structure is not unlike the podetium of a _Cladonia_.

_c._ FOOD FOR THE HIGHER ANIMALS. It has been affirmed, especially by Henneguy, that many lichens, if deprived of the bitter principle they contain, by soaking in water, or with the addition of sodium or potassium carbonate, might be used with advantage as fodder for animals. He cites as examples of such, _Lobaria pulmonaria_, _Evernia prunastri_, _Ramalina fraxinea_, _R. farinacea_, and _R. fastigiata_, all of which grow abundantly on trees, and owe their nutritive quality to the presence of lichenin, a carbohydrate allied to starch.

_Cladonia rangiferina_ (Fig. 127), the well-known “reindeer moss,” is, however, the lichen of most economic importance, as food for reindeer, cattle, etc. It is a social plant and forms dense tufts and swards of slender, much branched, hollow stalks of a greenish-grey colour which may reach a height of twelve inches or even more; the stalks decay slowly at the base as they increase at the apex, so that very great length is never attained. In normal conditions they neither wither nor die, and growth continues indefinitely. It is comparatively rare in the northern or hilly regions of the British Isles, and is frequently confused with the somewhat smaller species _Cl. sylvatica_ which is very common on our moorlands, a species which Zopf[1245] tells us reindeer absolutely refuse to eat.

The true reindeer moss is abundant in northern countries, more especially in forest regions[1246] and in valleys between the tundra hills which are more or less sheltered from the high winds; it is independent of the substratum and flourishes equally on barren sand and on wet turf; but grows especially well on soil devastated by fire. For long periods it may be covered with snow without injury and the reindeer are accustomed to dig down with horns and hoofs in order to reach their favourite food. Though always considered as peculiarly “reindeer” moss, deer, roebuck and other wild animals, such as Lemming rats[1247], feed on it largely during the winter. In some northern districts it is collected and stored as fodder for domestic cattle; hot water is poured over it and it is then mixed with straw and sprinkled with a little salt. Johnson[1248] has reported that the richness of the milk yielded by the small cows of Northern Scandinavia is attributed by some to their feeding in great measure on the “reindeer moss.”

When _Cladonia rangiferina_ is scarce, a few other lichens[1249] are made use of, _Alectoria jubata_, a brownish-black filamentous tree-lichen being one of the most frequent substitutes. _Stereocaulon paschale_, which grows in large dense tufts on the ground in mountainous regions, is also eaten by reindeer and other animals; and Iceland moss, _Cetraria islandica_, is stored up in large quantities by the Icelanders and used as fodder. Willemet[1250] reports it as good for horses, oxen, cows and pigs.

It is interesting to recall a discovery of prehistoric remains at the Abbey of Schussenried on the Lake of Constance and described by F. Keller[1251]: under successive beds of peat and crumbly tufa, there was found a layer, 3 feet thick, containing flints, horns of reindeer and bones of various animals, and, along with these, masses of reindeer moss; a sufficient proof of its antiquity as a fodder-plant.

_d._ FOOD FOR MAN. Lichens contain no true starch nor cellulose, but the lichenin present in the cell-walls of the hyphae has long been utilized as a food substance. It is peculiarly abundant in _Cetraria islandica_ (Fig. 128), which grows in northern countries, covering great stretches of ground with its upright strap-shaped branching fronds of varying shades of brown. In more southern lands it is to be found on high hills or on upland moors, but in much smaller quantities. Commercial “Iceland moss” is supplied from Sweden, Norway or Iceland. In the last-named country the inhabitants harvest the lichen preferably from bare stony soil where there is no admixture of other vegetation. They revisit the locality at intervals of three years, the time required for the lichen to grow to a profitable size; and they select the wet season for the ingathering of the plants as they are more easily detached when they are wet. If the weather should be dry, they collect it during the night. When gathered it is cleansed from foreign matter and washed in water to remove as much as possible of the bitter principle. It is then dried and reduced to powder. When required, the powder is put to macerate in water for 24 hours, or it is soaked in a weak solution of soda or of carbonate of potassium, by which means the bitter cetraric acid is nearly all eliminated. When boiled[1252] it yields a jelly which forms the basis of various light and easily digested soups or of other delicacies prepared by boiling in milk, which have been proved to be valuable for dyspeptics or sufferers from chest diseases. The northern nations also make the powder into bread, porridge or gruel. Johnson[1253] states in his account of “Useful Plants” that considerable quantities of Iceland moss were formerly employed in the manufacture of sea biscuit, and that ship’s bread mixed with it was said to be less liable to the attacks of weevil than when made from wheat flour only.

An examination of the real food value of the mucilaginous extract from “Iceland moss” has been made by several workers. Church[1254] states that for one part of flesh formers, there are eight parts of heat-givers reckoned as starch. Brown[1255] isolated the two carbohydrates, lichenin and isolichenin. The former, a jelly which yields on hydrolysis a large quantity of a reducing sugar, dextrose, ferments with yeast and gives no phloroglucin reaction; it is unaffected by digestion and probably does not form glycogen. Iso-lichenin is much less abundant and resembles soluble starch, but on digestion yields only dextrins—no sugar. It may be concluded, judging from the chemical nature of the mucilage, from the resistance of its constituents to digestion and from the small amount present in the jelly, that its nutritive value is practically nil[1256].

It has been stated that “reindeer moss” in times of food scarcity is powdered and mixed with “Iceland moss” and rye to make bread in North Finland. Johnson confirms this and cites the evidence of a Dr Clarke that: “to our surprise we found we might eat of it with as much ease as of the heart of a fine lettuce. It tasted like wheat-bran, but after swallowing it, there remained in the throat and upon the palate a gentle heat, or sense of burning, as if a small quantity of pepper had been mixed with the lichen.”

The Egyptians[1257] have used _Evernia prunastri_, more rarely _E. furfuracea_, in baking. In the eighteenth century fermentative agents such as yeast were unknown to them, and these lichens, which were imported from more northern lands, were soaked in water for two hours and the solution then mixed with the flour to give a much appreciated flavour to the unleavened bread.

In India[1258] a species of _Parmelia_ (near to _P. perlata_) known in the Telegu language as “rathapu” or rock-flower has been used as a food, generally prepared as a curry, by the natives in the Bellary district (Madras Presidency), and is esteemed as a delicacy. It is also used medicinally. The collecting of rathapu is carried on during the hot weather in April and May, and forms a profitable business.

A note has been published by Calkins[1259], on the authority of a correspondent in Japan, that large quantities of _Endocarpon_ (_Dermatocarpon_) _miniatum_ (Fig. 56) are collected in the mountains of that country for culinary purposes, and largely exported to China as an article of luxury. The local name is “iwataka,” meaning stone-mushroom. Properly prepared it resembles tripe. It is possibly the same lichen under a different name, _Gyrophora esculenta_, which is described by Manabu Miyoshi[1260] as of great food value in Japan where it is known as “iwatake.” It is a greyish-brown leathery “monophyllous” plant of somewhat circular outline and fairly large size, measuring 3 to 13 cm. across. Fertile specimens are rare, and are smaller than the sterile. It grows generally on the steep declivities of damp granitic rocks and is common in various districts of Japan, being especially abundant on such mountains as Kiso, Nikko, Kimano, etc. The face of the precipices is often thickly covered with the lichen growth. The inhabitants collect the plants in large quantities. They dry them and send them to the towns, where they are sold in all vegetable stores; some are even exported to other countries. These lichens are not bitter to the taste, nor are they irritating as are other species of the genus. They are on the contrary quite harmless and are much relished by the Japanese on account of their agreeable flavour, in spite of their being somewhat indigestible. Though only determined scientifically in recent times, this edible lichen has long been known, and the risks attending its collection have frequently been described in Old Chinese and Japanese writings.

Other species of _Gyrophora_ including _G. polyrhiza_ (Fig. 129) and _Umbilicaria_, black leathery lichens which grow on rocks in northern regions, have also been used as food. They are the “Tripe de Roche” or Rock Tripe of Arctic regions, a name given to the plants by Canadian fur-hunters. They have been eaten by travellers and others in desperate straits for food; but though to a certain extent nutritious, they are bitter and nauseous, and cause severe internal irritation if the bitter acids are not first extracted by boiling or soaking.

Of more historical interest is the desert lichen _Lecanora esculenta_, supposed to be the manna[1261] of the Israelites, and still called “bread from heaven.” Eversmann[1262] wrote an account of its occurrence and qualities, and fuller information was given by Berkeley[1263]: when mixed with meal to a third of its weight it is made into bread and eaten by the desert tribes. It grows abundantly in North Africa and in many parts of Western Asia, on the rocks or on soil. It is easily broken off and driven into heaps by the wind; and has been reported as covering the soil to a depth of 15 cm. to 20 cm. with irregular contorted lumps varying in size from a pea to a small nut (Fig. 130). Externally these are clear brown or whitish; the interior is white, and consists of branching interlaced hyphae, with masses of calcium oxalate crystals, averaging about 60 per cent. or more of the whole substance.

A still more exhaustive account is given by Visiani[1264], who quotes the experience of a certain General Jussuf, who had tested its value in the Sahara as food for his soldiers. When bread was made from the lichen alone it was friable and without consistency; when mixed with a tenth portion of meal it was similar to the soldiers’ ordinary bread, and had something of the same taste. The General also gave it as fodder to the horses, some of them being nourished with the lichen and a mixture of barley for three weeks without showing any ill effects. It is also said that camels, gazelles and other quadrupeds eat it with advantage, though it is in any case a very defective food.

A remarkable deposit of the lichen occurred in recent times in Mesopotamia during a violent storm of hail. After the hail had melted, the ground was seen to be covered, and specimens were sent to Errera[1265] for examination. He identified it as _Lecanora esculenta_. In his opinion two kinds of manna are alluded to in the Bible: in one case (Exodus xvi.) it is the sweet gum exuded from the tamarisk that is described; the other kind (Numbers xi.), he thinks, plainly refers to the lichen. He considers that its nutritive value must be very low, and it can only be valued as food in times of famine.

B. LICHENS AS MEDICINE

_a._ ANCIENT REMEDIES. An interesting note has been published by Müller-Argau[1266] which seems to trace back the medicinal use of lichens to a very remote age. He tells us that Dr Schweinfurth, the distinguished traveller, who made a journey through the valley of the Nile in 1864, sent to him from Cairo a piece of lichen thallus found in a vase along with berries of _Juniperus excelsa_ and of _Sapindus_, with some other undetermined seeds. The vase dated from the 18th Dynasty (1700 to 1600 B.C.), and the plants contained in it must thus have lain undisturbed over 3000 years. The broken pieces of the lichen thallus were fairly well preserved; they were extremely soft and yellowish-white and almost entirely decorticate, but on the under surfaces there remained a few black patches, which, on microscopical examination, enabled Müller to identify them as scraps of _Evernia furfuracea_. This lichen does not grow in Egypt, but it is still sold there along with _Cetraria islandica_ and some other lichens as foreign drugs. Dr Schweinfurth considered his discovery important as proving the use of foreign remedies by the ancient Egyptians.

_b._ DOCTRINE OF “SIGNATURES.” In the fifteenth century A.D. there was in the study and treatment of disease a constant attempt to follow the guidance of nature. It was believed that Providence had scattered here and there on plants “signatures,” or resemblances more or less vague to parts of the human body, or to the diseases to which man is subject, thus indicating the appropriate specific.

Lichens among other plants in which any “signature” could be detected or imagined were therefore constantly prescribed: the long filaments of _Usnea barbata_ were used to strengthen the hair; _Lobaria pulmonaria_, the true lung-wort, with its pitted reticulate surface (Fig. 72), was marked as a suitable remedy for lung troubles; _Xanthoria parietina_ being a yellow lichen was supposed to cure jaundice, and _Peltigera aphthosa_, the thallus of which is dotted with small wart-like tubercles[1267], was recommended for children who suffered from the “thrush” eruption.

The doctrine reached the height of absurdity in the extravagant value set on a lichen found growing on human skulls, “Muscus cranii humani” or “Muscus ex cranio humano.” There are a number of lichens that grow indifferently on a variety of substances, and not infrequently on bones lying in the open. This skull lichen[1268], _Parmelia saxatilis_ (Fig. 131) or some other, was supposed to be worth its weight in gold as a cure for epilepsy. Parkinson[1269] tells us in all confidence “it groweth upon the bare scalps of men and women that have lyen long ... in former times much accounted of because it is rare and hardly gotten, but in our own times much more set by, to make the ‘Unguentum Sympatheticum’ which cureth wounds without the local application of salves ... but as Crollius hath it, it should be taken from the sculls of those that have been hanged or executed for offences.” Ray[1270] says that the same gruesome plant “is celebrated by several authors as useful in haemorrhages and is said to be an ingredient of the famous ‘Unguentum Armarium[1271],’ reported to have been invented by Paracelsus.” Another lost ointment!

_c._ CURE FOR HYDROPHOBIA. Still another lichen to which extraordinary virtue was ascribed, was the very common ground species _Peltigera canina_ (Fig. 54), a preparation of which was used in the cure of rabies. Dillenius[1272] has published in full the prescription as “A certain Cure for the Bite of a Mad Dog” which was given to him by a very celebrated physician of that day, Dr Richard Mead, who had found it effective:

“Let the patient be blooded at the arm, nine or ten ounces. Take of the herb called in Latin _Lichen cinereus terrestris_, in English Ash-coloured ground liverwort, clean’d, dry’d and powder’d half an ounce. Of black pepper powder’d two drachms.

“Mix these well together and divide the Powder into four Doses, one of which must be taken every Morning, fasting, for four Mornings successively in half a Pint of Cow’s Milk warm. After these four Doses are taken, the Patient must go into the cold bath, or a cold Spring or River, every Morning fasting, for a Month. He must be dipt all over but not stay in (with his head above water) longer than half a minute, if the Water be very cold. After this he must go in three Times a Week for a Fortnight longer.”

Lightfoot[1273], some forty years later, refers to this medicine as “the once celebrated ‘Pulvis antilyssus,’ much recommended by the great Dr Mead.” He adds that “it is much to be lamented that the success of this medicine has not always answered the expectation. There are instances where the application has not prevented the Hydrophobia, and it is very uncertain whether it has been at all instrumental in keeping off that disorder.” Belief in the efficacy of the powder died out before the end of the century but the echo of the famous remedy remains in the name _Peltigera canina_, the dog lichen.

_d._ POPULAR REMEDIES. Lichens with very few exceptions are non-poisonous plants. They owed their repute as curative herbs to the presence in the thallus of lichenin and of some bitter or astringent substances, which, in various ailments, proved of real service to the patient, though they have now been discarded in favour of more effective drugs. Some of them, on account of their bitter taste, were frequently used as tonics to replace quinine in attacks of fever. Several species of _Pertusaria_, such as the bitter _P. amara_ (Fig. 132), and of _Cladonia_ as well as _Cetraria islandica_ (Fig. 128), were recommended in cases of intermittent fever; species of _Usnea_ and others, as for instance _Evernia furfuracea_, were used as astringents in haemorrhages; others were given for coughs, _Cladonia pyxidata_ (Fig. 69) being supposed to be specially valuable in whooping cough.

One of the most frequently prescribed lichens was the tree lung-wort (Lobaria pulmonaria) (Fig. 72). It was first included among medical plants by Dorstenius[1274], a Professor at Marburg; he gives a good figure and supplies directions for its preparation as a cure for chest complaints. The doctrine of “signatures” influenced practitioners in its favour, but it contains lichenin which acts as an emollient. In England, it was taken up by the famous Dr Culpepper[1275], who, however, believed in astrology even more than in signatures. He says: “it is of great use with many physicians to help the diseases of the lungs and for coughs, wheesings and shortness of breath which it cureth both in man and beast.” He adds that “Jupiter seems to own the herb.” A century later we find Dr John Hill[1276], who was a physician as well as a naturalist, stating that the great tree lung-wort has been at all times famous in diseases of the breast and lungs, but by that time “it was not much used owing to change in fashions.”

The only lichen that has stood the test of time and experience as a real remedy is _Cetraria islandica_, and even the “Iceland moss” is now rarely prescribed. The first mention in literature of this famous plant occurs in Cordus[1277] as the _Muscus_ with crisp leaves. Some years later it figures among the medicinal plants in Sibbald’s[1278] _Chronicle of the Scottish Flora_, and Ray[1279] wrote of it about the same time as being known for its curative and alimentary properties. It was Linnaeus[1280], and later Scopoli[1281], who gave it the important place it held so long in medicine. It has been used with advantage in many chronic affections as an emollient and tonic. Cramer[1282] in a lengthy dissertation gathered together the facts pertaining to its use as a food, a medicine and for dyeing, and he gives recipes he had himself prescribed with marked success in many different maladies. It has been said that if “Iceland moss” accomplished all the good it was alleged to do, it was indeed a “Divine gift to man.”

The physiological action of cetrarin (acid principle of the lichen) on living creatures has been studied by Kobert[1283] and his pupils. It has not any poisonous effect when injected into the blood, nor does it work any harm when taken into the stomach even of small animals, so that it may be safely given to the most delicate patients. Nearly always after small doses peristaltic movements in the intestines are induced which indicate that as a drug it might be of service in the case of enfeebled organs. In larger doses it may cause collapse in animals, but if administered as free cetraric acid it passes through the stomach unchanged to become slowly and completely dissolved in the intestine. The mucous membrane of the intestine of animals that had been treated with an overdose, was found to be richer in blood so that it seems as if cetrarin might be of service in chlorosis and in assisting digestion.

Cetrarin has also been proved to be a nerve excitant which might be used with advantage in mental maladies.

C. LICHENS AS POISONS

Though the acid substances of lichens are most of them extremely irritating when taken internally, very few lichens are poisonous. Keegan[1284] writing on this subject considers this quality of comparative innocuousness as a distinctive difference between fungi and lichens and he decides that it proves the latter to be higher organisms from a physiological point of view: “the colouring matters being true products of deassimilation, whereas those of fungi are decomposition or degradation waste products of the albuminoids akin to alkaloids.”

The two outstanding exceptions to this general statement are the two Alpine species _Letharia vulpina_ and _Cetraria pinastri_. The former contains vulpinic acid in the cortical cells, the crystals of which are lemon-yellow in the mass. _Cetraria pinastri_ produces pinastrinic acid in the hyphae of the medulla and the crystals are a beautiful orange or golden yellow.

These lichens, more especially _Letharia vulpina_, have been used by Northern peoples to poison wolves. Dead carcasses are stuffed with a mixture of lichen and powdered glass and exposed in the haunts of wolves in time of frost. Henneguy[1285], who insists on the non-poisonous character of all lichens, asserts that the broken glass is the fatal ingredient in the mixture, but Kobert[1286], who has proved the poisonous nature of vulpinic acid, says that the wounds caused by the glass render the internal organs extremely sensitive to the action of the lichen.

Kobert, Neubert[1287] and others have recorded the results of experiments on living animals with these poisons. They find that _Letharia vulpina_ either powdered or in solution has an exciting effect on the mucous membrane. Elementary organisms treated with a solution of the lichen succumbed more quickly than in a solution of the acid as a salt. Kobert concluded that vulpinic acid is a poison of protoplasm.

He further tested the effect of the poison on both cold- and warm-blooded animals. Administered as a sodium salt, 4 mg. proved fatal to frogs. The effect on warm-blooded animals was similar. A sodium salt, whether swallowed or administered as subcutaneous or intravenous injections, was poisonous. Cats were the most sensitive—hedgehogs the least—of all the animals that were subjected to the experiments. Volkard’s[1288] synthetic preparation of vulpinic acid gave the same results as the solution directly extracted from the lichens.

D. LICHENS USED IN TANNING, BREWING AND DISTILLING

The astringent property in _Cetraria islandica_ and in _Lobaria pulmonaria_ has been made use of in tanning leather. The latter lichen grows commonly on oak and could hardly be gathered in sufficient quantity to be of commercial importance. Like many other lichens it develops very slowly. _Lobaria pulmonaria_ has also been used to replace hops in the brewing of beer. Gmelin[1289] in his journey through Siberia visited a monastery at Ussolka where the monks employed it for this purpose. The beer tasted exactly like that made with hops, but was more intoxicating. The lichen in that country grew on pine-trees.

Lichens have in more modern times been used in the preparation of alcohol. The process of manufacture was discovered by Roy of Tonnerre, early in the nineteenth century, and was described by Léorier[1290]. It was further improved by Stenberg[1291], a Professor of Chemistry in Stockholm. Roy had worked with _Physcia ciliaris_, _Ramalina fraxinea_, _R. fastigiata_, _R. farinacea_ and _Usnea florida_, but Stenberg and distillers after his time[1292] made more use of _Cladonia rangiferina_ (Fig. 127), _Cetraria islandica_ (Fig. 128) and _Alectoria jubata_.

By treatment with weak sulphuric or nitric acid the lichenin of the thallus is transformed into glucose which on fermentation forms alcohol. Stenberg found that 68 per cent. of the weight in _Cladonia rangiferina_ was a “sugar” from which a good brandy could be prepared: a kilogramme of the lichens furnished half a litre of alcohol. The Professor followed up his researches by establishing a distillery near Stockholm. His papers contain full instructions as to collecting and preparing the plants. Henneguy[1293], writing in 1883, stated that the fabrication of alcohol from lichens was then a large and increasing industry in Sweden. The whole industry seems, however, to have fallen into disuse very soon: Wainio[1294], quoting Hellbom[1295], states that the various distilleries were already closed in 1884, because of the exhaustion of the lichen in the neighbourhood, and the impossibility of obtaining sufficient supplies of such slow-growing plants.

E. DYEING PROPERTIES OF LICHENS

_a._ LICHENS AS DYE-PLANTS. Knowledge as to the dyeing properties of lichens dates back to a remote antiquity. It has been generally accepted that lichen-colours are indicated by the prophet Ezekiel in his denunciation of Tyre: “blue and purple from the Isles of Elishah was that which covered thee.” Theophrastus describes certain plants as growing in Crete, and being used to dye wool, etc., and Pliny in his _Phycos Thalassion_ is also understood as referring to the lichen _Roccella_, “with crisp leaves, used in Crete for dyeing garments.”

Information as to the dyeing properties of certain lichens is given in most of the books or papers dealing with these plants from the herbals onwards. Hoffmann[1296] devoted a large part of his _Commentatio de vario Lichenum usu_ to the dye-lichens, and, illustrating his work, are a series of small rectangular coloured blocks representing samples of woollen cloth dyed with different lichens. There are seventy-seven of these samples with the colour names used by French dyers.

An important treatise on the subject translated into French was also contributed by Westring[1297]. He desired to draw attention to the tinctorial properties of lichens other than the _Roccellae_ which do not grow in Sweden. The Swedes, he states, already used four to six lichens as dye-plants, but only for one colour. He demonstrated by his improved methods that other colours and of finer tint could be obtained. He describes the best methods both of extraction and of dyeing, and then follows with an account of the different lichens likely to be of service. The treatise was subsequently published at greater length in Swedish[1298] with twenty-four very fine coloured illustrations of the lichens used, and with sample blocks of the colours to be obtained.

_b._ THE ORCHIL LICHEN, ROCCELLA. The value of _Roccella_ as a dye-plant had been lost sight of until it was accidentally rediscovered, early in the fourteenth century, by a Florentine merchant called Federigo. He introduced its use into Florence, and as he retained the industry in his own hands he made a large fortune, and founded the family of the Orcellarii, called later the Rucellarii or Rucellai, hence the botanical name, _Roccella_. The product was called _orseille_ for which the English name is orchil or archil. Another origin suggested for orchil is the Spanish name of the plant, _Orcigilia_. There are a number of different species that vary in the amount of dye-product. Most of them grow on rocks by the sea-side in crowded bluish-grey or whitish tufts of strap-shaped or rounded stiff narrow fronds varying in length up to about six inches or more. The main supply of “weeds” came from the Levant until the fifteenth century when supplies were obtained from the Canaries (long considered to produce the best varieties), Cape Verd and the African coasts. The geographical distribution of the _Roccellae_ is very wide: they grow on warm sea-coasts all over the globe, more particularly in Angola, the Cape, Mozambique, Madagascar, in Asia, in Australia, and in Chili and Peru.

Zopf[1299] has proved the existence of two different colouring substances among the Roccellas: in _R. fuciformis_ (Fig. 57) and _R. fucoides_ (both British species), in _R. Montagnei_ and _R. peruensis_ the acid present is erythrin; in _R. tinctoria_, _R. portentosa_ and _R. sinuensis_ it is lecanoric acid. In _R. tinctoria_ (Fig. 133), according to Ronceray[1300], the acid is located chiefly in the gonidial layer and the soredia but is absent from the cortex and centre. In _R. portentosa_ it is abundant in the cortex and central layer, while scarcely to be detected in the gonidial layer, and it is wanting altogether in the soredia. In _R. Montagnei_ it is chiefly found in the cortex and the gonidial layer, and is absent from the soredia and from the medulla.

_c._ PURPLE DYES: ORCHIL, CUDBEAR AND LITMUS. Orseille or orchil is formed not only from erythrin and lecanoric acid (orseillic acid), but also from erythrinic, gyrophoric, evernic and ramalic acids[1301] and may be obtained from any lichen containing these substances. By the action of ammonia the acids are split up into orcin and carbonic acid. In time, under the influence of ammonia and the oxygen of the air[1302], orcin becomes orcein which is the colouring principle of orchil; the perfecting of the process may take a month. The dye is used for animal fibres such as wool and silk; it has no effect on cotton.

There are several different preparations on the market, chiefly obtained from France and Holland; orchil or orseille in the form of a solution, cudbear (persio of Germany) almost the same, but manufactured into a violet-reddish powder, and litmus (tournesol of France) which is prepared in a slightly different manner. At one time the lichen, broken into small pieces, was soaked in urine; a fermentation process was set up, then lime and potash with an admixture of alum were added. The mass of material when ready was pressed into cubes and dried in the air. Commercial litmus contains three substances, erythrolein, erythrolitmin and azolitmin; the last named, which is the true litmus, is a dark brown amorphous powder soluble in water, and forming a blue solution with alkalies.

An aqueous solution of litmus when exactly neutralized by an acid is violet coloured; it becomes red with the smallest trace of free acid, or blue with free alkali. Litmus paper is prepared by steeping specially prepared unsized paper in the dye solution. It is as a ready and sensitive indicator of acidity or alkalinity that litmus is of so much value. According to Zopf[1303] it is also used as a blueing agent in washing and as a colouring of wine. Litmus is chiefly manufactured in Holland. Still another substance somewhat differently prepared from the same lichens is sold as French purple, a more brilliant and durable colour than orchil.

_d._ OTHER ORCHIL LICHENS. Though species of _Roccella_ rank first in importance as dye-plants, purple and blue colours are obtained, as indicated above, from other very different lichens. Lindsay[1304] extracted orchil from about twenty species. Those most in use in northern countries are on the whole less rich in colouring substances; they are: _Umbilicaria pustulata_, species of _Gyrophora_, _Parmelia_ and _Pertusaria_, and above all _Lecanora tartarea_ (Fig. 134). The last named, one of the hardiest and most abundant of rock- or soil-lichens, is chiefly used in Scotland and Sweden (hence the name “Swedish moss”) to furnish a red or crimson dye. In Scotland all dye-lichens are called “crottles,” but the term “cudbear” was given to _Lecanora tartarea_ (either the lichen or the dye-product); it was acquired from a corrupt pronunciation of the Christian name of Dr Cuthbert Gordon, a chemist, who, according to Bohler[1305], obtained a patent for his process of producing the dye, or who first employed it on a great scale in Glasgow. Johnson[1306] remarks that the colour yielded by cudbear, if well prepared, is a fine, clear, but not very bright purple. It is, he alleges, not permanent. Like other orchil substances it is without effect on cotton or linen.

_e._ PREPARATION OF ORCHIL. A general mode of treatment of dye-lichens recommended by Lauder Lindsay[1307] for home production of orchil, cudbear and litmus is as follows:

1. Careful washing, drying and cleansing to separate earthy and other impurities.

2. Pulverization into a coarse or fine pulp with water.

3. Repeated addition of ammoniacal liquor of a certain strength, obtainable from several sources (_e.g._ putrid urine, gas liquor, etc.).

4. Frequent stirring of the fermenting mass so as to ensure full exposure of every part thereof to the action of atmospheric oxygen.

5. Addition of alkalies in some cases (_e.g._ potash or soda), to heighten or modify colour; and of chalk, gypsum and other substances to impart consistence.

_f._ BROWN AND YELLOW DYES. The extracting of these colours from lichens is also a very old industry. Linnaeus found during his journey to Lappland[1308], undertaken when he was quite a young man, that the women in the northern countries made use of a brown lichen for dyeing which is evidently _Parmelia omphalodes_ (Fig. 135). He describes it as a “rich _Lichenoides_ of a brown stercoraceous colour,” and he has stated that it grew in such abundance in the Island of Aland, that every stone was covered, especially near the sea. In the _Plantae tinctoriae_[1309] there is a record of six other lichens used for dyeing: _Lichen Roccella_, _L. tartareus_, _L. saxatilis_, _L. juniperinus_, _L. parietinus_ and _L. candelarius_. The value of _Lichen omphalodes_ was also emphasized by Lightfoot; the women of Scotland evidently appreciated its dyeing properties as much as other northern peoples.

A series of memoirs on the utility of lichens written by Willemet[1310], Amoreux and Hoffmann, and jointly published at Lyons towards the end of the eighteenth century, represents the views as to the economic value of lichens held by scientific botanists of that time. All of them cite the various dye-species, and Hoffmann, as already stated, gives illustrations of colours that can be obtained. It has been once and again affirmed that _Parmelia saxatilis_ yields a red colour, but Zopf[1311] denies this. It contains saxatillic acid which is colourless when extracted but on boiling gives a clear reddish-yellow to reddish-brown solution which dyes wool and silk directly without the aid of a mordant. Zopf[1311] observed the process of dyeing followed in South Tyrol: a layer of the lichen was placed in a cooking pot, above this a layer of the material to be dyed, then lichen and again the material until the pot was filled. It was covered with water and boiled three to four hours, resulting in a beautiful rust-brown and peculiarly fast dye.

Reddish- or rust-brown dye is also obtained from _Haematomma ventosum_ and _H. coccineum_, a yellow-brown from _Parmelia conspersa_ (salazinic acid), and other shades of brown from _Parmelia perlata_, _P. physodes_, _Lobaria pulmonaria_ and _Cetraria islandica_.

Yellow lichens in general furnish yellow dyes, as for instance _Xanthoria parietina_ which gives either brown or yellow according to treatment and _Cetraria juniperina_ which forms a beautiful yellow colouring substance on boiling. _Teloschistes flavicans_ and _Letharia vulpina_ yield very similar yellow dyes, and from _Lecanora parella_ (Fig. 39), _Pertusaria melaleuca_ and _Usnea barbata_ yellow colours have been obtained. _Candelariella vitellina_ and _Xanthoria lychnea_ both contain yellow colouring agents and have been employed by the Swedes for dyeing the candles used in religious ceremonies.

_g._ COLLECTING OF DYE-LICHENS. Lauder Lindsay[1312] made exhaustive studies of dye-lichens both in the field and in the laboratory, and recorded results he obtained from the micro-chemical examination of 540 different specimens. He sought to revive and encourage the use of their beautiful colour products among country people; he has given the following practical hints to collectors:

1. That crustaceous dwarf pale-coloured species growing on rocks, and especially on sea-coasts, are most likely to yield red and purple dyes similar to orchil, cudbear or litmus; while on the other hand the largest, most handsome foliaceous or fruticose species are least likely.

2. That the colour of the thallus is no indication of colorific power (in orchil lichens), inasmuch as the red or purple colouring substances are the result of chemical action on crystalline colorific “principles” previously devoid of colour.

3. That alterations in physical characters, chemical composition and consequently in dyeing properties are very liable to be produced by modification in the following external circumstances:

(i) Degree of moisture. (ii) Degree of heat. (iii) Degree of exposure to light and air. (iv) Climate. (v) Elevation above the sea. (vi) Habitat; nature of basis of support. (vii) Age. (viii) Seasons and atmospheric vicissitudes, etc.

August has been recommended as the best month for collecting dye-lichens: _i.e._ just after the season of greatest light and heat when the accumulation of acids will be at its maximum.

Some of the acids found useful in dyeing occur in the thalli of a large number of lichens, many of which are too scantily developed to be of any economic value. Thus salazinic acid which gives the effective yellow-brown dye in _Parmelia conspersa_ was found by Zopf in 13 species and varieties. It has since been located by Lettau[1313] in 72 different lichens, many of them, however, with poorly developed or scanty thalli, so that no technical use can be made of them.

_h._ LICHEN COLOURS AND SPECTRUM CHARACTERS. In a comparative study of vegetable colouring substances, Sorby[1314] extracted yellow colouring matters from various plants distinguished by certain spectrum characters. He called them the “lichenoxanthine group” because, as he explains, “these xanthines occur in a more marked manner in lichens than in plants having true leaves and fronds.” Orange lichenoxanthine he found in _Peltigera canina_, _Platysma glaucum_, etc., when growing well exposed to the sun. Lichenoxanthine he obtained from the fungus _Clavaria fusiformis_; it was difficult to separate from orange lichenoxanthine. Yet another, which he terms yellow lichenoxanthine, he obtained most readily from _Physcia_ (_Xanthoria_) _parietina_. The solutions of these substances vary according to Sorby in giving a slightly different kind of spectrum. He did not experiment on their dyeing properties.

F. LICHENS IN PERFUMERY

_a._ LICHENS AS PERFUMES. There are a few lichens that find a place in Gerard’s[1315] _Herball_ and that are praised by him as being serviceable to man. Among others he writes of a “Moss that partakes of the bark of which it is engendered. It is to be used in compositions which serve for sweet perfumes and that take away wearisomeness.” At a much later date we find Amoreux[1316] recording the fact that _Lichen_ (_Evernia_) _prunastri_, known as “Mousse de Chêne,” was used as a perfume plant.

Though lichens are not parasitic, the idea that they owed something of their quality to the substratum was firmly held by the old herbalists. It appears again and again in the descriptions of medicinal lichens, and still persists in this matter of perfumes. Hue[1317] states in some notes to a larger work, that French perfumers extract an excellent perfume from _Evernia prunastri_ (Fig. 59) known as “Mousse des Chênes” (Oak moss), and it appears that the plants which grow on oak contain more perfume than those which live on other trees. The collectors often gather along with _Evernia prunastri_ other species such as _Ramalina calicaris_ and _R. fraxinea_, but these possess little if any scent. A still finer perfume is extracted[1318] from _Lobaria pulmonaria_ called “moss from the base of the oaks,” but as it is a rarer lichen than _Evernia_ it is less used. Most of the Stictaceae, to which family _Lobaria_ belongs, have a somewhat disagreeable odour, but this one forms a remarkable exception, which can be tested by macerating the thallus and soaking it in spirit: it will then be found to exhale a pleasant and very persistent scent. These lichens are not, however, used alone; they are combined with other substances in the composition of much appreciated perfumes. The thallus possesses also the power of retaining scent and, for this reason, lichens frequently form an ingredient of potpourri.

_b._ LICHENS AS HAIR-POWDER. In the days of white-powdered hair, use was occasionally made of _Ramalina calicaris_ which was ground down and substituted for the starch that was more commonly employed.

In older books on lichenology constant reference is made to a hair-powder called “Pulvis Cyprius” or “Cyprus powder” and very celebrated in the seventeenth century. It was believed to beautify and cleanse the hair by removing scurf, etc. _Evernia prunastri_ was one of the chief ingredients of the powder, but it might be replaced by _Physcia ciliaris_ or by _Usnea_. The virtue of the lichens lay in their capacity to absorb and retain perfume. The powder was for long manufactured at Montpellier and was a valuable monopoly. Its composition was kept secret, but Bauhin[1319] (J.) published an account of the ingredients and how to mix them. Under the title “Pulvis Cyprius Pretiosius” a more detailed recipe of the famous powder was given by Zwelser[1320], a Palatine medical doctor. The lichen employed in his preparation, as in Bauhin’s, is _Usnea_, but that may include both _Evernia_ and _Physcia_ as they are all tree plants. He gives elaborate directions as to the cleaning of the lichen from all impurities—it is to be beaten with a stick, washed repeatedly with limpid and pure water, placed in a linen cloth and dried in the sun till it is completely bleached and deprived of all odour and taste.

When well dried it was placed in a basket in alternate layers with freshly gathered, entire flowers of roses and jasmine (or flowers of orange and citrus when possible). The whole was compressed by a heavy weight, and each day the flowers were renewed until the “Usnea” was thoroughly impregnated with a very fragrant odour. It was then reduced to a fine powder and ready for other ingredients. To each pound should be added:

1-1/2 oz. powdered root of white Iris.

1-1/2 oz. of _Cyperus_ (a sedge).

1 scruple or half drachm of musk reduced to a pulp with fragrant spirit of roses.

1/2 drachm of ambergris dissolved in a scruple of genuine oil of roses, or oil of jasmine or oranges as may be preferred.

Zwelser adds:

“This most fragrant royal powder when sprinkled on the head invigorates by its remarkably pleasant odour; by its astringency and dryness it removes all impurities, and, since it operates with no viscosity nor sticks firmly either to skin or hair, it is easily removed from the hair of the head.”

G. SOME MINOR USES OF LICHENS

The possibility of extracting gum or mucilage from lichens was demonstrated by the Russian scientist, Professor Georgi[1321], and later by Amoreux[1322], the method employed being successive boiling of the plants. The larger foliose or fruticose forms were specially recommended.

At a later date, during the Napoleonic wars, the “ingenious Lord Dundonald[1323],” of great fame as an inventor, published an account of the extraction process and of the application of the gum to calico-printing, staining and manufacture of paper, dressing and stiffening silks. Lord Dundonald’s aim was to replace the gum Senegal, then a monopoly of the French, who were in possession of the Settlement of Senegambia. He took out a patent for his invention, but whether the gum was successfully used is not recorded.

According to Henneguy[1324], lichen mucilage, as a substitute for gum arabic, has been used at Lyons with advantage in the fabrication of dyed materials.

APPENDIX

POSTSCRIPT TO CHAPTER VII[1325]

In a remarkable paper on _The Symbiosis of Lichens_[1326], Dr A. Henry Church has presented a new and striking view of the origin and development of lichens: he has sought to link them up with other classes of vegetation that, in the great transmigration, passed from sea to land. As we know from his _Thalassiophyta[1327] and the subaerial transmigration_, he holds that primeval algae of advanced form and structure were left exposed on dry land by the gradually receding waters, and those that successfully adapted themselves to the changed conditions formed the basis of the land flora. A certain number of the algae lost their surface tissues containing chlorophyll and they had perforce to secure from other organic sources the necessary carbohydrates: they adopted a heterotrophic existence as saprophytic or parasitic fungi. Fungi are a backward race (deteriorated according to Dr Church) as regards their soma, but in number, distribution and variety of spore-production, they are eminently successful plants.

Lichens are similarly regarded by Dr Church as derived from stranded contemporaneous types of marine algae—crustaceous, foliose and fruticose, that had also lost their chlorophyll, but by taking into association green algal units of a lower grade they established a vicarious photosynthesis. But, to quote his own words[1328], “as the alga-lichen-fungus left the sea, so it remained: it might deteriorate, but it certainly never advanced, once the sea factors which produced it were eliminated, it simply stopped along these lines.”

And again[1329]: “Lichens thus present an interesting case of an algal race deteriorating along the lines of a heterotrophic existence, yet arrested, as it were, on the somatic down-grade, by the adoption of intrusive algal units of lower degree to subserve photosynthesis (much in the manner of the marine worm _Convoluta_). Thus arrested, they have been enabled to retain more definite expression of more deeply inherent factors of sea-weed habit and construction than any other race of fungi; though closely paralleled by such types as _Xylaria_ (Ascomycete) and _Clavaria_ (Basidiomycete), which have followed the full fungus progression as holosaprophytic on decaying plant residues.”

Dr Church’s theory is of vivid interest and might be convincing were there no possibility and no proof of advance within the symbiotic plant, but in numbers of crustaceous thalli, there is evident, by normal or abnormal[1330] development, the first advance to the formation of rudimentary squamules, a condition diagnosed as subsquamulose. “Deterioration” of the lichen plant—when it occurs owing to unfavourable conditions—is a reversion to the leprose early stage of the association; there is no evidence of reversion from fruticose or foliose to squamulose. A glance at the table of lichen phyla[1331] shows progression again and again from the crustaceous forms onwards. In such a phylum as Physciaceae (with colourless polarilocular spores) there is a clear example of a closely connected series; the different types of thallus—crustaceous, squamulose, foliose and fruticose—are all represented and form a natural sequence, being well delimited by the unusual form of the spore and by the presence of parietin in thallus or apothecium.

That there has been development seems absolutely certain, and that along the lines sketched in the chapter on phylogeny. Progress has been mainly in the thallus, but there has also been change and advance in the reproductive organs, more especially in the spores which in several families reach a size and septation unparalleled in fungi. That association with green algal cells stimulated the fungus to new development is the view taken of the lichen plant and emphasized in the present volume. But it seems more in accordance with the polyphyletic origin and recurring parallel development in the phyla that association began at the elementary crustaceous stage, and that the lichen soma was gradually evolved within what is after all a very limited and simple structure.

ADDENDUM

FOOTNOTE TO PAGE 404

E. M. Holmes[1332] has published recently an account of a substance which seems in some respects to answer to the description of manna (Exodus xvi.; Numbers xi.) more nearly than the generally accepted _Lecanora esculenta_. The information is quoted from Swann’s book: _Fighting the slave-hunters in Central Africa_. The author writes (p. 116): “I was shown a curious white substance similar to porridge. It was found early in the morning before the sun rose. On examination it was found to possess all the characteristics of the manna ... of the Israelites. In appearance it resembled coriander seed, was white in colour like hoar frost, sweet to the taste, melted in the sun and if kept over night was full of worms in the morning. It required to be baked if you intended to keep it for any length of time. It looked as if it was deposited on the ground in the night.” The writer has suggested that “the substance might be mushroom spawn as, on the spot where it melted tiny fungi sprung up the next night.” Swann’s statement has been confirmed by Dr Wareham, a medical missionary from the same district, who states, however, that it is of rare occurrence.

FOOTNOTES

[1] E. Acton (1909) has described a primitive lichen _Botrydina vulgaris_, in which there is no fruiting stage, and in which the fungus seems to show affinity with a Hyphomycete.

[2] Luyken 1809.

[3] Hornschuch 1819.

[4] Raab 1819.

[5] Dillenius 1741, p. 200.

[6] Wallroth 1825.

[7] Agardh 1820.

[8] See p. 27.

[9] Schwendener 1867.

[10] Fink 1913.

[11] Lindsay 1876.

[12] Nylander 1869.

[13] Crombie 1891.

[14] Nylander 1891.

[15] Crombie 1874.

[16] Crombie 1877.

[17] Crombie 1885.

[18] Fink 1913.

[19] Elfving 1913.

[20] Moreau 1918.

[21] Peirce 1898.

[22] French 1898.

[23] Morison 1699.

[24] Tournefort 1694 and 1700.

[25] Dillenius 1741.

[26] Krempelhuber 1867-1872.

[27] _Grete Herball_ 1526.

[28] Ruel 1536.

[29] Dorstenius 1540.

[30] Camerarius 1586.

[31] Tabernaemontanus 1590.

[32] L’Obel 1576.

[33] Dodoens 1583.

[34] Gerard 1597.

[35] Schwenckfeld 1600.

[36] Colonna 1606.

[37] Bauhin 1623, pp. 360-2.

[38] Parkinson 1640.

[39] How 1650.

[40] Merrett 1666.

[41] Plot 1686.

[42] Morison 1699.

[43] Ray 1670.

[44] Ray 1686.

[45] Ray 1690.

[46] Petiver 1695.

[47] Plukenet 1691-1696.

[48] Malpighi 1686.

[49] Porta 1688.

[50] Tournefort 1694.

[51] Tournefort 1700.

[52] Rupp 1718.

[53] Buxbaum 1721.

[54] Vaillant 1727.

[55] Dillenius 1724 and 1741.

[56] Micheli 1729.

[57] Dillenius 1719.

[58] See Druce and Vines 1907.

[59] Crombie 1880.

[60] Haller 1742.

[61] Linnaeus 1753.

[62] Schneider 1897.

[63] Hill 1751. Hill’s genus _Collema_ is _Nostoc_, etc.

[64] Hill 1760.

[65] Watson 1759.

[66] Scopoli 1760.

[67] Adanson 1763.

[68] Hudson 1762 and 1778.

[69] Withering 1776.

[70] Lightfoot 1777.

[71] Dickson 1785.

[72] Weber 1780.

[73] Sibthorp 1794.

[74] Relhan 1785 and 1820.

[75] Smith 1790.

[76] Hoffmann 1798.

[77] Persoon 1794.

[78] Buxbaum 1728.

[79] Petiver 1712.

[80] Sloane 1796 and 1807.

[81] Swartz 1788 and 1791.

[82] Desfontaines 1798-1800.

[83] Georgi 1797.

[84] Willomet, etc. 1787.

[85] Acharius 1798.

[86] Acharius 1803.

[87] Acharius 1810.

[88] Acharius 1814.

[89] Hue 1908.

[90] De Candolle 1805.

[91] Flörke 1815-1819.

[92] Davies 1813.

[93] Forster 1816.

[94] S. F. Gray 1821.

[95] Carrington 1870.

[96] See _List of the Books_, etc. by John Edward Gray, p. 3, 1872.

[97] Hooker 1821.

[98] Hooker 1831.

[99] Greville 1823-1827.

[100] Greville 1824.

[101] Hooker 1833.

[102] Taylor 1836.

[103] Fries 1831.

[104] Fée 1824.

[105] Flörke 1828.

[106] Wallroth 1829.

[107] Delise 1822.

[108] Chevalier 1824.

[109] Wallroth 1825.

[110] Meyer 1825.

[111] Holle 1849.

[112] Koerber 1839.

[113] Michaux 1803.

[114] Mühlenberg 1813.

[115] Torrey 1819.

[116] Halsey 1824.

[117] Tuckerman 1839.

[118] Fée 1824.

[119] Martius 1833.

[120] Montagne 1851.

[121] Hooker 1841.

[122] Schaerer 1850.

[123] Eschweiler 1824.

[124] Fée 1824.

[125] De Notaris 1846.

[126] Massalongo 1852.

[127] Norman 1852.

[128] Koerber 1855.

[129] Mudd 1861.

[130] Lindsay 1856.

[131] Leighton 1851, etc.

[132] See Hue 1899.

[133] Nylander 1854 and 1855.

[134] Tulasne 1852.

[135] Lauder Lindsay 1859.

[136] Itzigsohn 1854-1855.

[137] Speerschneider 1853.

[138] Sachs 1855.

[139] Thwaites 1849.

[140] Schwendener 1863-1868.

[141] Leighton 1851.

[142] Leighton 1854.

[143] Leighton 1856.

[144] Mudd 1865.

[145] Th. Fries 1858.

[146] Schwendener 1867.

[147] Nylander 1874.

[148] Crombie 1885.

[149] Lett 1890.

[150] Fünfstück 1898.

[151] Zahlbruckner 1903-1907.

[152] Ventenat 1794, p. 36.

[153] Cassini 1817, p. 395.

[154] Agardh 1820.

[155] Scopoli 1760, p. 79.

[156] Persoon 1794, p. 17.

[157] Sprengel 1804, p. 325.

[158] Wallroth 1825, I.

[159] Wallroth 1825, I., p. 303.

[160] Fries 1831, pp. lvi and lvii.

[161] Kützing 1843.

[162] Thwaites 1849, pp. 219 and 241.

[163] Flotow 1850.

[164] Sachs 1855.

[165] Itzigsohn 1855.

[166] Itzigsohn 1854.

[167] Hicks 1860 and 1861.

[168] Speerschneider 1853.

[169] Famintzin and Baranetzky 1867.

[170] Baranetzky 1869.

[171] Itzigsohn 1867.

[172] Bayrhoffer 1851.

[173] Tulasne 1852.

[174] Speerschneider 1854.

[175] de Bary 1866, p. 242.

[176] Schwendener 1860, p. 125.

[177] de Bary 1866, p. 291.

[178] Nylander 1870.

[179] Elfving 1903 and 1913.

[180] See p. 133.

[181] Minks 1878 and 1879.

[182] Müller 1878 and 1884.

[183] Zukal 1884.

[184] Darbishire 1895¹.

[185] Schwendener 1860, etc.

[186] Schwendener 1867.

[187] Schwendener 1868, p. 195.

[188] Schwendener 1869.

[189] Rees 1871.

[190] Bornet 1872.

[191] The authors quoted have been followed in their designation of the various green algae that form lichen gonidia. It is however now recognized (Wille 1913) that either _Protococcus viridis_ Ag., _Chlorella_ or other Protococcaceae may form the universal green coating on trees, etc., and be incorporated as lichen gonidia. _Pleurococcus vulgaris_ Naeg. and _Pleurococcus Naegeli_ Chod. are synonyms of _Protococcus viridis_. In that alga there is no pyrenoid, and no zoospores are formed.

The genus _Cystococcus_, according to Chodat (1913), is characterized by the presence of a pyrenoid and by reproduction with zoospores and is identical with _Pleurococcus vulgaris_ Menegh. (non Naeg.), though Wille regards Meneghini’s species as of mixed content. Paulson and Hastings (1920) now find that Chodat’s pyrenoid is the nucleus of the cell.

[192] Woronin 1872.

[193] Archer 1873, 1874, 1875.

[194] Bornet 1873 and 1874.

[195] Treub 1873.

[196] Borzi 1875.

[197] Stahl 1877.

[198] Bonnier 1886 and 1889.

[199] Bonnier was probably experimenting with an _Arthopyrenia_. _Verrucaria_ species combine with _Protococcus_ or according to Chodat with _Coccobotrys_ gen. nov.

[200] Nylander 1858.

[201] Fuisting 1868, p. 674.

[202] Winter 1876, p. 264.

[203] Stahl 1877.

[204] See p. 62.

[205] Wainio 1890, 2, p. 29.

[206] Reinke 1872, p. 108.

[207] Reinke 1873¹.

[208] Reinke 1873², p. 98.

[209] Frank 1876.

[210] de Bary 1879.

[211] Bornet 1873.

[212] Hedlund 1892.

[213] Peirce 1899.

[214] Hue 1915.

[215] Lindau 1895¹.

[216] Peirce 1899.

[217] Claassen 1914.

[218] Frank 1876.

[219] Lindau 1895.

[220] Bachmann 1913.

[221] Cunningham 1879.

[222] Ward 1884.

[223] Jennings 1895.

[224] Fitting 1910.

[225] Bornet 1873.

[226] Bonnier 1889².

[227] Schwendener 1867.

[228] Elenkin 1902¹ and 1904¹, 1904².

[229] Elenkin 1906².

[230] Danilov 1910.

[231] Paulson and Hastings 1920.

[232] Nienburg 1917.

[233] Zukal 1891.

[234] Sutherland 1915.

[235] Beyerinck 1890.

[236] Artari 1902.

[237] See p. 56.

[238] Artari 1902.

[239] Treboux 1912.

[240] Chodat 1913.

[241] See Paulson and Hastings 1920.

[242] Keeble 1910.

[243] Reinke 1872.

[244] Dufrenoy 1918.

[245] Artari 1899.

[246] Etard and Bouilhac 1898.

[247] Radais 1900.

[248] Artari 1901.

[249] Chodat 1913.

[250] Treboux 1905.

[251] Marshall Ward 1884.

[252] Uhlir 1915.

[253] Tobler 1911.

[254] Zopf 1907.

[255] Chambers 1912.

[256] Chodat 1913.

[257] See note Paulson and Hastings, p. 28.

[258] Chodat 1913.

[259] Gargeaune 1911.

[260] Servettaz 1913.

[261] See p. 65.

[262] Wettstein 1915.

[263] Meyer 1825.

[264] Holle 1849.

[265] Tulasne 1852.

[266] Bonnier 1889².

[267] Term coined by Lindau (1899) to describe the pseudo-cellular tissue of lichens and fungi now referred to as “plectenchyma.”

[268] Wainio 1897.

[269] Möller 1887.

[270] Tobler 1909.

[271] Wahrlich 1893.

[272] Baur 1898.

[273] Darbishire 1899.

[274] Kienitz-Gerloff 1902.

[275] Meyer 1902.

[276] Salter 1902.

[277] Nylander (1866) gave the term “gonimia” to the blue-green algae of the Phycolichens, retaining the term “gonidia” for the bright-green algae of the Archilichens: the distinction is not now maintained.

[278] For further details see also the chapter on Classification.

[279] See p. 133.

[280] Krempelhuber 1873.

[281] Chodat 1913.

[282] Paulson and Hastings 1920.

[283] Paulson in litt.

[284] Acton 1909.

[285] Bialosuknia 1909.

[286] Hue 1905.

[287] Deckenbach 1893.

[288] In a comparative study of leaf algae from Ceylon and Barbadoes, N. Thomas (1913) came to the conclusion that Marshall Ward’s alga in its early stages is the same as _Phyllactidium tropicum_ Moebius; and that the Barbadoes alga with which she was working represented the older stages, it being then subcuticular in habit, forming rhizoids, barren and sterile aerial hairs and subcuticular zoosporangia.

[289] De Toni 1889.

[290] Bornet 1873.

[291] Fünfstück 1899.

[292] Hedlund 1892.

[293] Zukal 1895, p. 19.

[294] Moebius 1888.

[295] Frank 1876, p. 158.

[296] Stahl 1877.

[297] Neubner 1893.

[298] Krabbe 1891.

[299] Forssell 1885.

[300] Hue 1910.

[301] Harmand 1913, p. 1050.

[302] Forssell 1886.

[303] See Chap. VII.

[304] Lindau 1895.

[305] Darbishire 1897.

[306] Nienburg 1917.

[307] Bonnier 1888 and 1889².

[308] Bonnier 1889.

[309] Forssell 1884, p. 34.

[310] Zahlbruckner 1902.

[311] Lindau 1899.

[312] Reinke 1895.

[313] Zukal 1895, p. 562.

[314] Zahlbruckner 1907.

[315] Hue 1899.

[316] Wainio has adopted this term for growing hyphae 1897, p. 33.

[317] Tulasne 1852.

[318] Zukal 1895.

[319] Zukal 1895.

[320] Schwendener 1866.

[321] Schwendener 1863.

[322] Hue 1906.

[323] See p. 83.

[324] Malinowski 1911.

[325] Steiner 1881.

[326] Fünfstück 1899.

[327] Bachmann 1913.

[328] See p. 215.

[329] Friedrich 1906.

[330] Bachmann 1907.

[331] Bachmann 1904.

[332] Bachmann 1904.

[333] Stahlecker 1906.

[334] Lang 1903.

[335] Fünfstück 1899.

[336] Darbishire 1897.

[337] Frank 1876.

[338] Bornet 1873, p. 81.

[339] Lindau 1895.

[340] Bitter 1899.

[341] See p. 83.

[342] Friedrich 1906.

[343] See p. 76.

[344] See p. 126.

[345] Schwendener 1860, 1863 and 1868.

[346] Zukal 1895, p. 1305.

[347] Hue 1906.

[348] Heber Howe 1912.

[349] Hue 1911.

[350] Schwendener 1863, p. 180.

[351] Darbishire 1897.

[352] Rosendahl 1907.

[353] See p. 96.

[354] See p. 133.

[355] Rosendahl 1907.

[356] Meyer 1902.

[357] See p. 52.

[358] Nylander 1858.

[359] Hue 1898.

[360] Rosendahl 1907.

[361] Darbishire 1912.

[362] Porter 1919.

[363] Darbishire 1897.

[364] Schwendener 1860.

[365] Rosendahl 1907.

[366] Meyer 1902.

[367] Reinke 1895, p. 186.

[368] Bitter 1901.

[369] Sernander 1901.

[370] Parfitt in Leighton 1871, p. 470.

[371] Galløe 1915.

[372] Bitter 1899.

[373] Sturgis 1890.

[374] See p. 108.

[375] Darbishire 1898.

[376] Darbishire 1895.

[377] Brandt 1906.

[378] Hue 1906.

[379] Haberlandt 1896.

[380] Schulte 1904.

[381] See p. 120.

[382] Lutz 1894.

[383] Peirce 1898.

[384] Zopf 1903.

[385] Lindau 1895.

[386] Brandt 1906.

[387] Porter 1916.

[388] Darbishire 1898.

[389] Wainio 1880.

[390] Krabbe 1891.

[391] Wainio 1897.

[392] Wainio 1880.

[393] Krabbe 1891.

[394] Krabbe 1891.

[395] Baur 1904.

[396] Wainio 1880.

[397] Chodat 1913.

[398] Wainio 1897.

[399] Baur 1904.

[400] Wainio 1897.

[401] Wainio 1897.

[402] Lindsay 1859, p. 171.

[403] Wainio 1897.

[404] Wainio 1897, p. 9.

[405] Wainio 1880.

[406] Krabbe 1891.

[407] Necker 1871.

[408] Persoon 1794.

[409] Acharius 1803.

[410] Wallroth 1829, p. 61.

[411] Tulasne 1852.

[412] Koerber 1855.

[413] Reinke 1894.

[414] Sättler 1914.

[415] Nienburg 1908.

[416] See p. 183.

[417] Wainio 1897.

[418] Baur 1904.

[419] Wolff 1905.

[420] Aigret 1901.

[421] Wainio 1897.

[422] Wainio 1890, p. 67.

[423] Reinke 1895.

[424] Nylander 1858, p. 63.

[425] Acharius 1810, p. 12.

[426] Haller 1768, p. 85.

[427] Schreber 1791, p. 768.

[428] Meyer 1825, p. 148.

[429] Delise 1822.

[430] Nylander 1858, p. 14.

[431] Nylander 1860, p. 333.

[432] Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

[433] Wainio 1890, I. p. 183.

[434] Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

[435] Stizenberger 1895.

[436] Zukal 1895, p. 1355.

[437] Wainio 1909.

[438] Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

[439] Jatta 1889, p. 48.

[440] Zukal 1895, p. 1357.

[441] Rosendahl 1907.

[442] Zukal 1895.

[443] Reinke 1895, p. 183.

[444] Darbishire 1901.

[445] Brandt 1906.

[446] Bitter 1899.

[447] Nylander 1874².

[448] Bitter 1901².

[449] Zukal 1895, p. 1348.

[450] Acharius 1803.

[451] Hue 1904 and 1910.

[452] Flörke 1815, IV. p. 15.

[453] Wallroth 1825, p. 678.

[454] Th. M. Fries 1858.

[455] Forssell 1884.

[456] Leighton 1869.

[457] Nylander 1878.

[458] Schneider 1897.

[459] Hue 1910.

[460] Hue 1910.

[461] Tuckerman 1875.

[462] Schneider 1897, p. 58.

[463] Nylander 1869.

[464] Bornet 1873, p. 72.

[465] Forssell 1885, p. 24.

[466] Riddle 1910.

[467] Babikoff 1878.

[468] Th. M. Fries 1866.

[469] Winter 1877.

[470] Schneider 1897.

[471] Etard and Bouilhac 1898.

[472] Hue 1910.

[473] Sernander 1907.

[474] Bitter 1904.

[475] Bitter 1904.

[476] Linkola 1913.

[477] Acharius, 1798, p. xix, and 1810, pp. 8 and 10.

[478] Malpighi, 1686, p. 50, pl. 27, fig. 106.

[479] Micheli 1729, pp. 73, 74.

[480] Linnaeus 1737, p. 325.

[481] Hedwig 1798.

[482] Sprengel 1807, Letter XXIII.

[483] Wallroth 1825, I. p. 595.

[484] Koerber 1841.

[485] Schwendener 1860.

[486] Meyer 1825, p. 170.

[487] Krabbe 1891.

[488] Bitter 1901.

[489] Schwendener 1860, p. 137.

[490] Wainio 1897, p. 32.

[491] Reinke 1895, p. 380.

[492] Bitter 1901.

[493] Lesdain 1910.

[494] Schwendener 1860.

[495] Nilson 1903.

[496] Darbishire 1897.

[497] Bitter 1901, p. 191.

[498] Krabbe 1891.

[499] Darbishire 1907.

[500] Tobler 1911², 11.

[501] Bitter 1901².

[502] Lindau 1895.

[503] Nilson 1903.

[504] Bitter 1904.

[505] Acharius 1798, pp. 2, 87.

[506] Fries 1825.

[507] Hooker 1833.

[508] Taylor 1836.

[509] Rosendahl 1907.

[510] Bitter 1899.

[511] Nilson 1903.

[512] Kajanus (Nilson) 1911.

[513] Zopf 1903.

[514] Zopf 1905².

[515] Bitter 1899.

[516] Swartz 1788.

[517] Gmelin 1791.

[518] Woodward 1797.

[519] Fries 1825.

[520] Nylander 1855.

[521] Mattirolo 1881.

[522] Johow 1884.

[523] Wainio 1890.

[524] Möller 1893.

[525] Malpighi 1686.

[526] Tournefort 1694.

[527] Morison 1699.

[528] Micheli 1729.

[529] Micheli, Pls. 52 and 56.

[530] Dillenius 1741.

[531] Linnaeus 1737.

[532] Necker 1771, p. 257.

[533] Scopoli 1772.

[534] Koelreuter 1777.

[535] Hoffmann 1784.

[536] Hedwig 1784.

[537] Acharius 1810.

[538] Hornschuch 1821.

[539] Wallroth 1825.

[540] Meyer 1825.

[541] Sprengel 1804.

[542] Luyken 1809.

[543] Persoon 1801.

[544] See also p. 166.

[545] Wainio 1890.

[546] Tulasne 1852.

[547] Fuisting 1868.

[548] Stahl 1877.

[549] Borzi 1878.

[550] Baur 1898.

[551] Fünfstück (1902) suggests that the lichen worked at by Baur is _Collema cheileum_ Ach.

[552] Krabbe 1883.

[553] Mäule 1891.

[554] F. Bachmann 1912.

[555] This species of _Collema_ has been described as _Collemodes Bachmannianum_ by Bruce Fink 1918.

[556] F. Bachmann 1913.

[557] Wainio I. 1890.

[558] Wolff 1905.

[559] Stahl 1877.

[560] Forssell 1885².

[561] Zukal 1887, p. 42.

[562] Borzi 1878.

[563] Lindau 1888.

[564] Mäule 1891.

[565] Darbishire 1900.

[566] Baur 1904.

[567] Lindau 1888.

[568] Darbishire 1900.

[569] See also p. 180.

[570] Nienburg 1908.

[571] Wainio I. 1890.

[572] Darbishire 1900.

[573] Baur 1901.

[574] Baur 1904.

[575] Nienburg 1908.

[576] Harper 1900.

[577] Guilliermond 1904, p. 60.

[578] Baur 1899.

[579] Sturgis 1890.

[580] Nienburg 1908.

[581] Schwendener 1864.

[582] Wahlberg 1902.

[583] Baur 1904.

[584] Brown 1911.

[585] Moreau 1916.

[586] Lindau 1888.

[587] Fünfstück 1884.

[588] Baur 1904.

[589] Nienburg 1908.

[590] Rosendahl 1907.

[591] Lindau 1888.

[592] Baur 1904.

[593] Wolff 1905.

[594] Fünfstück 1902.

[595] Krabbe 1882.

[596] Baur 1901.

[597] Fünfstück 1902.

[598] Darbishire 1897.

[599] See also p. 147.

[600] Wolff 1905.

[601] See Chap. VII.

[602] Krabbe 1883 and 1891.

[603] Baur 1904.

[604] Sättler 1914.

[605] See Chap. VII.

[606] Fuisting 1868.

[607] Stahl 1877.

[608] Baur 1904.

[609] Baur 1901.

[610] Krabbe 1882.

[611] Forssell 1883.

[612] Wainio 1890, p. x.

[613] Neubner 1893.

[614] Fünfstück 1884.

[615] Darbishire 1913.

[616] Moreau 1915.

[617] Sturgis 1890.

[618] Metzger 1903.

[619] Baur 1904.

[620] Moreau 1916.

[621] Krabbe 1882.

[622] Lindau 1899.

[623] Wolff 1905.

[624] Rosendahl 1907.

[625] Bitter 1901².

[626] Baur 1904.

[627] Nienburg 1908.

[628] Krabbe 1882.

[629] Schulte 1904.

[630] Wainio 1890.

[631] Schikorra 1909.

[632] Harper 1900.

[633] Fraser 1907.

[634] Thaxter 1912.

[635] Faull 1911.

[636] Dawson 1900.

[637] Brooks 1910.

[638] Blackman and Welsford 1912.

[639] Lindau 1899.

[640] Van Tieghem 1891.

[641] Zukal 1895.

[642] Wainio 1890.

[643] Steiner 1901.

[644] See also Chap. VII.

[645] F. Bachmann 1913.

[646] Cutting 1909.

[647] Darbishire 1900.

[648] Baur 1904.

[649] See p. 161.

[650] Stahl 1877.

[651] Baur 1898.

[652] F. Bachmann 1912 and 1913.

[653] Darbishire 1900.

[654] Fitzpatrick 1918.

[655] Harper 1900.

[656] Fünfstück 1902.

[657] Schwendener 1864.

[658] Hue 1906.

[659] Lindau 1899.

[660] Hedwig 1784.

[661] Acharius 1803.

[662] Sprengel 1807.

[663] Luyken 1809.

[664] Eschweiler 1824.

[665] Fée 1824.

[666] Mohl 1833.

[667] Dangeard 1894.

[668] Baur 1904.

[669] Nienburg 1908.

[670] Maire 1903.

[671] Bachmann 1913.

[672] Mohl 1833.

[673] Zukal 1895.

[674] Fée 1824.

[675] Meyer 1825.

[676] Holle 1849.

[677] Tulasne 1852.

[678] De Bary 1866-1867.

[679] Haberlandt 1887.

[680] Zopf 1905.

[681] Massalongo 1852.

[682] Koerber 1855.

[683] Wainio 1. 1890, p. 113.

[684] Harper 1899.

[685] Hue 1911².

[686] Tulasne 1852.

[687] Bornet 1873.

[688] Bonnier 1889².

[689] Maire 1905.

[690] Neubner 1893.

[691] Brefeld 1889.

[692] See p. 143.

[693] Bornet 1873.

[694] Bornet’s observations have not been repeated, and it is possible that he may have been dealing with a parasitic hyphomycetous fungus.

[695] Steiner 1901.

[696] Müller 1881.

[697] Wainio 1890, II. p. 27.

[698] Fée 1873.

[699] Müller 1890.

[700] Tulasne 1851.

[701] Dillenius 1741.

[702] Hedwig 1784 and 1789.

[703] Acharius 1810.

[704] Fries 1831.

[705] Wallroth 1825.

[706] Schaerer 1823-1842.

[707] Flotow 1850.

[708] Itzigsohn 1850.

[709] Tulasne 1851.

[710] Tulasne 1852.

[711] Lindsay 1859 and 1872.

[712] Forssell 1885.

[713] Nienburg 1908.

[714] Möller 1887.

[715] Sturgis 1890.

[716] Nylander 1858, pp. 34, 35.

[717] Nylander, Crombie and others apply the term “sterigma” to the whole spermatiophore. In the more usual restricted sense, it refers only to the short process from which the spermatium is abstricted.

[718] Glück 1899.

[719] Steiner 1901.

[720] Gibelli 1866.

[721] Tulasne 1852.

[722] Nylander 1858.

[723] Corda 1839.

[724] Allescher 1901-3.

[725] Keiszler 1911.

[726] Nylander 1858, p. 37.

[727] Möller 1887.

[728] Istvanffi 1895.

[729] Möller 1888.

[730] Hedlund 1892.

[731] Tulasne 1852.

[732] Müller 1885.

[733] Lindsay 1859 and 1872.

[734] Laubert 1911.

[735] Blackman 1904.

[736] Istvanffi 1895.

[737] Plowright 1889.

[738] Sappin-Trouffy 1896.

[739] Brefeld 1891.

[740] De Bary 1866, p. 7.

[741] Gilson 1893.

[742] Winterstein 1893.

[743] Gilson 1894.

[744] The chemical formula of chitin is given as C₆₀H₁₀₀N₈O₃₈, that of chitosan as C₁₄H₂₆N₂O₁₀.

[745] Escombe 1896.

[746] Wisselingh 1898.

[747] Wester 1909.

[748] Berzelius 1813.

[749] Guérin-Varry 1834.

[750] Mulder 1838.

[751] Berg 1873.

[752] Beilstein ex Errera 1882, p. 16 (note).

[753] Escombe 1896.

[754] Wiesner 1900.

[755] Lacour 1880.

[756] Wisselingh 1898.

[757] Stüde 1864.

[758] Czapek 1905, I. p. 515.

[759] Ulander 1905.

[760] Müller 1905.

[761] Stüde 1864.

[762] Wisselingh 1898.

[763] Schellenberg 1896.

[764] Escombe 1896.

[765] Wester 1909.

[766] Czapek 1905, I. p. 515.

[767] Moreau 1916.

[768] Errera 1882.

[769] Schwendener 1862, p. 231.

[770] De Bary 1866-1867, p. 211.

[771] Gautier 1899.

[772] Herissey 1898.

[773] Czapek 1905, II. p. 257.

[774] Ronceray 1904.

[775] Zopf in Schenk 1890, p. 448.

[776] Knop 1872.

[777] Zopf 1907.

[778] Hamlet and Plowright 1877.

[779] Braconnot 1825.

[780] Zopf 1907.

[781] Errera 1893.

[782] Euler 1908, p. 7.

[783] Rosendahl 1907.

[784] Knop 1872.

[785] Kratzmann 1913.

[786] Zukal 1895, p. 1311.

[787] Kerner and Oliver 1894, p. 235.

[788] Steiner 1881.

[789] Zukal 1884.

[790] Zukal 1886.

[791] Hulth 1891.

[792] Bachmann 1892.

[793] Fünfstück 1895.

[794] Fünfstück 1899.

[795] Bachmann 1904¹.

[796] Lang 1906.

[797] Lang 1906, p. 171.

[798] Bachmann 1892.

[799] Bachmann 1904¹.

[800] Bachmann 1904².

[801] Fünfstück 1895.

[802] Zukal 1895, p. 1372.

[803] Rosendahl 1907.

[804] Zukal 1895.

[805] Fünfstück 1896.

[806] Fünfstück 1899.

[807] Lang 1906.

[808] Beijerinck 1904.

[809] Wehmer 1891.

[810] Stahel 1911.

[811] See p. 218.

[812] Pfeffer 1877.

[813] Pfaff 1826.

[814] Herberger 1830.

[815] Knop and Schnederman 1846.

[816] Hesse 1904.

[817] Zopf 1907, p. 179.

[818] Zopf 1907.

[819] Senft 1907.

[820] Tobler 1909.

[821] Keegan 1907.

[822] Schwarz 1880, p. 264.

[823] Schwendener 1863, p. 180.

[824] Fünfstück 1902.

[825] Heber Howe 1913.

[826] Knowles 1913.

[827] West, W. 1905.

[828] Lettau 1914.

[829] Lettau 1914.

[830] Parietin differs chemically from chrysophanic acid of _Rheum_, etc.

[831] Stenhouse and Groves 1877.

[832] Volkard 1894.

[833] Nylander 1866.

[834] Jumelle 1892.

[835] Sievers 1908.

[836] Zukal 1895.

[837] Beckmann 1907.

[838] Herre 1911².

[839] Sievers 1908.

[840] Jumelle 1892.

[841] Schrenk 1898.

[842] Bonnier 1889².

[843] West 1905.

[844] Sandstede 1904.

[845] Friedrich 1906.

[846] Lindau 1895².

[847] See p. 109.

[848] Uloth 1861.

[849] Zopf 1903.

[850] Zopf 1907.

[851] Ohlert 1871.

[852] See p. 75.

[853] Uloth 1861.

[854] Egeling 1881.

[855] Buchet 1890.

[856] Bachmann 1904.

[857] Bachmann 1911.

[858] Lang 1903.

[859] Stahlecker 1906.

[860] Bitter 1899.

[861] Zukal 1879.

[862] Kihlman 1890.

[863] Jumelle 1892.

[864] Zopf 1890, p. 489.

[865] Jumelle 1892.

[866] Weir 1919.

[867] Wainio 1897, p. 16.

[868] Nienburg 1908.

[869] Metzger 1903.

[870] Bitter 1899.

[871] Wiesner 1895.

[872] Bitter 1901, p. 465.

[873] Fink 1909.

[874] Galløe 1908.

[875] Zukal 1896.

[876] Bitter 1901.

[877] Maheu 1906.

[878] Wiesner 1895.

[879] R. Paulson, ined.

[880] Krempelhuber 1861.

[881] Zukal 1896, p. 111.

[882] Zukal 1896.

[883] Hedlund 1892, p. 22.

[884] Zopf 1893.

[885] Zopf 1907.

[886] Zopf 1892.

[887] Knop 1872.

[888] Bachmann 1890.

[889] A similar reaction with nitric acid is produced on the blue hypothalline hyphae of _Placynthium nigrum_.

[890] Knowles 1915.

[891] Rosendahl 1907.

[892] John 1819.

[893] Grimbel 1856.

[894] Molisch 1892.

[895] Nilson 1907.

[896] Meyer 1825, p. 44.

[897] Lindsay 1856.

[898] Berkeley 1857.

[899] Weddell 1869.

[900] Phillips 1878.

[901] Scott Elliot 1907.

[902] Vallot 1896.

[903] Bitter 1901.

[904] Heere 1904.

[905] Krabbe 1891, p. 131.

[906] Reinke 1894, p. 18.

[907] Bonnier, see p. 29.

[908] Darbishire, see p. 148.

[909] Tobler, see p. 148.

[910] Stahl 1877, p. 34.

[911] Paulson 1918.

[912] Paulson and Thompson 1913.

[913] Fink 1917.

[914] Baur 1901.

[915] Miyoshi 1901.

[916] Darbishire 1897, p. 657.

[917] Beckmann 1907.

[918] Bitter 1899.

[919] Peirce 1898.

[920] Schrenk 1898.

[921] Elenkin 1901.

[922] See Chap. X.

[923] Mereschkovsky 1918.

[924] Meyer 1825, p. 44.

[925] Paulson and Somerville Hastings 1914.

[926] Crombie 1872.

[927] See p. 35.

[928] Dufrenoy 1918.

[929] Arnold 1874.

[930] Kupfer 1894.

[931] See p. 236.

[932] Malme 1895.

[933] Bitter 1899.

[934] Hofmann 1906.

[935] Almquist 1880.

[936] Bitter 1899.

[937] See p. 237.

[938] Arnold 1874.

[939] Nylander 1852.

[940] Hue 1915.

[941] Th. Fries 1874, p. 343.

[942] Tobler 1911².

[943] Lindsay 1869².

[944] Winter 1877.

[945] _Abrothallus_ has been included in the lichen genus _Buellia_.

[946] Tulasne 1852.

[947] Lindsay 1856.

[948] Crombie 1894.

[949] Kotte 1910.

[950] Zopf 1896.

[951] Zopf 1898, p. 249.

[952] Tobler 1911².

[953] See p. 276.

[954] Elenkin 1901².

[955] Stahl 1904.

[956] Lindsay 1859, 1869, 1871.

[957] Zopf 1896.

[958] Zopf 1898.

[959] Moreau 1916³.

[960] Vouaux 1912, etc.

[961] Bitter 1904.

[962] Zukal 1893.

[963] Lister 1911.

[964] Zopf 1897.

[965] Zukal 1896, p. 258.

[966] Zukal 1896, p. 255.

[967] Cunningham 1879.

[968] Friedrich 1906, p. 401.

[969] See p. 78.

[970] Gleditsch 1775, p. 31.

[971] Lindau 1895, p. 53.

[972] Dufrenoy 1881.

[973] Porter 1917.

[974] Friedrich 1906.

[975] Waite 1893.

[976] Lesdain 1912.

[977] Zopf 1907.

[978] Lesdain 1910.

[979] Zukal 1896, p. 258.

[980] See p. 51.

[981] See p. 177 _et seq._

[982] Zahlbruckner 1903.

[983] Steiner 1896.

[984] Müller-Argau 1880.

[985] Wainio 1890, p. xxiii.

[986] Lloyd 1917.

[987] Rehm 1890.

[988] Reinke 1894.

[989] See p. 260.

[990] Wainio 1890.

[991] Müller-Argau 1862.

[992] Rehm 1890.

[993] Rehm 1890.

[994] Tobler 1911², p. 407.

[995] Lightfoot 1777, p. 965.

[996] See Chap. III.

[997] Forssell 1885.

[998] Hue 1911¹.

[999] See p. 133.

[1000] Zahlbruckner 1907.

[1001] Reinke 1895.

[1002] See p. 126.

[1003] Reinke 1895.

[1004] Neubner 1893.

[1005] Reinke 1895, p. 110.

[1006] Wainio 1890.

[1007] See Chap. III.

[1008] Wainio 1897.

[1009] See Chap. III.

[1010] Sättler 1914.

[1011] See p. 90.

[1012] Darbishire 1912.

[1013] See p. 101.

[1014] See p. 188.

[1015] Dr Church (1920) has published a new conception of the origin of lichens. See postscript at the end of the volume, p. 421.

[1016] Tournefort 1694.

[1017] Morison 1699.

[1018] Dillenius 1741.

[1019] Linnaeus 1753.

[1020] Acharius 1803.

[1021] Acharius 1810.

[1022] Acharius 1814.

[1023] Wallroth 1825.

[1024] Meyer 1825.

[1025] Nylander 1854.

[1026] Reinke 1894, ’95, ’96.

[1027] Darbishire and Fischer-Benzon 1901.

[1028] Wainio 1887, ’94, ’97.

[1029] Wainio 1890.

[1030] Zahlbruckner 1907.

[1031] Massee 1887.

[1032] Fischer 1890.

[1033] Linnaeus 1753.

[1034] Steiner 1901.

[1035] See p. 56.

[1036] Norman 1872 and ’74.

[1037] Genera marked with an asterisk have not been found in the British Isles.

[1038] Zukal 1890.

[1039] Hue 1914.

[1040] Hue 1909.

[1041] Hue 1905.

[1042] Zahlbr., in _Hedwigia_, LIX. p. 301, 1917.

[1043] Riddle 1917.

[1044] Bioret 1914.

[1045] Reinke 1895.

[1046] Darbishire 1898.

[1047] Hue 1909.

[1048] Nylander 1855.

[1049] Nylander 1883.

[1050] Lorrain Smith 1906.

[1051] _Neophyllis_ Wils. is synonymous with _Gymnoderma_.

[1052] Lindau 1899.

[1053] Stirton 1877, p. 164.

[1054] A. Zahlbruckner, in _Oesterr. bot. Zeitschr._ 1919, p. 163.

[1055] Bitter 1904².

[1056] Hue 1892.

[1057] Hue 1914.

[1058] Tuckerman 1872, p. 107.

[1059] See p. 188.

[1060] Hue 1908.

[1061] See p. 152.

[1062] Olivier 1907.

[1063] Th. Fries 1867.

[1064] Darbishire 1909.

[1065] Hue 1892.

[1066] Arnold 1890.

[1067] These genera are associated with _Trentepohlia_ algae which are numerous and abundant in tropical climates, and their presence there may possibly account for these particular lichens.

[1068] Wainio 1897.

[1069] Wainio 1909.

[1070] Elenkin 1906.

[1071] Darbishire 1905.

[1072] Hue 1915.

[1073] Darbishire 1912.

[1074] Lindsay 1870.

[1075] Calkins 1896.

[1076] Hue 1898.

[1077] Fink 1903.

[1078] Wainio 1896.

[1079] Comm. Heber Howe.

[1080] Herre 1910.

[1081] Nylander 1890.

[1082] Müller 1879.

[1083] Nylander and Crombie 1884.

[1084] Babington 1855.

[1085] Stirton 1875.

[1086] Nylander 1888.

[1087] Hellbom 1896.

[1088] Wilson 1892.

[1089] Müller-Argau 1884.

[1090] Stizenberger 1888-1895.

[1091] Steiner 1895.

[1092] Flagey 1892.

[1093] Wainio 1890.

[1094] Wainio 1890, II. p. 27 (recorded under _Lecidea_).

[1095] Elenkin and Woronichin 1908.

[1096] Jaczewski 1904.

[1097] Steiner 1919.

[1098] Müller 1892.

[1099] Nylander 1867.

[1100] Leighton 1869.

[1101] Nylander 1900.

[1102] Nylander 1891.

[1103] Schimper 1869, p. 145.

[1104] Lindsay 1879.

[1105] Braun 1840.

[1106] Muenster 1846, p. 26.

[1107] Eltingshausen and Debey 1857.

[1108] Engelhardt 1870 (Pl. I. figs. 1 and 2).

[1109] Goeppert 1845, p. 195.

[1110] See Schimper 1869, pp. 145, etc.

[1111] Goeppert and Menge 1883, t. 1, fig. 3.

[1112] Ludwig 1859, p. 61 (t. 9, figs. 1-4), 1859-61.

[1113] Schimper in Zittel 1890.

[1114] Goeppert and Menge 1883.

[1115] Sernander 1918.

[1116] See p. 392.

[1117] Moss 1913.

[1118] Macmillan 1894.

[1119] See p. 240 _et seq._

[1120] See p. 238.

[1121] West 1915.

[1122] Fink 1894.

[1123] Kihlman 1890.

[1124] Nilson 1907.

[1125] Lindsay 1869.

[1126] Sättler 1914.

[1127] Peirce 1898.

[1128] Schrenk 1898.

[1129] Nylander 1866.

[1130] Hue 1898.

[1131] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1132] Paulson and Thompson 1911.

[1133] Paulson and Thompson 1912.

[1134] Chodat 1912.

[1135] Fée 1824.

[1136] Fries 1831.

[1137] Krempelhuber 1861.

[1138] Arnold 1891, etc.

[1139] Fink 1902.

[1140] Watson 1909.

[1141] Paulson 1919.

[1142] Lesdain 1912.

[1143] Fink 1896, etc.

[1144] Stahl 1877.

[1145] Fink 1902, etc.

[1146] Arnold 1891.

[1147] Mayfield 1916.

[1148] Paulson and Thompson 1913.

[1149] Lesdain 1910².

[1150] Lettau 1911.

[1151] Fink 1903.

[1152] Wheldon and Wilson 1907.

[1153] Arnold 1892, p. 34.

[1154] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1155] See p. 358.

[1156] Aigret 1901.

[1157] Kieffer 1894.

[1158] Stahlecker 1906.

[1159] Link 1795.

[1160] Malinowski 1911.

[1161] See also p. 254.

[1162] Fink 1904.

[1163] Link 1789.

[1164] Watson 1918².

[1165] Wheldon and Wilson 1907.

[1166] Flagey 1901.

[1167] Bruce Fink 1902².

[1168] Forssell 1885.

[1169] Servit 1910.

[1170] Malinowski 1911.

[1171] Bachmann 1914.

[1172] West 1912.

[1173] Wheldon and Wilson 1913.

[1174] Stahlecker 1906.

[1175] Malinowski 1911.

[1176] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1177] Wheldon and Wilson 1907.

[1178] Schade 1916.

[1179] Lesdain 1910.

[1180] Arnold 1858.

[1181] Richard 1877.

[1182] Darbishire 1909.

[1183] Cf. p. 234.

[1184] Paulson and Thompson 1913.

[1185] Wheldon and Wilson 1913.

[1186] Weddell 1875.

[1187] Knowles 1913.

[1188] The two morphologically similar plants _Ramalina cuspidata_ and _R. scopulorum_ are here united under the older name _R. siliquosa_. The distinction between the two is based on reaction tests with potash, which give very uncertain results.

[1189] Nylander 1861.

[1190] Knowles 1915.

[1191] Wheldon and Wilson 1913.

[1192] Sandstede 1904.

[1193] Aigret 1901.

[1194] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1195] Watson 1918¹.

[1196] Sandstede 1904.

[1197] McLean 1915.

[1198] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1199] Wheldon and Wilson 1914.

[1200] Maheu 1887.

[1201] Leighton 1867.

[1202] Kihlman 1890.

[1203] Nilson 1907.

[1204] Darbishire 1909.

[1205] Flagey 1901.

[1206] Patouillard 1897.

[1207] Steiner 1895.

[1208] Bruce Fink 1909.

[1209] Herre 1911².

[1210] See p. 97.

[1211] Lindsay 1856.

[1212] Macmillan 1894.

[1213] Knowles _in litt._

[1214] Bruce Fink 1903.

[1215] Lettau 1911.

[1216] Wheldon and Wilson 1915.

[1217] Wheldon and Wilson 1913.

[1218] Linnaeus 1762.

[1219] Guembel 1856.

[1220] Goeppert 1860.

[1221] Salter 1856.

[1222] Bachmann 1911.

[1223] Bachmann 1913.

[1224] Braun 1917.

[1225] Treub 1888.

[1226] Brez 1791.

[1227] Persoon 1794.

[1228] Zukal 1895, p. 1317 (note).

[1229] Zukal 1895, p. 1315.

[1230] Zopf 1896.

[1231] Stahl 1904.

[1232] Hue 1915.

[1233] Zopf 1907.

[1234] Bitter 1899.

[1235] Petch 1913.

[1236] Paulson and Thompson 1913.

[1237] Michael 1884.

[1238] Zopf 1907.

[1239] Lesdain 1910.

[1240] Wheldon 1914.

[1241] See also p. 267.

[1242] Paulson and Thompson 1913.

[1243] Stone 1896.

[1244] Tutt 1900, p. 107.

[1245] Zopf 1907, p. 372.

[1246] Kihlman 1890.

[1247] Linnaeus 1762.

[1248] Johnson 1861.

[1249] Lindsay 1856.

[1250] Willemet 1787.

[1251] Keller 1866.

[1252] Proust 1906.

[1253] Johnson 1861.

[1254] Church 1880.

[1255] Brown 1898.

[1256] Hutchinson 1916.

[1257] Forskål 1875, p. 193.

[1258] Watt 1890.

[1259] Calkins 1892.

[1260] Miyoshi 1893.

[1261] See p. 422.

[1262] Eversmann 1825.

[1263] Berkeley 1849.

[1264] Visiani 1867.

[1265] Errera 1893.

[1266] Müller-Argau 1881, p. 526.

[1267] See p. 138.

[1268] From an examination of old figures of the _Muscus cranii_, Arnold (1892, p. 53) has decided that several kinds of lichens or hepatics are included in this designation.

[1269] Parkinson 1640, p. 1313.

[1270] Ray 1686, p. 117.

[1271] Amoreux 1787, p. 46.

[1272] Dillenius 1741, p. 202.

[1273] Lightfoot 1777, II. p. 846.

[1274] Dorstenius 1540.

[1275] Culpepper 1652.

[1276] Hill 1751.

[1277] Cordus 1561.

[1278] Sibbald 1684.

[1279] Ray 1686.

[1280] Linnaeus 1737.

[1281] Scopoli 1760.

[1282] Cramer 1880.

[1283] Kobert 1895.

[1284] Keegan 1905.

[1285] Henneguy 1883.

[1286] Kobert 1895.

[1287] Neubert 1893.

[1288] See p. 228.

[1289] Gmelin 1752, p. 425.

[1290] Léorier 1825.

[1291] Stenberg 1868.

[1292] Richard 1877.

[1293] Henneguy 1883.

[1294] Wainio 1887, p. 47.

[1295] Hellbom 1886, p. 72.

[1296] Hoffmann 1787.

[1297] Westring 1792 and 1793.

[1298] Westring 1805-1809.

[1299] Zopf 1907.

[1300] Ronceray 1904.

[1301] Zopf 1907.

[1302] Zahlbruckner (1905, p. 109) quotes from Czapek a statement that orchil fermentation is brought about by an obligate aerobic bacillus.

[1303] Zopf 1907, p. 393.

[1304] Lindsay 1855.

[1305] Bohler 1835, N. 10.

[1306] Johnson 1861.

[1307] Lindsay 1855.

[1308] Linnaeus 1711.

[1309] Linnaeus 1760.

[1310] Willemet etc. 1787.

[1311] Zopf 1907.

[1312] Lindsay 1855.

[1313] Lettau 1914.

[1314] Sorby 1873.

[1315] Gerard 1597.

[1316] Amoreux 1787.

[1317] Hue 1889.

[1318] Hue 1900.

[1319] Bauhin 1650, p. 88.

[1320] Zwelser 1672.

[1321] Georgi 1779.

[1322] Amoreux 1787.

[1323] Dundonald 1801.

[1324] Henneguy 1883.

[1325] See p. 302.

[1326] _Journ. Bot._ LVIII. pp. 213-9; 262-7, 1920.

[1327] _Bot. Memoirs_, 3, Oxford, 1919.

[1328] Church _in litt._

[1329] _Journ. Bot._ _l.c._

[1330] See p. 271 _ante_.

[1331] See p. 302 _ante_.

[1332] _Chemist and Druggist_, XCII. pp. 25-26, 1920; _Bot. Abstracts_, N. 903, p. 135, 1920.

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—— Lichenologische Notizen. I. Cephalodien von Sticta und Solorina. Flora, LX. pp. 177-184, 193-203, 1877¹. II. Flechtenparasiten, tom. cit. pp. 209-214, 1877².

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INDEX

_Abrothallus_ De Not., 267 _A. Cetrariae_ Kotte, 264 _A. oxysporus_ Tul., 263 _A. Peyritschii_ Kotte, 264 _A. Smithii_ Tul., 263

_Acanthothecium_ Wain., 322

_Acarinae_, 271, 397

_Acarospora_ Massal., 183, 331, 390 _A. chlorophana_ Massal., 374, 375, 390 _A. glaucocarpa_ Koerb., 176 _A. Heppii_ Koerb., 377 _A. pruinosa_ (Sm.), 377 _A. smaragdula_ Massal., 388, 393 _A. xanthophana_ (Nyl.), 242

Acarosporaceae, 310, 331

_Acarus_, 395

Acharius, 1, 10, 123, 126, 133, 141, 149, 156, 185, 192, 304

_Acolium_, S. F. Gray, 277

_Acrocordia gemmata_ Koerb., 152 (Fig. 90 B)

_Acroscyphus_, Lév., 320 _A. sphaerophoroides_ Lév., 289

_Actinoplaca_ Müll.-Arg., 327

Acton, xix, 57

Adanson, 9

Aesculus, 253

Agardh, C. A., xx, 21

_Agyrium flavescens_ Rehm, 266

Aigret, 125, 371, 384

_Alectoria_ Ach., 85, 94, 101, 103, 200, 257, 300, 340, 346, 350, 352 _A. implexa_ Nyl., 227 _A. jubata_ Ach., 3, 111, 401, 411 _A. nigricans_ Nyl., 346, 389 _A. ochroleuca_ Ach., 227, 389 _A. thrausta_ Ach., 105 (Fig. 60)

Alectoriaceae, 339

_Allarthonia_ Nyl., 321

_Allarthothelium_ Wain., 321

Allescher, 201

Almquist, 262

Ambergris, 419

Amoreux, 10, 407, 415, 418, 420

_Amphidium_ Nyl., 335

_Amphiloma_ Koerb., 325

_Anabæna_ Bory, 41

_Anaptychia_ Koerb., 341 (_see_ _Physcia_)

_Anapyrenium_ Müll.-Arg., 315

_Anema_ Nyl., 333, 373

Angiocarpeae, 156

_Anthoceros_ L., 41

_Anthracothecium_ Massal., 316, 350

_Anzia_ Stiz., 90, 299, 339 _A. colpodes_ Stiz., 90 _A. japonica_ Müll.-Arg., 90

Archer, 28

_Arctomia_ Th. Fr., 334

_Argopsis_ Th. Fr., 105, 135, 297, 330

Arnold, 18, 261, 342, 343, 364, 368, 370, 407

_Arnoldia minutula_ Born., 190 (Fig. 108)

Arnott, Walker, 15

Artari, 39, 42

_Arthonia_ Ach., 158, 203, 278, 305, 321, 343, 361 _A. astroidea_ Ach., 202 _A. cinnabarina_ Wallr. (_see_ _A. gregaria_), 349 _A. dispersa_ Nyl., 365 _A. gregaria_ Koerb., 247, 248 _A. lecideella_ Nyl., 365 _A. pruinosa_ Ach., 145 _A. radiata_ Ach., 78, 365 _A. subvarians_ Nyl., 262

Arthoniaceae, 59, 278, 309, 321

_Arthoniopsis_ Müll.-Arg., 321

_Arthopyrenia_ Massal., 30, 316 _A. fallax_ Arn., 365 _A. halizoa_ A. L. Sm., 383 _A. halodytes_ Oliv., 383 _A. leptotera_ A. L. Sm., 383 _A. macrospora_ Fink, 365 _A. marina_ A. L. Sm., 383 _A. punctiformis_ Arn., 346, 365 _A. quinqueseptata_ Fink, 365

_Arthotheliopsis_ Wain., 327

_Arthothelium_ Massal., 321

Ascolichens, 272, 273, 281, 308, 311

Ascomycetes xix, 178 _et passim_

_Ascophanus carneus_ Boud., 180

_Aspergillus_ Micheli, 220

_Aspicilia_ Massal., 133, 136, 140 (_see_ _Lecanora_) _A. atroviolacea_ (Flot.) Hue, 158 _A. flavida_ (Hepp), 248

Aspidoferae, 9

_Aspidopyrenium_ Wain., 314

_Aspidothelium_ Wain., 314

_Asteristion_ Leight., 337

_Asteroporum_ Müll.-Arg., 316

_Asterothyrium_ Müll.-Arg., 327

Astrotheliaceae, 309, 317, 352

_Astrothelium_ Trev., 317

Athalami, 305

_Aulaxina_ Fée, 322

_Azolla_ Laur., 41

Babikoff, 138

Babington, 18, 350

Bachmann, E., 35, 75, 76, 215, 216, 235, 247, 347, 393

Bachmann, Freda, 162, 179, 181, 186

_Bacidia_, De Not., 329 _B. acclinis_ (Flot.), 248 _B. Beckhausii_ Koerb., 262 _B. flavovirescens_ Anzi, 280 _B. fuscorubella_ Arn., 249, 365 _B. inundata_ Koerb., 372, 373, 377, 391, 392 _B. muscorum_ Mudd, 248, 368, 370, 377 _B. rubella_ Massal., 365

_Bacotia sepium_, 399

_Baeomyces_ Pers., 123, 293, 294, 330 _B. paeminosus_ Krempelh., 55 _B. placophyllus_ Ach., 293, 368 _B. roseus_ Pers., 123, 167, 195, 218, 247, 362, 367, 368, 369 _B. rufus_, DC., 123, 167, 177, 218, 237, 240, 362, 368, 369

Baranetzky, 24

Bary, de, 24, 31, 187, 209, 213

Bauhin, J., 419

Bauhin, K., 3

Baur, 51, 115, 118, 124, 161, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 180, 181, 185, 255

Beckmann, 230, 257

Beechey, 15

Beetle-mites, 397

Beijerinck, 39, 220

Beilstein, 211

_Belonia_ Koerb., 316

Berg, 211

Berkeley, 252, 404

Berzelius, 210

_Betula nana_ L., 95

Bialosuknia, 57

_Biatora_ Koerb., 158, 279, 293 (_see also_ _Lecidea_), 391

_Biatorella_ Th. Fr., 331 _B. cinerea_ Th. Fr., 375 _B. pruinosa_ Mudd, 217 (Fig. 119) _B. resinae_ Th. Fr., 355 _B. simplex_ Br. and Rostr., 217 (Fig. 118) _B. testudinea_ Massal., 375

_Biatorina_ Massal., 245, 291 _B. Bouteillei_ Arn., 363 _B. chalybeia_ Mudd, 386 _B. coeruleonigricans_ A. L. Sm., 367 _B. globulosa_ Koerb., 378 _B. lenticularis_ Koerb., 383 _B. prasina_ Syd., 33, 61 _B._ (_denigrata_) _synothea_ Koerb., 33, 204

_Bilimbia, aromatica_ Jatta, 349 _B. incana_ A. L. Sm., 343 _B. microcarpa_ Th. Fr., 262 _B. obscurata_ Th. Fr., 262 _B. sabulosa_ Massal., 370 _B. sphaeroides_ Koerb., 385

Bioret, 320

Birger, _see_ Nilson

Bitter, 64, 79, 94, 97, 131, 140, 143, 147, 148, 149, 151, 176, 240, 242, 253, 257, 261, 267, 337, 397

Blackman, 206

Blackman and Welsford, 179

_Blastenia_ Th. Fr., 340

_Blastodesmia_ Massal., 316

Bohler, 415

_Bombyliospora_ De Not., 329

Bonnier, 29, 36, 47, 65, 189, 232, 253

Bornet, 27, 28, 32, 36, 61, 78, 136, 189

Borrer, 12, 14

_Borrera_, _see_ _Physcia_

Borzi, 28, 161, 164

_Botrydina vulgaris_ Bréb., xix, 57

_Botrydium pyriforme_ Kütz., 45

_Bottaria_ Massal., 317

Bouilhac, 42, 140

Braconnot, 214

Brandt, 103, 130

Braun, Fr., 354

Braun, L., 393

Brefeld, 189, 207

Brez, 395

Brooks, F. T., 64, 179

Brown, E. W., 402

Brown, W. H., 168

_Bryopogon_, _see_ _Oropogon_

_Bryum_ L., 392

Buchet, 90

Buddle, 4

_Buellia_, De Not., 263, 280, 291, 302, 308, 341, 347 _B. aethalea_ Th. Fr., 261 _B. atrata_ Mudd, 245, 375 _B. canescens_ De Not., 80, 366, 377, 380, 399 _B. colludens_ Tuck., 382, 386 _B. coracina_ Koerb., 375 _B. discolor_ Koerb., 388 _B. leptocline_ Koerb., 374 _B. myriocarpa_ Mudd, 50, 346, 366, 369 _B. parasema_ Th. Fr., 365, 367, 377 _B. Parmeliarum_ Oliv., 263 _B. punctiformis_, 50, 202, 207 (Fig. 118) _B. ryssolea_ A. L. Sm., 380, 382 (Fig. 125) _B. stellulata_ Mudd, 382, 388 _B. triphragmia_ Th. Fr., 390 _B. turgescens_ Tuck., 367 _B. verruculosa_ Mudd, 261

Buelliaceae, 311, 341

Buxbaum, 6, 10

_Buxus sempervirens_ L., 353

Cactus, 325, 353

_Calenia_ Müll.-Arg., 338

Caliciaceae, 62, 115, 175, 189, 244, 288, 309, 319, 353, 366

_Calicium_ De Not., 184, 201, 277, 319, 361 _C. arenarium_ Nyl., 376 _C. corynellum_ Ach., 376 _C. hyperellum_ Ach., 349, 365 _C. parietinum_ Ach., 202, 367 _C. trachelinum_ Ach., 196, 202, 204

Calkins, 348, 403

_Callopisma_, _see_ _Placodium_

_Calluna_ Salisb., 95, 355

_Caloplaca_ Th. Fr. (_see_ _Placodium_), 340 _C. aurantia_, var. _callopisma_ Stein., 190 _C. gilvella_ (Nyl.), 276 _C. interveniens_ Müll.-Arg., 276 _C. pyracea_ Th. Fr., 34, 388

Caloplacaceae, 311, 340

_Calothricopsis_ Wain., 333

_Calycidium_ Stirt., 289, 320 _C. cuneatum_ Stirt., 350

_Camellia_ L., 269

Camerarius, 1

_Camillea_ Fr., 276

_Campylidium_, 191

_Campylothelium_ Müll.-Arg., 317

_Candelaria_ Massal., 339 _C. concolor_ Wain., 365, 388, 399

_Candelariella_ Müll.-Arg., 338 _C. cerinella_ A. Zahlbr., 390 _C. vitellina_ Müll.-Arg., 233, 237, 369, 377, 393, 417

_Capnodium_ Mont., 179

_Carpinus_ Tournef., 240

Carrington, 12

Carroll, 19

Cassini, 21

_Catillaria_ Th. Fr. (_see_ _Biatorina_), 329 _C. Hochstetteri_ Koerb., 375

Celidiaceae, 265

_Cellidium stictarum_ Tul., 267

_Cenomyce_ Th. Fr., 295

_Cephaleuros_ Kunze (_see_ _Mycoidea_), 59, 288

Cephaloidei, 303

_Cepteus ocellatus_, 397

_Cerania_ S. F. Gray, 340 _C. vermicularis_ S. F. Gray, 194, 387

_Cetraria_ Ach., 84, 94, 200, 210, 213, 225, 241, 264, 299, 346, 350, 357, 358, 370, 388, 399 _C. aculeata_ Fr., 211, 241, 262, 299, 300, 355, 369, 384, 385, 386, 387 _C. caperata_ Wain., 264 _C. crispa_ Lamy, 387, 388 _C. cucullata_ Ach., 201, 244, 389 _C. diffusa_ A. L. Sm., 366 _C. glauca_ Ach., 201, 231, 259, 264, 347, 388, 418 _C. islandica_ Ach., 2, 94, 128, 195 (Fig. 112), 210, 212, 221, 227, 231, 241, 338, 355, 387, 401 (Fig. 128), 406, 408, 409, 411, 416 _C. juniperina_ Ach., 201, 246, 416 _C. Laureri_ Kremp., 364 _C. nivalis_ Ach., 201, 210, 389 _C. pinastri_ S. F. Gray, 145, 246, 410 _C. tristis_, _see_ _Parmelia_

_Chaenotheca_ Th. Fr., 201, 319 _C. chrysocephala_ Th. Fr., 265, 277, 288

Chalice-Moss, 3

Chambers, 43

_Chasmariae_, 295

Chevalier, 13

_Chiodecton_ Müll.-Arg., 276, 320, 323, 351, 364

Chiodectonaceae, 59, 278, 309, 323

_Chlorella_ Beij., 56 _Ch. Cladoniae_ Chod., 56 _Ch. faginea_ Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 A) _Ch. lichina_ Chod., 56 _Ch. miniata_ Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 A) _Ch. viscosa_ Chod., 56 _Ch. vulgaris_ Beyer., 42, 56

_Chlorococcus_ (?Chlorococcum Fr.), 24

Chlorophyceae, xix, 51, 55-60, 61, 272, 324

Chodat, 28, 30, 43, 44, 55, 115, 329

Chroococcaceae, 25

_Chroococcus_ Naeg., 24, 52, 82, 136, 153, 284, 311, 332, 373 _Ch. giganteus_ West, 52 (Fig. 16) _Ch. Schizodermaticus_ West, 52 (Fig. 16) _Ch. turgidus_ Naeg., 52 (Fig. 16), 136

_Chroolepus_ Ag., _see_ _Trentepohlia_ _C. ebeneus_ Ag., 22

Chrysothricaceae, 57, 310, 325

_Chrysothrix_ Mont., 325, 353 _C. noli tangere_ Mont., 325

Church, A. Henry, 421

Church, A. Herbert, 402

_Cicinnobolus_ Ehrenb., 261

_Cinchona_ L., 364 _C. cordaminea_ Humb., 364 _C. cordifolia_ Mutis, 364 _C. oblongifolia_ Mutis, 364

Claassen, 34

_Cladina_ Leight., 112, 122, 253, 292

_Cladonia_ Hill, 9, 13, 23, 38, 44, 55, 56, 80, 81, 95, 104, 106, 172, 213, 237, 241, 242, 257, 262, 329, 344, 346, 347, 355, 358, 372, 375, 385, 391, 399, 408 _Cl. agariciformis_ Wulf., 368 _Cl. aggregata_ Ach., 120 _Cl. alcicornis_ Floerk., 385, 386 _Cl. alpestris_ Rabenh., 125, 211, 349, 369 _Cl. alpicola_ Wain., 122 _Cl. amaurocrea_ Schaer., 118 _Cl. bellidiflora_ Schaer., 119 _Cl. botrytes_ Willd., 173 _Cl. caespiticia_ Floerk., 115, 124, 294, 296 _Cl. cariosa_ Spreng., 113, 120, 295, 296, 368 _Cl. cartilaginea_ Müll.-Arg., 122 _Cl. ceratophylla_ Spreng., 122 _Cl. cervicornis_ Schaer., 113, 120, 122, 243, 384, 387 _Cl. coccifera_ Willd., 113, 118, 368, 369, 370, 387 _Cl. cristatella_ Tuck., 367, 369 _Cl. decorticata_ Spreng., 172 (Fig. 98) _Cl. deformis_ Hoffm., 226 _Cl. degenerans_ Floerk., 114, 117, 124 _Cl. destricta_ Nyl., 387 _Cl. digitata_ Hoffm., 113, 122, 371 _Cl. divaricata_ Meng. and Goepp., 355 _Cl. enantia_ f. _dilatala_ Wain., 112 _Cl. endiviaefolia_ Fr., 384 _Cl. fimbriata_ Fr., 51, 117, 120, 295, 296, 349, 367, 368, 370, 377; Subsp. _fibula_ Nyl., 119, 369 _Cl. flabelliformis_ Wain., 371 _Cl Floerkeana_ Fr., 173, 296, 362, 370 _Cl. foliacea_ Willd., 112, 113, 120, 122, 240, 295, 296 _Cl. furcata_ Schrad., 117 (Fig. 70), 118, 124, 194 (Fig. 109), 212, 295, 297, 355, 368, 369, 377, 386 _Cl. gracilis_ Hoffm., 115 (Fig. 68), 122, 124, 210, 297, 367, 369, 387 _Cl. leptophylla_ Floerk., 295, 296 _Cl. macilenta_ Hoffm., 362, 366, 367, 369, 378 _Cl. miniata_ Mey., 112, 122 _Cl. nana_ Wain., 112 _Cl. Neo-Zelandica_ Wain., 112 _Cl. papillaria_ Hoffm., 195, 296, 344 _Cl. pityrea_ Floerk., 255, 366 _Cl. pungens_ Floerk. (_see_ _Cl. rangiformis_) _Cl. pycnoclada_ Nyl., 345 _Cl. pyxidata_ Hoffm., 2, 44, 110, 111 (Fig. 66), 113, 114, 117 (Fig. 69), 118, 120, 124, 172, 227, 295, 346, 349, 362, 366, 368, 370, 371, 377, 408 _Cl. racemosa_ Hoffm., 387 _Cl. rangiferina_ Web., 56, 95, 117, 119, 120, 210, 211, 215, 227, 231, 237, 238, 253, 267, 293, 297, 349, 355, 357, 369, 386, 388, 400, 411 _Cl. rangiformis_ Hoffm., 271, 295, 366, 368, 386 _Cl. retepora_ Fr., 117, 120 (Fig. 71), 231, 351 _Cl. rosea_ Ludw., 354 _Cl. solida_ Wain., 114 _Cl. squamosa_ Hoffm., 113, 115 (Fig. 67), 118, 210, 243, 295, 366, 368 _Cl. sylvatica_ Hoffm., 95, 112, 117, 119, 271, 349, 366, 368, 369, 385, 400 _Cl. symphicarpia_ Tuck., 367 _Cl. tophacea_ Hill, 8 _Cl. turgida_ Hoffm., 369 _Cl. uncialis_ Web., 112, 120, 369, 387, 389 _Cl. verticillaris_ Fr., 122 _Cl. verticillata_ Floerk., 114, 119, 120, 124, 349, 367, 369

Cladoniaceae, 135, 292, 310, 329, 366, 370

Cladoniodei, 306

_Cladophora_ Kütz., 35, 59, 188 _C. glomerata_ Kütz., 58 (Fig. 30)

Cladophoraceae, 59

_Clathrinae_, 117, 120

_Clathroporina_ Müll.-Arg., 316

_Clausae_, 295

_Clavaria_ Vaill., 421

_Cleora lichenaria_, 399

_Cocciferae_, 295

_Coccobotrys_ Chod., 30, 40, 56, 315 _C. Verrucariae_ Chod., 57 (Fig. 24)

_Coccocarpia_ Pers., 335 _C. molybdaea_ Pers., 61 _C. pellita_ Müll.-Arg., 166

_Coccomyxa_ Schmidle, 56 _C. Solorinae croceae_ Chod., 56 _C. Solorinae saccatae_ Chod., 56 _C. subellipsoidea_ Acton, 57 (Fig. 25)

_Coccotrema_ Müll.-Arg., 316

Coenogoniaceae, 59, 291, 310, 328

_Coenogonium_ Ehrenb., 23, 35, 69, 182, 246, 291, 328, 351 _C. ebeneum_ A. L. Sm., 22 (Fig. 3), 34, 59, 328, 350, 352, 363 _C. implexum_ Nyl., 352 _C. Linkii_ Ehrenb., 213

Coenothalami, 303

_Coleochaete_ Bréb., 178

_Collema_ Wigg., 6, 9, 21, 23, 25, 30, 48, 69, 87, 132, 165, 173, 200, 230, 284, 305, 334, 367, 392 _C. ceranoides_ Borr., 385 _C. cheileum_ Ach., 161 _C. crispum_ Ach., 161, 180 _C. flaccidum_ Ach., 365 _C. fluviatile_ Sm., 392 _C. granulatum_ Ach., 368 _C. granuliferum_ Nyl., 69, 232, 243 _C. Hildenbrandii_ Garov., 202 (_see_ _Leptogium_) _C. limosum_ Ach., xx, 21, 349 _C. microphyllum_ Ach., 160 (Fig. 91), 161 (Fig. 92), 202 _C. nigrescens_ Ach., 20 (Fig. 2), 161, 243, 245, 364 _C. plicatile_, 409 _C. pulposum_ Ach., 24, 162, 179, 186, 202, 266, 368, 385 _C. pustulatum_ Ach., 373 _C. pycnocarpum_ Nyl., 365 _C. tenax_ Sm., 368

Collemaceae, 27, 53, 69, 160, 241, 244, 266, 284, 306, 310, 334, 364, 384, 396

_Collemodes_ Fink, 162 _C. Bachmannianum_ Fink, 162

_Collemodium_, _see_ _Leptogium_

_Collemopsidium_ Nyl., 333, 374

_Collybia_, Quél., 105

Colonna, 3

_Combea_ De Not., 83

_Conida_ Massal., 265, 267 _C. rubescens_, Arn., 265

_Conidella urceolata_ Elenk., 265

Coniocarpi, 307

Coniocarpineae, 267, 273, 274, 276, 288, 309, 319

_Coniocarpon_ DC., 305

_Coniocybe_ Ach., 277, 319, 366 _C. furfuracea_ Ach., 246, 376

_Conotrema_ Tuck., 326 _C. urceolatum_ Tuck., 343

_Convoluta roscoffensis_, 40

_Cora_ Fr., 53, 246, 281, 311, 342, 352 _C. Pavonia_ Fr., 88, 152 (Figs. 86, 87)

Coralloides, 5, 6, 7, 303

Corda, 200

Cordus, 409

_Cordyceps_ Fr., 261

_Corella_ Wain., 153, 311, 342, 352 _C. brasiliensis_ Wain., 154

_Coriscium_ Wain., 285, 288, 319

_Cornicularia_ (_Cetraria_) Schreb., 388 _C. ochroleuca_ Ach., 355 _C. subpubescens_ Goepp., 355 _C. succinea_ Goepp., 355

_Corylus_ Tournef., 240

Cramer, 409

Croall, 19

_Crocynia_ Nyl., 325 _C. gossypina_ Nyl., 325 _C. lanuginosa_ Hue, 325, 373

Crombie, xxi, 7, 18, 19, 197, 260, 262, 264, 306, 361

Crottles, 415

_Cruoria_ Fr., 73

_Cryptothecia_ Stirton, 331

_Cryptothele_ Nyl., 333

Cudbear, 413, 415

Culpepper, 409

Cunningham, 35, 269

Cuppe-Moss, 3

Cupthongs, 9

Curnow, 19

Cutting, 180

Cyanophili, 308, 310

Cyanophyceae, 309; _see_ Myxophyceae

_Cycas_ L., 40

Cyclocarpineae, 273, 279, 290, 309, 324

_Cyperus_, 419

Cypheliaceae, 309, 320

_Cyphelium_ Th. Fr., 276, 277, 288, 320

_Cyphella aeruginascens_ Karst., 191

_Cystococcus_ Chod., 55, 56 _C. Cladoniae fimbriatae_ Chod., 56 _C. Cladoniae pixidatae_ Chod., 56 (Fig. 56)

_Cystococcus_ Naeg., 24, 26, 28, 34, 115, 229 _C. humicola_ Naeg., 24, 27, 40, 55

_Cystocoleus_ Thwaites, 23

_Cytospora_ Ehrenb., 204

Czapek, 211, 413

_Dacampia_ Massal., 315

_Dactylina_ Nyl., 340 _D. arctica_ Nyl., 339, 346

Dangeard, 185

Danilov, 37

Darbishire, 18, 26, 51, 64, 77, 86, 90, 92, 101, 103, 110, 130, 147, 148, 166, 167, 171, 175, 180, 181, 253, 256, 299, 324, 342, 346, 347, 377, 389

Darbishire and Fischer-Benzon, 307

_Darbishirella_ A. Zahlbr., 324

Davies, 12, 14

Dawson, 178

De Candolle, 12

Deckenbach, 59

Deer, 401

Delise, 13, 126

_Dendrographa Darbish._, 324 _D. leucophaea Darbish._, 103, 213

_Dermatiscum_ Nyl., 331

Dermatocarpaceae, 309, 314

_Dermatocarpon_ Eschw., 80, 81, 276, 288, 315 _D. aquaticum_ A. Zahlbr., 391, 392 _D. cinereum_ Th. Fr., 368 _D. hepaticum_ Th. Fr., 368, 388 _D. lachneum_ A. L. Sm., 88, 368 _D. miniatum_ Th. Fr., 56, 96 (Fig. 56), 173 (Fig. 99), 185, 241, 261, 373, 391, 392, 403

Desfontaines, 10

Diatoms, 220

_Dichodium_ Nyl., 334

Dickson, 9

_Dictyographa_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Dictyonema_ A. Zahlbr., 54, 153, 311, 342, 352

_Didymella_ Sacc., 276

_Didymosphaeria pulposi_ Zopf, 266

Dillenius, xx, 1, 6, 155, 192, 262, 304, 407

Dioscorides, 2

_Diplogramma_ Müll.-Arg., 322

Diplopodon, 270

Diploschistaceae, 310, 326

_Diploschistes_ Norm., 326 _D. bryophilus_ Zahlbr., 374 _D. ocellatus_ Norm., 247, 248, 374 _D. scruposus_ Norm., 195, 214, 241, 243, 262, 368

_Diplosphaera_ Bial., 57 _D. Chodati_ Bial., 57

_Dirina_ Fr., 73, 83, 290, 323

Dirinaceae, 290, 309, 323

_Dirinastrum_ Müll.-Arg., 290, 323

Discocarpi, 307

Discomycetes, 267, 273

Dodoens, 3

Dog-lichen, 408

Domestic animals (Oxen, horses, etc.), 401

Don, 14

Doody, 4

Dorstenius, 2, 408

_Dothidea_ Fr., 317

Dufour, 11

_Dufourea_ Nyl., 340

Dufrenoy, 42, 260, 269

_Dumontia_ Lamour., 111

Dundonald, Lord, 420

Ectolechiaceae, 69, 310, 327, 352, 363

Egeling, 234

_Elaphomyces_ Nees, 261

Elenkin, 36, 37, 258, 265, 347

Elenkin and Woronichin, 353

Elfving, xxi, 25

_Encephalographa_ Massal., 322

_Enchylium_ Massal., _see_ _Forssellia_

_Endocarpon_ Hedw., 62, 88, 89, 197, 200, 261, 288, 315, 351, 389 _E. monstrosum_ Massal., 373 _E. pusillum_ Hedw., 28 (Figs. 5, 6)

_Endocena_ Cromb., 339, 340

_Endomyces scytonemata_ Zuk., 38

Englehardt, 354

_Enterodictyon_ Müll.-Arg., 323

_Enterographa_ Fée, 320 _E. crassa_ Fée, 350

_Enterostigma_ Müll.-Arg., 323

_Erioderma_ Fée, 335

_Eolichen_ Zuk., 285, 319 _E. Heppii_ Zuk., 319

Ephebaceae, 54, 284, 310, 331

_Ephebe_ Fr., 23, 25, 27, 30, 38, 68, 201, 284, 322 _E. lanata_ Wain., _see_ _E. pubescens_ _E. pubescens_ Nyl., 23 (Fig. 3)

_Ephebeia_ Nyl., 332

Epiconiaceae, 307

Epiconiodei, 306

_Epigloea_ Zuk., 313 _E. bactrospora_ Zuk., 313

Epigloeaceae, 57, 309, 313

_Erica tetralix_ L., 95

Errera, 213, 214, 405

_Erysiphe_ Link, 188

Eschweiler, 15, 184

Escombe, 210

Etard and Bouilhac, 42, 140

Ettingshausen and Debey, 354

Euler, 214

_Eunephroma_ Stiz., 337

_Euopsis granatina_ Nyl., 282, 387

_Evernia_ Ach., 84, 95, 99, 200, 213, 340 _E. furfuracea_ Mann, 24, 38, 94, 99, 108, 142 (Fig. 81), 151, 227, 231, 233, 300, 366, 376, 403, 405 _E. prunastri_ Ach., 2, 100 (Fig. 59), 108, 210, 211, 212, 227, 233, 234, 238, 269, 300, 364, 384, 385, 396, 400, 403, 418, 419

_Everniopsis_ Nyl., 339, 340

Eversman, 404

Famintzin, 24

_Farriolla_ Norm., 319

Faull, 178

Fée, 13, 15, 184, 187, 192, 364

Fink, Bruce, xx, 242, 254, 348, 358, 365, 367, 368, 369, 373, 389, 391

Fischer, 308

Fitting, 36

Fitzpatrick, 181

Flagey, 373, 389

Florideae, 160, 177, 273

Flörke, 12, 13, 133

Flotow, 23, 192

_Fontinalis_ L., 391

_Forficula auricularia_, 396

Forskål, 403

Forssell, 63, 65, 133, 136, 163, 175, 282, 373

_Forssellia_ A. Zahlbr., 284, 333, 373

Forster, 12, 14

Fossil Lichens, 353-355

Frank, 31, 62, 78

Fraser, 178

French, xxiii

Friedrich, 75, 233, 269, 270

Fries, E., 13, 22, 149, 364

Fries, Th. M., 17, 18, 133, 138, 152, 192, 263, 342

_Fucus_ L., 281 _F. spiralis_ L., 383

Fuisting, 30, 159, 173

Fünfstück, 18, 19, 61, 75, 76, 161, 169, 170, 171, 175, 181, 216, 218, 219, 224, 342

Gage, 14

Galløe, 95, 242

Gargeaune, 45

Gasterolichens, 308

Gautier, 213

_Geisleria_ Nitschke, 314 _G. sychnogonioides_ Nitschke, 370

Georgi, 10, 420

_Geosiphon_ Wettst., 45

Gerard, John, 3, 418

Gibelli, 200

Gilson, 209

Gleditsch, 269

_Gloeocapsa_ Kütz., 23, 32, 55, 61, 68, 136, 195, 232, 284, 292, 332, 373 _G. magma_ Kütz., 52 (Fig. 17), 60, 136 _G. polydermatica_ Kütz., 53

_Gloeocystis_ Naeg., 33, 57 (Fig. 28), 61, 133, 318

Gloeolichens, 175, 282, 284, 373, 389

_Glossodium_ Nyl., 330 _G. aversum_ Nyl., 294

Glück, 198

_Glyphis_ Fée, 276, 323

_Glypholecia_ Nyl., 331

Gmelin, J. F., 152

Gmelin, J. G., 411

_Gnomonia erythrostoma_ Auersw., 178

Goeppert, 354, 393

Goeppert and Menge, 354

_Gomphillus_ Nyl., 293, 330

_Gongrosira_ Kütz., xxi

_Gongylia_ Koerb., 314 _G. viridis_ A. L. Sm., 368, 388

_Gonohymenia_ Stein., 333

_Gonothecium_ Wain., 31, 327

Gordon, Cuthbert, 415

_Gossypina Ulmi_, 399

Grammophori, 307

Graphidaceae, 59, 158, 309, 321, 351, 352, 364

Graphideae, 13, 17, 27, 34, 62, 78, 79, 172, 348, 349, 351, 353, 364

Graphidineae, 273, 278, 289, 309, 320, 365

_Graphina_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Graphis_ Adans., 9, 211, 321, 322, 343, 349, 351, 355, 361, 364 _G. elegans_ Ach., 30, 158 (Fig. 89), 172, 180, 397 _G. scripta_ Ach., 50, 349, 354, 365, 366 _G. scripta succinea_ Goepp., 355

Gray, J. E., 12, 305

Grete Herball, 2

Greville, 12

Grimbel, 250

_Grimmia pulvinata_ Sm., 393 _G. apocarpa_ Hedw., 393

Guembel, 392

Guérin-Varry, 210

Guillermond, 167

_Gunnera_ L., 31, 41

_Gyalecta_ Ach., 191, 328 _G. cupularis_ Schaer., 244 _G. Flotovii_ Koerb., 244 _G. geoica_ Ach., 254 _G. rubra_ Massal., 249

Gyalectaceae, 54, 59, 69, 310, 327

_Gyalolechia_ Massal., 201 _G. subsimilis_ (Th. Fr.) Darb., 378

Gymnocarpeae, 156, 308, 318

_Gymnoderma_ Nyl., 330 _G. coccocarpum_ Nyl., 293

_Gymnographa_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Gyrophora_ Ach., 88, 96, 184, 200, 227, 231, 241, 249, 268, 304, 331, 346, 350, 376, 390, 393, 414 _G. cylindrica_ Ach., 176, 184 (Fig. 103), 375, 387 _G. erosa_ Ach., 330, 387 _G. esculenta_ Miyosh., 403 _G. flocculosa_ Turn. and Borr., 375 _G. murina_ Ach., 94 _G. polyphylla_ Hook., 387 _G. polyrhiza_ Koerb., 94, 349, 404 (Fig. 129) _G. proboscidea_ Ach., 192, 346, 375 _G. spodochroa_ Ach., 94 _G. tonefacta_ Cromb., 375, 387 _G. vellea_ Ach., 74, 176

Gyrophoraceae, 291, 310, 330

_Gyrostomum_ Fr., 326

Haberlandt, 106, 188

_Haematomma_ Massal., 230, 236, 338 _H. coccineum_ Koerb., 214, 223, 226 _H. elatinum_ Koerb., 201 _H. ventosum_ Massal., 214, 225, 241, 252, 298, 375, 376, 388, 393

_Hagenia ciliaris_, 24

Haller, 7, 126

_Halopyrenula_ Müll.-Arg., 318

Halsey, 14

Hamlet and Plowright, 213

Harmand, 63

Harper, 167, 178, 181, 188

_Harpidium_ Koerb., 298, 338 _H. rutilans_ Koerb., 298

Harriman, 14

_Hassea_ A. Zahlbr., 319

Hedlund, 32, 61, 204, 245

Hedwig, 142, 156, 184, 192

_Helix hortensis_, 396 _H. cingulata_, 396

Hellbom, 350, 411

_Helminthocarpon_ Fée, 322

Henneguy, 410, 411, 420

_Heppia_ Naeg., 81, 175, 285, 335, 348, 351, 389 _H. Depreauxii_ Tuck., 368 _H. Guepini_ Nyl., 80, 88, 96 _H. virescens_ Nyl., 368

Heppiaceae, 54, 285, 310

Herberger, 221

Herissey, 213

Herre, 230, 253, 349

Hesse, 12, 221, 224

_Heterocarpon_ Müll.-Arg., 315

_Heterodea_ Nyl., 339 _H. Mülleri_ Nyl., 128, 299, 339, 350

Heterogenei, 303

_Heteromyces_ Müll.-Arg., 293, 330

_Heufleria_ Trev., 317

Hicks, 24

_Hildenbrandtia_ Nardo, 73

Hill, Sir John, 8, 409

Hoffmann, 10, 154, 412, 415

Hofmann, 261

Holl, 19

Holle, 14, 46, 187

Holmes, 19, 422

Homogenei, 303

_Homopsella_ Nyl., 334

Homothalami, 305

_Homothecium_ Mont., 334

Hooker, 12, 15, 149

Hornschuch, xx, 156

How, 3

Howe, Heber, 85, 224, 348

Hudson, 7, 9, 303

Hue, 11, 16, 18, 33, 57, 63, 69, 73, 82, 85, 103, 133, 135, 136, 140, 188, 262, 283, 315, 325, 339, 340, 342, 347, 348, 360, 396, 418

Hulth, 215

Hutchins, 14

Hutchinson, 403

_Hydrothyria_ Russ., 336 _H. venosa_ Russ., 97, 175, 233, 286, 348, 390

_Hymenobolina parasitica_ Zuk., 267, 399

Hymenolichens, xix, 54, 152-154, 273, 281, 308, 311, 335, 342

Hymenomycetes, xix, 153 _et passim_

Hyphomycetes, xix, 191

_Hypnum_ L., 392 _H. cupressiforme_ L., 385

_Hypogymnia_ Nyl., 94, 176

_Hypoxylon_ Bull., 12

Hysteriaceae, 273, 307

_Hysterium_ Tode, 12

Iceland Moss, 210, 401 _et passim_

_Icmadophila_ Massal., 166, 338 _I. aeruginosa_ Mudd, _see_ _I. ericetorum_ _I. ericetorum_ A. Zahlbr., 196, 244, 370

_Illosporium carneum_ Fr., 268

_Ingaderia_ Darbish., 324

Iris, white, 419

_Isidium_ Ach., 149 _I. corallinum_ Ach., 149 _I. Westringii_ Ach., 149

Istvanffi, 202, 206

Itzigsohn, 17, 23, 24, 193

Jaczewski, 353

Jasmine, oil of, 419

Jatta, 129

_Jenmania_ Wächt., 333, 352

Jennings, Vaughan, 60

Jesuit’s bark, 10

John, 250

Johnson, C. P., 401, 402

Johnson, W., 19

Johow, 153

_Jonaspis_ Th. Fr., 328

Joshua, 19

Jumelle, 230, 238

Kajanus (Nilson), 151

_Karschia_ Koerb., 280 _K. destructans_ Tobl., 265 _K. lignyota_ Sacc., 280

Keeble, 41

Keegan, 224, 410

Keiszler, 201

Keller, 402

Kerner and Oliver, 215

Kieffer, 371

Kienitz-Gerloff, 51

Kihlman, 237, 358, 388, 401

Knop, 213, 247

Knop and Schnederman, 221

Knowles, 224, 249, 379, 384, 391

Kobert, 409, 410

Koelreuter, 155

Koerber, 14, 123, 142, 188, 305

_Koerberia_ Massal., 334

Kotte, 264

Krabbe, 63, 113, 114, 119, 122, 123, 124, 143, 147, 162, 170, 172, 174, 176, 177, 253

Kratzmann, 214

Krempelhuber, 1, 55, 244, 364

Kupfer, 261

Kützing, 22

_Laboulbenia_ Mont. and Robin, 178

Laboulbeniaceae, 178, 274

_Lachnea scutellata_ Gill., 168 _L. stercorea_ Gill., 178

Lacour, 211

Lang, 76, 216, 235

Larbalestier, 19

Laubert, 206

_Laudatea_ Joh., 154

_Laurera_ Reichenb., 317

Lecanactidaceae, 310, 325

_Lecanactis_ Eschw., 204, 325

_Lecania_ Massal., 136, 338 _L. candicans_ A. Zahlbr., 80 (Fig. 43) _L. cyrtella_ Oliv., 377 _L. erysibe_ Mudd, 377 _L. holophaea_ A. L. Sm., 350

_Lecaniella_ Wain., 327

_Lecanora_ Ach., 78, 88, 200, 298, 305, 338, 347, 349, 351, 353, 364, 365, 372, 390 _L. aquatica_ Koerb., 391 _L. aspidophora_ f. _errabunda_ Hue, 262 _L. atra_ Ach., 63, 225, 249, 375, 380, 382 (Fig. 125), 384, 386, 393 _L. atriseda_ Nyl., 261 _L. atroflava_, _see_ _Placodium_ _L. aurella_ (Hoffm.), 262 _L. badia_ Ach., 79, 375, 386 _L. caesiocinerea_ Nyl., 218, 384 _L. calcarea_ Somm., 218 (Fig. 120), 373, 396 _L. campestris_ B. de Lesd., 361, 384 _L. cenisia_ Ach., 375 _L. cinerea_ Somm., 229, 349, 375 _L. citrina_ Ach., _see_ _Placodium_ _L. coilocarpa_ Nyl., 30 _L. crassa_ Ach., 79, 81, 201, 218, 367, 368, 373, 389 _L. crenulata_ Hook., 361, 377 _L. Dicksonii_ Nyl., 250, 375 _L. dispersa_ Nyl., 261, 369, 377, 384 _L. effusa_ Ach., 204 _L. epanora_ Ach., 246 _L. epibryon_ Ach., 378, 389 _L. epulotica_ Nyl., 392 _L. esculenta_ Eversm., 211, 257, 265, 298, 389, 404 (Fig. 130), 422 _L. exigua_, _see_ _Rinodina_ _L. ferruginea_ Nyl., 30 _L. galactina_ Ach., 254, 262, 360, 369, 377, 384, 386 _L. gelida_ Ach., 135, 136, 137 (Fig. 77), 140, 375 _L. gibbosa_ Nyl., 375, 384, 386 _L. glaucoma_ Ach., _see_ _L. sordida_; var. _corrugata_ Nyl., 84 (Fig. 46) _L. Hageni_ Ach., 366, 367, 369, 377, 383 _L. hypnorum_ Ach., _see_ _Psoroma_ _L. lacustris_ Th. Fr., 233, 250, 391, 392 _L. lentigera_ Ach., 81, 90, 298, 367 _L. muralis_ Schaer., 242 _L. ochracea_ Nyl., 373 _L. pallescens_ Mudd, 213 _L. pallida_ Schaer., 78 _L. parella_ Ach., 72, 375, 382, 384, 417 _L. peliocypha_ Nyl., 375 _L. picea_ Nyl., 374 _L. piniperda_ Koerb., 204 _L. polytropa_ Schaer., 237, 376, 394 _L. prosechoides_ Nyl., 383, 384 _L. rubina_ Wain., 390 _L. rugosa_ Nyl., 366 _L. Sambuci_ Nyl., 204 _L. saxicola_ Ach., 79, 80, 81, 233, 252, 349, 369, 384, 386, 393, 396 _L. simplex_ Nyl. (_see_ _Biatorella_), 75, 77, 382 _L. smaragdula_ Nyl., 382 _L. sophodes_ Ach., 30; _see_ _Rinodina_ _L. sordida_ Th. Fr., 194, 236, 261, 374, 375, 380, 382 _L. squamulosa_ Nyl., 374 _L. subfusca_ Ach., 22, 30, 49, 65 (Fig. 34), 70 (Fig. 57), 157 (Fig. 88), 164, 166, 167, 168, 236, 347, 365, 366 _L. sulphurea_ Ach., 226, 238, 376, 384 _L. tartarea_ Ach., 57, 147, 183 (Fig. 102), 224, 225, 227, 237, 262, 346, 358, 359, 371, 375, 387, 389, 414 (Fig. 134) _L. umbrina_ Massal., 377, 385 _L. upsaliensis_ Nyl., 387 _L. urbana_ Nyl., 361 _L. varia_ Ach., 227, 346, 360, 361, 362, 366, 367, 377 _L. ventosa_, _see_ _Haematomma_ _L. verrucosa_ Laur., 378 _L. xantholyta_ Nyl., 373

Lecanoraceae, 136, 311, 337, 353

Lecanorales, 297

_Lecidea_ Ach., 78, 184, 261, 279, 292, 304, 308, 328, 346, 347, 349, 351, 353, 364, 365, 372, 373, 385, 390 _L. aglaea_ Somm., 375 _L. albocoerulescens_ Ach., 392 _L. alpestris_ Somm., 387 _L. arctica_ Somm., 387 _L. aromatica_ (_see_ _Bilimbia_) _L. atrofusca_ Nyl., 248, 387 _L. auriculata_ Th. Fr., 375 _L. Berengeriana_ Th. Fr., 387 _L. coarctata_ Nyl., 247 _L. coeruleonigricans_ Schaer., 373 _L. colludens_ Nyl., 384; _see_ _Buellia_ _L. confluens_ Ach., 375, 388; f. _oxydata_ Leight., 250 _L. consentiens_ Nyl., 134, 135 _L. contigua_ Fr., 375, 376, 388, 392; var. _flavicunda_ Nyl., 250 _L. crustulata_ Koerb., 369 _L._ (_Bilimbia_) _cuprea_ Somm., 387 _L. cupreiformis_ Nyl., 387 _L. decipiens_ Ach., 291, 367, 368 _L. decolorans_ Floerk, _see_ _L. granulosa_ _L. demissa_ Th. Fr., 369, 387 _L. diducens_ Nyl., 375 _L. enteroleuca_ Nyl., 164, 168, 365 _L. fumosa_ Ach., 159 _L. fuscoatra_ Ach., 200 (Fig. 114), 375 _L. gelatinosa_ Floerk., 368 _L. granulosa_ Schaer., 218, 237, 269, 291, 362, 369, 370, 377 _L. grisella_ Floerk., 243 _L. helvola_ Th. Fr., 245 _L. herbidula_ Nyl., xxi _L. illita_ Nyl., 136 _L. immersa_ Ach., 217 (Fig. 117), 398 _L. inserena_ Nyl., 375 _L. insularis_ Nyl., 236, 261 _L. irregularis_ Fée, 192 _L. Kochiana_ Hepp, 375 _L. lapicida_ Ach., 375 _L. lavata_ Nyl., 384 _L. limosa_ Ach., 387 _L. lucida_ Ach., 246, 376 _L. lurida_ Ach., 79, 195, 241, 367 _L. mesotropa_ Nyl., 375 _L. Metzleri_ Th. Fr., 398 _L. nigroclavata_ Nyl., 384 _L. ostreata_ Schaer., 79, 145, 291, 366 _L. pallida_ Th. Fr., 135 _L. panaeola_ Ach., 134, 135, 136, 375 _L. parasema_ Ach., 183 (Fig. 101), 366 _L. pelobotrya_ Somm., 135, 136 _L. phylliscocarpa_ Nyl., 31 _L. phyllocaris_ Wain., 31, 327 _L. plana_ Nyl., 375 _L. platycarpa_ Ach., 375 _L. pycnocarpa_ Koerb., 375 _L. quernea_ Ach., 236, 349, 386 _L. rivulosa_ Ach., 374, 375, 376 _L. sanguinaria_ Ach., 187 (Fig. 105), 248 _L. sanguineoatra_ Ach., 370 _L. stellulata_ Tayl., 376 _L. sulphurella_ Hedl., 242 _L. sylvicola_ Flot., 372 _L. testacea_ Ach., 195 (Fig. 111) _L. tricolor_ Nyl. (_Biatorina Griffithii_), 362 _L. tumida_ Massal., 375 _L. uliginosa_ Ach., 254, 291, 370, 385, 387 _L. vernalis_ Ach., 66 (Fig. 35)

Lecideaceae, 135, 241, 279, 291, 298, 310, 327, 328, 341, 346, 353

Lecideales, 290, 308

_Leciophysma_ Th. Fr., 334

Leighton, 16, 17, 18, 19, 134, 306, 342, 353, 388

_Leiosoma palmicinctum_, 397

Lemming rats, 401

_Lemmopsis_ A. Zahlbr., 334

_Lenzites_ Fr., 261, 371

Léorier, 411

_Lepidocollema_ Wain., 81, 336

Lepidoptera, 399

_Lepolichen_ Trevis., 318 _L. coccophora_ Hue, 57, 318 _L. granulatus_ Müll.-Arg., 318

_Lepra_ Hall., 143 _L. viridis_ Humb., 23

_Lepraria_ Ach., 143, 237, 305 _L. botryoides_, xx _L. chlorina_, 376

Leprieur, 15

_Leprocollema_ Wain., 285, 354

_Leproloma_ Nyl., 325

_Leptodendriscum_ Wain., 284, 332

_Leptogidium_ Nyl., 284, 332, 350 _L. dendriscum_ Nyl., 332

_Leptogium_ S. F. Gray, 69, 84, 87, 232, 285, 335, 370 _L. Burgessii_ Mont., 245 _L. byssinum_ Nyl., 368 _L. Hildenbrandii_ Nyl., 364 _L. lacerum_ S. F. Gray, 243, 254, 373 _L. myochroum_ Nyl., 365 _L. scotinum_ Fr., 385 _L. turgidum_ Nyl., 385

_Leptorhaphis_ Koerb., 263, 316

Lesdain, Bouly de, 140, 270, 271, 366, 369, 376, 398

_Letharia_ A. Zahlbr., 84, 340 _L. vulpina_ Wain., 95, 105, 226, 228, 246, 265, 349, 364, 410, 417

Lett, 19

Lettau, 225, 227, 369, 391, 417

Lichen, xxvi, 1, 5, 9, 303

_Lichen albineus_ Ludw., 354

_Lichen candelarius_ L., 371, 415

_Lichen cinereus terrestris_, 407

_Lichen dichotomus_ Engelh., 354

_Lichen diffusus_ Ludw., 354

_Lichen gelatinosus_ Rupp, 6

_Lichen juniperinus_ L., 415

_Lichen orbiculatus_ Ludw., 354

_Lichen parietinus_ L., 371, 415

_Lichen Roccella_ L., 415

_Lichen saxatilis_ L., 415

_Lichen tartareus_ L., 415

_Lichen tenellus_ Scop., 371

Lichenacei, 306

_Lichenes Coralloidei_ etc. Hall., 7

_Lichenodium_ Nyl., 334

Lichenoides, 1, 6, 7, 304, 415

_Lichenophoma_ Keisz., 201

Lichenoxanthine, 418

_Lichina_ Ag., 163, 195, 201, 233, 281, 284, 334, 383 _L. confinis_ Ag., 383, 384 _L. pygmaea_ Ag., 195, 201, 383

Lichinaceae, 55, 99, 310, 333

_Lichinella_ Nyl., 354

Lightfoot, 9, 280, 303, 407, 415

_Limax_, 396

Lindau, 18, 34, 36, 48, 64, 67, 78, 108, 149, 164, 168, 170, 176, 178, 184, 233, 269, 330

Lindsay, xx, 16, 17, 19, 120, 193, 203, 252, 262, 266, 348, 354, 358, 391, 401, 415, 417

Link, 371

Linkola, 141

Linnaeus, 7, 142, 154, 304, 312, 392, 401, 409, 415

Lister, 267

_Listerella paradoxa_ Jahn, 267

_Lithographa_ Nyl., 322

_Lithoicea_ Massal., _see_ _Verrucaria_ _L. lecideoides_ Massal., 373

_Lithothelium_ Müll.-Arg., 317

Litmus, 413

_Lobaria_ Schreb., 136, 182, 287, 336 _L. laciniata_ Wain., 133, 134 _L. laetevirens_ A. Zahlbr., 2, 196 _L. pulmonaria_ Hoffm., 2, 3, 10, 90, 96, 126 (Fig. 127), 130, 195, 252, 267, 336, 400, 406, 408, 411, 416, 418 _L. scrobiculata_ DC., 130, 143

L’Obel, 2

_Lopadiopsis_ Wain., 327

_Lopadium_ Koerb., 191, 329

_Lophothelium_ Stirt., 319

Loxa (_Cinchona_), 364

Ludwig, 354

_Luffia lapidella_, 399

Lung-wort, 406, 409

Lutz, 108

Luyken, xx, 156, 184

Lycoperdaceae, 307

Lyell, 14

_Lyngbya_ Ag., 136

Mackay, 13

McLean, 385

Macmillan, 357, 391

Maheu, 243, 387

Maire, 185, 186, 189

Malinowski, 74, 371, 374

Malme, 261

Malpighi, 5, 142, 155

Manna, 404, 422

_Marchantia_ L., 1, 5

_Maronea_ Massal., 331

Martindale, 19

Martius, 15

_Massalongia_ Koerb., 287, 335

Massalongo, 16, 188, 305

Massee, 308

_Mastoidea_ Hook. and Harv., 315

Mastoidiaceae, 60, 309, 315

Mattirolo, 152

Mäule, 162, 164

Mayfield, 368

_Mazosia_ Massal., 59, 323

Mead, Richard, 407

_Megalospora_ Mey. and Flot., 329

_Melampydium_ Müll.-Arg., 325

_Melanotheca_ Müll.-Arg., 317

_Melaspilea_ Nyl., 321, 322

Mereschkovsky, 258

Merrett, 3

Metzger, 176, 240

Meyer, 13, 46, 51, 126, 143, 156, 187, 252, 258, 305

_Micarea_ Fr., _see_ _Biatorina_ Massal.

Michael, 397

Michaux, 14

Micheli, 1, 6, 142, 155

_Microcystis_ Kütz., 52, 319

_Microglaena_ Lönnr., 314

_Micrographa_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Microphiale_ A. Zahlbr., 328

_Microthelia_ Koerb., 316

_Microtheliopsis_ Müll.-Arg., 318

Minks, 26

_Minksia_ Müll.-Arg., 323

Mites, 395, 397

Miyoshi, 256, 403

_Mnium hornum_ L., 65 (Fig. 35)

Moebius, 62

Mohl, 185, 186

Molisch, 250

Möller, 49, 154, 196, 202, 203

_Moma orion_, 399

_Monas Lens_, xx

_Monascus_, Van Teigh., 178

Montagne, 15

Moreau, xxi, 168, 175, 176, 212, 266

_Moriola_ Norm., 313

Moriolaceae, 309, 313

Morison, 1, 4, 5, 155, 304

Moss, 356

Mousse des Chênes, 418

Mudd, 16, 17, 19

Muenster, 354

Mühlenberg, 14

Mulder, 210

Müller(-Argau), 18, 26, 191, 192, 205, 278, 307, 353, 405

Müller, K., 212

Müllerella Hepp, 275

_Musco-fungus_, 1

_Muscus_, 1

_Muscus cranii humani_, 413

Musk, 419

Mycetozoon on Lichens, 267

_Mycoblastus_ Norm., 329 _M. sanguinarius_ Th. Fr., 188; _see_ _Lecidea_

_Mycocalicium_ Rehm, 277 _M. parietinum_ Rehm, 277

_Mycoconiocybe_ Rehm, 277

_Mycoidea_ Cunningh., 35, 59, 309, 318, 352, 363 _M. parasitica_ Cunningh., 36, 59 (Fig. 31), 60

Mycoideaceae, 59

Mycoporaceae, 309, 318, 352

Mycoporellum Zahlbr., 159, 318

Mycoporum Flot., 159, 276, 318

_Mycosphaerella_ Johans., 39

Mycosphaerellaceae, 275

Myriangiacei, 306

_Myxodictyon_ Massal., 338

Myxophyceae, xix, 51, 52-55, 60, 68, 272, 324, 385

_Narcyria monilifera_, 399

Necker, 123, 154

Nees von Esenbeck, xxiv

_Neophyllis_ Wils., 330, 351

_Nephroma_ Ach., 63, 135, 136, 169, 244, 286, 337, 348 _N. expallidum_ Nyl., 139 (Fig. 79)

_Nephromium_ Nyl., 63, 158, 175, 200, 222, 244, 283, 286, 337, 349, 351 _N. laevigatum_ Nyl., 195 _N. lusitanicum_ Nyl., 228, 246 _N. tomentosum_ Nyl., 87, 128, 169

_Nephromopsis_ Müll.-Arg., 158, 244, 339

Neubert, 410

Neubner, 62, 175, 189, 288

_Neuropogon_ Flot. and Nees, 346

Nienburg, 38, 64, 123, 166, 167, 168, 169, 177, 185, 196, 240

Nilson, 147, 151, 250, 358, 389

Norman, 16, 313

_Normandina_ Nyl., _see_ _Coriscium_

_Normandina_ Wain., 315

_Nostoc_ Vauch., 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 42, 53, 61, 63, 69, 136, 138, 232, 246, 266, 285, 309 _et seq._, 396 _N. coerulescens_ Lyngb., 53 (Fig. 18) _N. lichenoides_ Kütz., xx, 54 _N. Linckia_ Born., 53 (Fig. 18) _N. sphaericum_ Vauch., 54 _N. symbioticum_, 45

Nostocaceae, 25, 53

Notaris, De, 1, 15, 16

_Notaspis lutorum_, 397

_Nyctalis_ Fr., 261

Nylander, xxi, 7, 8, 16, 18, 25, 30, 52, 126, 131, 135, 136, 152, 197, 228, 262, 306, 325, 350, 353, 360, 383

_Nylanderiella_ Hue, 315

_Obryzum_ Wallr., 263

_Ocellularia_ Spreng., 326

_Ochrolechia_ Massal., 338 _O. pallescens_ Koerb., 187 (Fig. 106), 213

_Ochrophaeae_ Wain., 295

Officinal barks, 15

Ohlert, 234

Oidia, 189

Olivier, 342

_Omphalaria_ Dur. and Mont., 348, 373, 393 _O. Heppii_ Müll., 63 _O. pulvinata_ Nyl., 373

_Oniscus_, 396

_Oospora_ Wallr., 45

_Opegrapha_ Ach., 11, 13, 35, 184, 304, 321, 322, 353, 354, 361 _O. atra_ Pers., 15, 202 _O. calcarea_ Turn., 383 _O. endoleuca_ Nyl., 243 _O. hapalea_ Ach., 243 _O. saxicola_ Ach., 216, 219 _O. subsiderella_ Nyl., 50, 202, 349 _O. Thomasiana_ Goepp., 354 _O. varia_ Pers., 354, 365 _O. vulgata_ Ach., 30 _O. zonata_ Koerb., 392

_Opegraphella_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Orbilia coccinella_ Karst., 261

Orchil lichen, 412, 416

_Oribata Parmeliae_, 397

Oribatidae, 397

_Oropogon_ Fr., 340 _O. loxensis_ Th. Fr., 130, 210, 352

_Orphniospora_ Koerb., 329

_Orthidium_, 191

Orthoptera, 397

_Oscillaria_ Bosc., 24

_Pachyphiale_ Lönnr., 328

_Padina Pavonia_ Gaillon, 153

_Palmella_ Lyngb., 24, 57, 232, 278, 282, 289, 309, 321, 338, 353 _P. botryoides_ Kütz., 313

_Pannaria_ Del., 61, 79, 81, 135, 168, 175, 336, 392 _P. brunnea_ Massal., 244, 370 _P. microphylla_ Massal., 81, 244 _P. pezizoides_ Leight., 63 _P. rubiginosa_ Del., 283 _P. triptophylla_ Nyl., 244

Pannariaceae, 54, 135, 285, 287, 311, 335

_Pannoparmelia_ Darbish., 338 _P. anzioides_ Darbish., 90 (Fig. 51)

Paracelsus, 407

Paratheliaceae, 309, 316, 352

_Parathelium_ Müll.-Arg., 317

Parfitt, 95

Parkinson, 3, 407

Parmelei, 353

_Parmelia_ Ach., 84, 86, 93, 94, 95, 133, 200, 213, 227, 231, 238, 241, 242, 249, 260, 264, 267, 269, 299, 300, 305, 346, 347, 348, 349, 351, 354, 364, 372, 414 _P. acetabulum_ Dub., 30, 167, 169 (Fig. 96), 170, 180, 195 (Fig. 111), 231, 255, 259, 360 _P. adglutinata_ Floerk., 365 _P. aleurites_ Ach., 364 _P. alpicola_ Fr., 18, 350, 387 _P. aspidota_ Rosend. (_see_ _P. exasperata_), 92 (Fig. 53), 170, 338 _P. Borreri_ Turn., 265; _see_ _P. dubia_ _P. caperata_ Ach., 88 (Fig. 49), 253, 255, 365, 366, 395 _P. cetrata_ Ach., 92 _P. conspersa_ Ach., 194, 241, 242, 355, 369, 376, 416, 417 _P. crinita_ Nyl., 365 _P. dubia_ Schaer., 377 _P. encausta_ Ach., 268, 388, 393 _P. enteromorpha_ Ach., 131 _P. exasperata_ Carroll, 62, 129 (Fig. 74), 132, 196 _P. farinacea_ Bitt., 131, 143 _P. fuliginosa_ Nyl., 247, 361, 376, 386 _P. glabra_ Nyl., 87, 170, 176 _P. glabratula_ Lamy, 170 _P. glomellifera_ Nyl., 249, 251 _P. hyperopta_ Ach., 261 _P. isidiophora_ A. Zahlbr., 66 _P. Kamtschadalis_ Eschw., 300 _P. lacunosa_ Meng. and Goepp., 355 _P. lanata_ Wallr., _see_ _P. pubescens_ _P. locarensis_ Zopf., 249 _P. molliuscula_ Ach., 265 _P. Mougeotii_ Schaer., 375 _P. obscurata_ DC., 64, 131, 176, 242 _P. olivacea_ Ach., 247, 365 _P. omphalodes_ Ach., 3, 260, 375, 387, 415 (Fig. 135) _P. papulosa_ Rosend., 150, 214, 219 _P. perforata_ Hook. (?), 365 _P. perlata_ Ach., 92, 114, 213, 237, 243, 262, 353, 363, 403, 416 _P. pertusa_ Schaer., 131 _P. physodes_ Ach., 64, 91, 144 (Fig. 83), 146 (Fig. 84), 156, 194, 234, 237, 242, 253, 262, 299, 355, 361, 363, 366, 384, 385, 416 _P. pilosella_ Hue, 92 _P. proboscidea_ Tayl., 92, 150 _P. prolixa_ Carroll, 241, 249, 382 _P. pubescens_ Wain., 85, 299, 300, 350, 375, 387 _P. revoluta_ Floerk., 247, 259 (Fig. 121) _P. saxatilis_ Ach., 169, 170, 242, 243, 253, 260, 355, 361, 365, 366, 375, 386, 387, 393, 407 (Fig. 131), 416 _P. scortea_ Ach., 150, 366 _P. stygia_ Ach., 130, 299, 350, 375, 387, 393 _P. subaurifera_ Nyl., 143, 226, 246, 377 _P. sulcata_ Tayl., 144, 361 _P. tiliacea_ Ach., 164, 170, 252, 365 _P. tristis_ Wallr., 88, 130, 247, 375, 387 _P. verruculifera_ Nyl., 87, 143, 214 _P. vittata_ Nyl., 131, 143

Parmeliaceae, 200, 287, 298, 311

Parmeliales, 308

_Parmeliella_ Müll.-Arg., 81, 286, 336

_Parmeliopsis_ Nyl., 339

_Parmentaria_ Fée, 317

_Patellaria_ Fr., 280

Patellariaceae, 278

_Patinella_ Sacc., 279 _P. atroviridis_ Rehm, 278

Patouillard, 389

_Paulia_ Fée, 284, 333, 352

Paulson, 244, 254, 366

Paulson and Hastings, 28, 38, 44, 56, 260

Paulson and Thompson, 254, 361, 369, 377, 397

_Peccania_ Forss., 284, 333, 373

Peirce, xxiii, 33, 34, 108, 258, 359

Peltati, 305

_Peltidea_ Ach., 63, 286; _see_ _Peltigera_

_Peltigera_ Willd., 3, 42, 53, 61, 63, 88, 135, 136, 137, 168, 175, 186, 204, 212, 213, 222, 232, 242, 257, 266, 283, 286, 337, 346, 349, 355, 367, 384, 385, 392 _P. americana_ Wain., 351 _P. aphthosa_ Willd., 26, 87, 133, 138 (Fig. 78 A, B), 141, 211, 262, 347, 359, 370, 406 _P. canina_ Willd., 24, 51, 84 (Fig. 47), 87, 89 (Fig. 50), 93 (Figs. 54, 55), 97, 185, 213, 254, 262, 359, 367, 370, 394, 396, 407, 418 _P. horizontalis_ Hoffm., 169, 244 _P. lepidophora_ (Nyl.) Bitt., 140 _P. leptoderma_ Nyl., 351 _P. malacea_ Fr., 169, 370 _P. polydactyla_ Hoffm., 51, 244, 266, 368 _P. rufescens_ Hoffm., 169, 386 _P. spuria_ Leight., 268, 369 _P. spuriella_ Wain., 351 _P. venosa_ Hoffm., 244, 347

Peltigeraceae, 54, 135, 283, 286, 287, 311, 336

_Pelvetia canaliculata_ Dec. and Thur., 39

_Pentagenella_ Darbish., 83, 324

_Perforaria_ Müll.-Arg., 337

Persio, 413

Persoon, 10, 21, 123, 156, 395

_Pertusaria_ DC., 34, 73, 85, 86, 88, 170, 180, 186, 213, 246, 253, 337, 414 _P. amara_ Ach., 148, 236, 243, 349, 361, 366, 408 (Fig. 132) _P. communis_ DC., 50, 202, 214 (Fig. 116), 255, 269, 366, 393 _P. concreta_ Nyl., 382 _P. corallina_ (Ach.) Bachm., 374 _P. dactylina_ Nyl., 387 _P. dealbata_ Cromb., 215, 375, 376 _P. faginea_ Leight., 396 _P. globulifera_ Nyl., 33 (Fig. 12), 236, 237, 262, 357, 366 _P. glomerata_ Schaer., 387 _P. lactea_ Nyl., 374, 376 _P. leioplaca_ Schaer., 365 _P. lutescens_ Lamy, 226 _P. melaleuca_ Dub., 417 _P. oculata_ Th. Fr., 387 _P. velata_ Nyl., 265 _P. Wulfenii_ DC., 226, 366

Pertusariaceae, 147, 311

Petch, 397

Petiver, 4, 10

_Petractis_ Fr., 327 _P. exanthematica_ Fr., 61, 75, 215, 216

_Peziza_ Dill., 157, 213, 307 _P. resinae_ Fr., 355

Pfaff, 221

Pfeffer, 220

_Phacopsis vulpina_ Tobl., 265

_Phaeographina_ Müll.-Arg., 322

_Phaeographis_ Müll.-Arg., 322 _Ph. Lyellii_ A. Zahlbr., 350

_Phaeotrema_ Müll.-Arg., 326

_Phalena_, 395

_Phascum cuspidatum_ Schreb., 45

_Phialopsis rubra_ Koerb., 174, 249; _see_ _Gyalecta_

Phillips, 252

_Phleopeccania_ Stein., 284, 333, 352

_Phlyctella_ Müll.-Arg., 338

_Phlyctidia_ Müll.-Arg., 338

_Phlyctis_ Wallr., 338 _P. agelaea_ Koerb., 174

Phycolichens, 22, 282, 283, 285

_Phycopeltis_ Millard., 59, 278, 318, 321, 322, 323, 327, 352, 363 _P. expansa_ Jenn., 35 (Fig. 13), 60 (Fig. 32)

_Phyllactidium_ Moeb., 59, 62, 288, 309, 310, 318, 327, 363 _P. tropicum_ Moeb., 59

_Phylliscidium_ Forss., 333

_Phylliscum_ Nyl., 286, 333

_Phyllobathelium_ Müll.-Arg., 318

_Phyllophora_ Grev., 111

_Phyllophthalmaria_ A. Zahlbr., 326, 352 _Ph. coccinea_ A. Zahlbr., 352

_Phylloporina_ Müll.-Arg., 318

_Phyllopsora_ Müll.-Arg., 329 _P. furfuracea_ A. Zahlbr., 329

Phyllopsoraceae, 310, 329

Phyllopyreniaceae, 309, 318

Phymaloidei, 304

_Physcia_ Schreb., 90, 94, 166, 186, 238, 301, 351, 372, 399 _P. aipolia_ Nyl., 20 (Fig. 1), 249 _P. aquila_ Nyl., 380, 382, 384 _P. ascendens_ Bitt., 270, 369, 377 _P. caesia_ Nyl., 226, 369, 384 _P. chrysophthalma_, _see_ _Teloschistes_ _P. ciliaris_ DC., 3, 46, 84 (Fig. 48), 92, 94, 99, 103, 155, 165 (Fig. 94), 166, 167, 182 (Fig. 100), 184, 185 (Fig. 104), 187, 189, 192, 243, 246, 247, 355, 360, 411, 419 _P. granulifera_ Nyl., 365 _P. hispida_ Tuck., 29, 92, 146, 164, 166, 169, 194 (Fig. 110), 241, 271, 360, 366 _P. hypoleuca_ Tuck., 399 _P. intricata_ Schaer., 301 _P. leucomelas_ Mich., 99 _P. obscura_ Nyl., 243, 360, 365, 369, 377 _P. parietina_ (_see_ _Xanthoria_), 29 (Figs. 7, 8) _P. picta_ Nyl., 349, 353 _P. pulverulenta_ Nyl., 28, 164 (Fig. 93), 166, 181, 248, 360, 365, 366, 377, 399 _P. puncticulata_ Hue, 33 _P. sciastrella_ Hann., 369 _P. stellaris_ Nyl., 29, 365, 384 _P. stellaris_ var. _tenella_ Cromb., _see_ _P. hispida_ Tuck. _P. subobscura_ A. L. Sm., 384 _P. tenella_ Bitt., 366, 384, 386 _P. tribacia_ Nyl., 365 _P. villosa_ Dub., 268

Physciaceae, 136, 200, 267, 300, 308, 311, 341

_Physcidia_ Tuck., 299, 339 _Ph. Wrightii_ Nyl., 352

_Physma_ Massal., 163, 284, 334, 341 _P. chalazanum_ Arn., 32 (Fig. 9) _P. compactum_ Koerb., 163, 266 _P. franconicum_ Massal., 263

Pilocarpaceae, 310, 325

_Pilocarpon_ Wain., 325, 353; _see_ _Pilophorus_ _P. leucoblepharum_ Wain., 325, 363

_Pilophorus_ Th. Fr., 17, 125, 133, 135, 201, 292, 294, 297, 330 _P. robustus_ Th. Fr., 136

_Pinus sylvestris_ L., 94, 271

_Piptocephalis_ De Bary, 261

_Placidiopsis_ Beltr., 288

_Placodium_ DC., 80, 339, 340, 346, 360, 372 _P. atroflavum_ A. L. Sm., 386 _P. aurantiacum_ Hepp, 365 _P. bicolor_ Tuck., 136 _P. callopismum_ Mér., 349 _P. cerinum_ Hepp, 262, 365, 366, 367 _P. citrinum_ Hepp, 224, 271, 349, 373, 377, 386, 393 _P. decipiens_ Leight., 218, 369, 383 _P. elegans_ DC., 225, 241, 347, 369, 390 _P. ferrugineum_ Hepp, 346, 384 _P. flavescens_ A. L. Sm., 377 _P. fruticulosum_ Darbish., 347 _P. fulgens_ S. F. Gray, 367 _P. lacteum_ Lesd., 377 _P. lobulatum_ A. L. Sm., 379, 382, 384 _P. luteoalbum_ Hepp, 301 _P. murorum_ DC., 42, 80 (Fig. 42), 227, 241, 243, 347, 369, 380 _P. nivale_ Tuck., 301 _P. pyraceum_ Anzi, 369, 377 _P. rupestre_ Br. and Rostr., 301 _P. subfruticulosum_ Elenk., 347 _P. sympageum_, _see_ _P. flavescens_ _P. tegularis_ (Ehrh.) Darbish., 379, 384 _P. teicholytum_ DC., 369

_Placodium_ Hill (non DC.), 8

_Placodium_ Web. (non DC.), 9 _P. Garovagli_ (Koerb.) Fried., 81 _P. saxicolum_ S. F. Gray, 146, 168; _see_ _Lecanora_

_Placolecania_ Zahlbr., 338

_Placothelium_ Müll.-Arg., 285, 319

_Placynthium_ Ach., 336 _P. nigrum_ S. F. Gray, 248, 373

_Plagiothecium sylvaticum_ Buch. and Schimp., 237

_Plagiotrema_ Müll.-Arg., 317

_Platygrapha_ Nyl., 325

_Platysma_ Nyl., 8, 200, 257; _see_ _Cetraria_ _P. commixtum_ Nyl., 375 _P. corniculatum_ Hill, 8 _P. Fahlunense_ Nyl., 375 _P. glaucum_ Nyl., 10, 375, 376, 418 _P. lacunosa_ Nyl., 375

_Pleospora collematum_ Zuk., 163, 266

_Pleurococcus_ Menegh. (?), 22, 29, 62 _P. Naegeli_ Chod., 28 _P. vulgaris_ Menegh., 28, 55 (Fig. 22), 223 _P. vulgaris_ Naeg., 28

_Pleurocybe_ Müll.-Arg., 320 _P. madagascarea_ A. Zahlbr., 289

_Pleurothelium_ Müll.-Arg., 317

_Pleurotrema_ Müll.-Arg., 317

Plot, 4

Plowright, 207

Plukenet, 5

_Poa compressa_ L., 393

_Poduridae_, 256

_Polyblastia_ Massal., 48, 314 _P. catalepta_ (Ach.) Fuist., 30 _P. Vouauxi_ Lesd., 378

_Polyblastiopsis_ Nyl., 316

_Polycauliona_ Hue, 339, 340, 346 _P. regale_ Hue, 339, 346

Polycaulionaceae, 339

_Polychidium_ A. Zahlbr., 284, 332

_Polycoccus_ Kütz., 24 _P. punctiformis_ Kütz., 24, 54, 61

_Polyporus_ Mich., 261

_Polystictus versicolor_ (Fr.), 152

_Polystigma rubrum_ DC., 178, 207

_Polystroma_ Clem., 326 _P. Ferdinandezii_ Clem., 326

_Polytrichum_ L., 392 _P. commune_ L., 237

_Polyxenus_, 270

_Porina_ Ach., 204, 316 _P. lectissima_ A. Zahlbr., 249, 251, 392 _P. olivacea_ A. L. Sm., 159 (Fig. 90 A)

_Porocyphus_ Koerb., 332

_Poronia_ Willd., 13, 178

Porta, 5

Porter, 109, 270

_Prasiola_ Ag., 60, 309, 315 _P. parietina_ Wille, 60 (Fig. 33)

Prasiolaceae, 60

Propagula, 11

Protocaliceaceae, 277

Protococcaceae, 55, 288, 291, 309, 310, 313 _et seq._, 353, 363

_Protococcus_ Ag., xx, 28, 56, 62, 63, 65, 287 _P. botryoides_ Kirchn., 65 _P. viridis_ Ag., 22, 28, 44, 48 (Fig. 15), 55 (Fig. 22), 65, 313

_Pseudopyrenula_ Müll.-Arg., 316

_Psocus_, 397

_Psora_ (_Lecidea_) _decipiens_ Hook., 388

_Psorella_ Müll.-Arg., 329

_Psoroglaena_ Müll.-Arg., 315

_Psoroma_ S. F. Gray, 136, 285, 286, 335 _P. hypnorum_ S. F. Gray, 63, 81, 88, 89, 135, 246, 283, 370

_Psoromaria_ Nyl., 285, 286, 335

_Psorotichia_ Massal., 68, 163, 333, 373 _Ps. lugubris_ Dal. Tor. and Sarnth., 375 _Ps. lutophila_ Arn., 368

Psychides, 399

_Pterygiopsis_ Wain., 332

_Pterygium_ Nyl., 333 _Pt. Kenmorensis_ A. L. Sm., 392

_Ptychographa_ Nyl., 321, 322

Pulteney, 4, 14

Pulvis antilyssus, 407

Pulvis Cyprius, 419

_Pycnothelia_ (_Cladonia_) _papillaria_ Duf., 369

_Pyrenastrum_ Eschw., 317

Pyrenidiaceae, 53, 54, 275, 285, 309, 319

_Pyrenidium_ Nyl., 285, 319 _P. actinellum_ Nyl., 99

Pyrenocarpeae, 158, 273, 308

Pyrenocarpei, 306, 307, 353

Pyrenocarpineae, 273, 275, 288, 308

_Pyrenocollema_ Reinke, 334

_Pyrenographa_ Müll.-Arg., 323

Pyrenolichens 159, 241, 276, 352, 391

Pyrenomycetes 158, 267, 273

Pyrenopsidaceae, 282, 284, 310, 352

_Pyrenopsidium_ Forss., 333

_Pyrenopsis_ Nyl., 60, 68, 163, 175, 333 _P. haematopis_ Th. Fr., 195 _P. impolita_ Forss., 175 _P. phaeococca_ Tuck., 175

_Pyrenothamnia_ Tuck., 99, 315 _P. Spraguei_ Tuck., 288

Pyrenothamniaceae, 309, 315

_Pyrenothea_ Ach., 192

_Pyrenothrix_ Riddle, 319

_Pyrenula_ Ach., 200, 316 _P. cinerella_ Fink, 365 _P. leucoplaca_ Koerb., 365 _P. nitida_ Ach., 174, 194, 240, 255, 350, 354, 364, 365 _P. thelena_ Fink, 365

Pyrenulaceae, 50, 276, 309, 316, 365

_Pyrgidium_ Nyl., 319 _P. bengalense_ Nyl., 353

_Pyrgillus_ Nyl., 289, 320

_Pyronema_ Carus., 167 _P. confluens_ Tul., 178

_Pyxidium_ Hill, 8

_Pyxine_ Nyl., 301, 341 _P. Cocoës_ Nyl., 353 _P. Meissnerii_ Tuck., 353

_Quercus alba_, 359 _Q. chrysolepis_, 359 _Q. Douglasii_, 359

_Racodium_ Pers., 35, 328 _R. rupestre_ Pers., 291, 328

Radais, 42

_Ramalina_ Ach., 3, 84, 103, 110, 195, 213, 238, 244, 257, 270, 305, 340, 347, 348, 351, 359, 361, 363 _R. calicaris_ Fr., 3, 104, 147, 210, 353, 355, 365, 366, 418, 419 _R. ceruchis_ De Not., 103 _R. Curnowii_ Cromb., 104, 109 _R. cuspidata_ Nyl., 225, 271 (_see_ _R. siliquosa_), 384 _R. dilacerata_ Hoffm., 106, 130 _R. Eckloni_ Mont., 130 _R. evernioides_ Nyl., 103, 300 _R. farinacea_ Ach., 10, 239, 269, 271, 353, 366, 400, 411 _R. fastigiata_ Ach., 109, 365, 366, 400, 411 _R. fraxinea_ Ach., 104, 106, 130 (Fig. 75 A), 155, 164, 170, 195, 200, 212, 215, 300, 355, 365, 366, 400, 411, 418 _R. gracilenta_ Ach., 349 _R. homalea_ Ach., 103 _R. Landroensis_ Zopf, 109, 130 _R. minuscula_ Nyl., 103 (Fig. 62), 147 _R. pollinaria_ Ach., 109, 227, 349, 366 _R. reticulata_ Krempelh., 33 (Fig. 11), 99, 106 (Fig. 64), 253, 257, 359 _R. scopulorum_ Ach., _see_ _R. siliquosa_ _R. siliquosa_ A. L. Sm., 104, 109 (Fig. 65), 130, 224, 225, 271, 300, 379 (Fig. 122), 381 (Figs. 123, 124) _R. strepsilis_ Zahlbr., 104, 130 (Fig. 75 B) _R. subfarinacea_ Nyl., 380 _R. tertiaria_ Engelh., 354

Ramalinaceae, 339

_Ramalinites lacerus_ Braun, 354

Ramalodei, 306

_Ramonia_ Stizenb., 328

Rathapu, 403

Ray, 4, 407, 409

Rees, 27

Rehm, 277

Reindeer, 401

Reindeer moss, 400 _et passim_

Reinke, 18, 31, 41, 68, 123, 125, 130, 144, 253, 277, 284, 291, 307, 324

_Reinkella_ Darbish., 83, 324

Relhan, 9

Rhabdopsora Müll.-Arg., 319

_Rhizina undulata_ Fr., 181

_Rhizocarpon_ Ramond, 248, 302, 329, 341 _R. alboatrum_ Th. Fr., 365, 369, 373, 383 _R. concentricum_, _see_ _R. petraeum_ _R. confervoides_ DC., 71 (Fig. 38 A, B), 369, 386 _R. distinctum_ Th. Fr., 261 _R. epipolium_ (Ach.), 265 _R. geographicum_ DC., 73, 74 (Figs. 40, 41), 226, 236, 243, 246, 249, 252, 261, 264, 291, 346, 372, 374, 376, 380 _R. obscuratum_ Massal., 392 _R. Oederi_ Koerb., 375 _R. petraeum_ Koerb. (?), 374 _R. petraeum_ Massal., 171 (Fig. 97), 375, 392 _R. viridiatrum_ Koerb., 249, 375, 376

_Rhizomorpha_ Roth, 12

_Rhymbocarpus punctiformis_ Zopf, 264

_Ricasolia_ De Not., 94 (_see_ _Lobaria_), 168, 175 _R. amplissima_ De Not., 133, 134 (Fig. 76), 195, 197, 357 _R. laetevirens_ Leight., 357

Richard, 377, 411

Richardson, Dr, 6

Richardson, Sir John, 388

Riddle, 137

_Rinodina_ S. F. Gray, 301, 302, 341, 372 _R. archaea_ Wain., 346 _R. Conradi_ Koerb., 370 _R. exigua_ S. F. Gray, 366, 367, 377, 383, 384 _R. isidioides_ Oliv., 301 _R. oreina_ Wain., 301, 374, 390 _R. sophodes_ Th. Fr., 367 _R. turfacea_ Th. Fr., 262, 377

_Rivularia_, 55, 136, 138, 284, 333 _R. Biasolettiana_, 54 (Fig. 21) _R. minutula_ Born. and Fl., 54 (Fig. 21) _R. nitida_ Ag., 55

Rivulariaceae, 54

_Roccella_ DC., 3, 34, 35, 83, 103, 200, 225, 233, 242, 278, 292, 324, 351, 359, 363 _R. fuciformis_ DC., 83 (Fig. 45), 98 (Fig. 57), 101, 110, 227, 228, 349, 350, 412 _R. fucoides_ Wain., 349, 350 _R. Montagnei_ Bél., 213, 413 _R. peruensis_ Kremp., 413 _R. phycopsis_ Ach., 110; _see_ _R. fucoides_ _R. portentosa_ Mont., 413 _R. sinuensis_ Nyl., 413 _R. tinctoria_ DC., 213, 215, 227, 349, 350, 413 (Fig. 133)

Roccellaceae, 59, 83, 110, 279, 290, 309, 323

_Roccellaria_ Darbish., 323, 324

_Roccellina_ Darbish., 83, 290, 323, 324

_Roccellographa_ Stein., 83, 290, 323, 324

Rock tripe, 404

Roebuck, 401

Ronceray, 213, 413

Rosendahl, 86, 90, 93, 129, 170, 176, 214, 218, 249

Roses, spirit of, 419

Roy, 411

Ruel, 2

Rupp, 5

_Russula_ Pers., 161

Sachs, 17, 23

_Sagedia_, _see_ _Verrucaria_ _S. declivum_ Am., 251

_Sagiolechia_ Massal., 328

_Salix repens_ L., 357

Salter, 51, 393

Sandstede, 233, 384, 385

Sappin-Trouffy, 207

_Sarcographa_ Fée, 323

_Sarcographina_ Müll.-Arg., 323

_Sarcogyne_ (= _Biatorella_) _latericola_ Stein., 76

_Sarcopyrenia_ Nyl., 314

Sättler, 123, 173, 296, 358

Schade, 376

Schaerer, 15, 192

Schellenberg, 212

Schenk, 213

Schikorra, 178

Schimper, 354, 355

_Schismatomma_ Flot., 325

_Schizopelte_ Th. Fr., 83, 324

Schneider, 7, 135, 136, 139

Schreber, 126

Schrenk, 231, 258, 359

Schulte, 104, 105, 106, 177

Schwarz, 224

Schweinfurth, 405

Schweinitz, 15

Schwenckfeld, 3

Schwendener, xx, 2, 16, 17, 18, 25, 27, 36, 71, 82, 86, 92, 126, 128, 129, 142, 147, 168, 213, 224, 307

_Sclerophyton_ Eschw., 323 _S. circumscriptum_ A. Zahlbr., 322

Scopoli, 8, 21, 154, 409

Scott-Elliot, 253

Scutellati, 305

_Scutovertes maculatus_, 397

_Scytonema_ Ag., 54, 57, 61, 68, 75, 136, 153, 216, 232, 281, 284, 309 _et seq._, 318 _S. mirabile_ Thur., 53 (Fig. 19)

Scytonemaceae, 54

_Secoliga_ (_Gyalecta_) _bryophaga_ Koerb., 368

_Segestria_, _see_ _Porina_

Senft, 223

_Septoria_ Fr., 204

Sernander, 94, 140, 355

Servettaz, 45

Servit, 374

Sherard, 4, 6, 7

Sibbald, 409

Sibthorp, 9

Sievers, 230

_Simonyella_ Steiner, 324

_Siphula_ Fr., 340

_Sirosiphon pulvinatus_ Bréb., 54

Sloane, 10

Smith, Lorrain, 328

Smith, Sir J. E., 10

_Solorina_ Ach., 56, 63, 85, 94, 135, 136, 168, 175, 176, 183, 287, 337, 392 _S. bispora_ Nyl., 135 _S. crocea_ Ach., 63, 88, 140, 210, 228, 246, 287, 346, 388 _S. octospora_ Arn., 85 _S. saccata_ Ach., 155, 244, 388 _S. spongiosa_ Carroll, 135, 186, 368

_Solorinella_ Anzi, 337

Sorby, 418

Sowerby, James, 10

Speerschneider, 17, 25

_Sphaeria_ Hall., 192, 213

Sphaeriaceae, 307

_Sphaerocephalum_ Web., 9

Sphaerophoraceae, 135, 309, 320

_Sphaerophoropsis_ Wain., 291, 329 _S. stereocauloides_ Wain., 292

_Sphaerophorus_ Pers., 83, 105, 184, 277, 289, 320, 361, 375, 387, 393 _S. coralloides_ Pers., 83 (Fig. 44) (_see_ _S. globosus_), 355, 375, 387, 388, 389 _S. fragilis_ Pers., 375, 387 _S. globosus_ A. L. Sm., 346 _S. stereocauloides_ Nyl., 135

_Sphagnum_ Dill., 231, 355

_Spheconisca_ Norm., 313

_Sphinctrina_ Fr., 277, 319, 353

_Sphyridium byssoides_, 177 _S. fungiforme_ Koerb., 177

_Spilonema_ Born., 68, 333

_Spirographa_ A. Zahlbr., 322

_Spirogyra_ Link, 188

_Splachnum_ L., 5

_Sporocladus lichenicola_ Corda, 200

_Sporodinia_ Link, 188

_Sporopodium_ Mont., 327, 352 _S. Caucasium_ Elenk. and Woron., 353

Sprengel, 21, 142, 156, 184

_Squamaria_ DC., 200, 298 _S. saxicola_, _see_ _Lecanora_

Stahel, 220

Stahl, 28, 30, 62, 160, 163, 173, 266, 395

Stahlecker, 76, 235, 371, 374

_Staurothele_ Norm., 31, 62, 76, 314 _S. clopima_ Th. Fr., 391 _S. clopismoides_ Anzi, 249 _S. hymenogonia_ A. Zahlbr., 361 _S. umbrinum_ A. L. Sm., 373, 393

_Steganosporium cellulosum_ Corda, 201

Steiner, 75, 179, 190, 198, 215, 276, 312, 353, 389

_Steinera_ A. Zahlbr., 333

Stenberg, 411

Stenhouse and Groves, 228

_Stenocybe_ Nyl., 177, 319

_Stereocaulon_ Schreb., 17, 23, 83, 105, 125, 133, 135, 176, 201, 283, 292, 294, 297, 330, 346, 358, 361, 387 _S. alpinum_ Laur., 137, 346, 387 _S. condensatum_ Hoffm., 319, 388 _S. coralloides_ Fr., 125, 375 _S. Delisei_ Borg., 375 _S. denudatum_ Floerk., 137, 375, 387 _S. evolutum_ Graewe, 375 _S. paschale_ Fr., 211, 372, 385, 391, 401 _S. ramulosum_ Ach., 125, 136 _S. salazinum_ Borg., 227 _S. tomentosum_ Fr., 125, 136, 387

_Stereochlamys_ Müll.-Arg., 316

_Stichococcus_ Naeg., 62 _S. bacillaris_ Naeg., 42

_Sticta_ Schreb., 13, 63, 85, 86, 94, 136, 138, 200, 283, 287, 336, 350, 351, 364, 392 _St. aurata_ Ach., 126, 128, 223, 226, 246, 350 _St. crocata_ Ach., 128, 246 _St. damaecornis_ Nyl., 127 (Fig. 73), 128, 210, 350 _St. Dufourei_ Del., 128 _St. fuliginosa_ Ach., 126, 128, 223 _St. intricata_ Del., 128 _St. limbata_ Ach., 128 _St. oregana_ Tuck., 136, 139 _St. sylvatica_ Ach., 128 _St. Wrightii_ Nyl., 349

Stictaceae, 96, 136, 286, 311, 336, 347, 350, 418

Stictidaceae, 278

_Stictina_ Nyl., 63, 168, 175, 287

_Stictis_ Pers., 278

_Stigmatea_ Fr., 275

_Stigonema_ Ag., 23, 26, 54 (Fig. 20), 68, 136, 283, 284, 310 _et seq._, 317 _S. panniforme_ Kirchn., 54

Stigonemaceae, 54

Stirton, 331, 350

Stizenberger, 18, 128

Stone, 399

_Streptothrix_ Cohn, 45

_Strigula_ Fr., 60, 65, 288, 318, 353, 363 _S. Buxi_ Chod., 363 _S. complanata_ Mont., 35, 42, 59, 205, 260, 269 _S. elegans_ Müll.-Arg., 205

Strigulaceae, 59, 60, 204, 309, 318, 363

Stüde, 211

Sturgis, 97, 168, 175, 197, 289

_Suaeda fruticosa_ Forsk., 387

Swartz, 10, 152

Swedish moss, 415

Symbiosis, 31

_Synalissa_ Fr., 32, 33, 61, 284, 333, 373 _S. symphorea_ Nyl., 33 (Fig. 10)

_Synarthonia_ Müll.-Arg., 321

Tabernaemontanus, 2

_Tapellaria_ Müll.-Arg., 327

Taylor, 13, 149

_Tegeocranus labyrinthicus_, 328

Teloschistaceae, 311, 341

_Teloschistes_ Norm., 85, 301, 341 _T. chrysophthalmus_ Th. Fr., 92, 365, 367 _T. flavicans_ Norm., 3, 301, 341, 417

_Teras literana_, 399

_Termes monoceros_, 397

Termites, 397

_Tetranychus lapidus_, 398 (Fig. 126)

Tetrasporaceae, 57

_Thamnolia_ Ach., 83, 101 (_see_ _Cerania_), 246, 340, 389 _Th. vermicularis_ Schaer., 346, 377

_Thamnonia_ Tuck., 339

Thaxter, 178

_Thelenidia_ Nyl., 314

_Thelephora_ Ehrh., 281, 342

Thelephoraceae, 152, 273

_Thelidea_ Hue, 335 _Th. corrugata_ Hue, 335

_Thelidium_ Massal., 314 _Th. microcarpum_ A. L. Sm., 361 _Th. minutulum_ Koerb., 253, 367

_Thelocarpon_ Nyl., 331 _Th. prasinellum_ Nyl., 367 _Th. turficolum_ Arn., 370

_Thelopsis_ Nyl., 316

_Thelotrema_ Ach., 326, 343 _Th. lepadinum_ Ach., 397

Thelotremaceae, 59, 302, 310, 326, 351, 352

Thelotremei, 353

Theophrastus, 1, 2, 411

_Thermutis_ Fr., 68, 284, 332

_Tholurna_ Norm., 320 _Th. dissimilis_ Norm., 289

Thomas, N., 59

_Thrambium_ Wallr., 192, 314 _T. epigaeum_ Wallr., 254, 367, 368

Thwaites, 17

_Thyrea_ Massal., 284, 333

_Thysanothecium_ Berk. and Mont., 330 _T. Hookeri_ Berk. and Mont., 294

_Ticothecium_ Flot., 275, 319 _T. pygmaeum_ Koerb., 267

Tieghem, Van, 179

Tobler, 43, 50, 148, 224, 253, 263, 265, 280

_Tomasiella_ Müll.-Arg., 317

Toni, De, 60

_Toninia_ Th. Fr., 329

Torrey, 14

Tournefort, 1, 5, 155, 304

Tournesol, 413

Treboux, 40, 42

_Trematosphaeropsis_ Elenk., 266

_Tremotylium_ Nyl., 326

_Trentepohlia_ Born., 26, 30, 34, 59, 75, 78, 232, 246, 276, 278, 287, 289, 291, 309, 316 etc., 343, 352, 365 _T. abietina_ Hansg., 65, 66 _T. aurea_ Mart., 34, 35, 58 (Fig. 29 A), 59 _T. jolithus_, 223 _T. umbrina_ Born., 22, 34, 58 (Fig. 29 B), 59, 62, 216

Trentepohliaceae, 59, 288, 289

Treub, 28, 394

Treveris, Peter, 2

_Tricothelium_ Müll.-Arg., 318

_Trimmatothele_ Norm., 314

Tripe de Roche, 404

Trypetheliaceae, 309, 317

_Trypethelium_ Spreng., 276, 317, 351, 364

_Tubercularia_ Web., 9

Tuckerman, 15, 136, 339

Tulasne, 17, 25, 46, 70, 123, 159, 187, 189, 192, 193, 200, 204, 263

Turner, Dawson, 14

Tutt, 399

_Tylophorella_ Wain., 320

_Tylophoron_ Nyl., 289, 320

Uhlir, 43

Ulander, 211

Uloth, 233

_Umbilicaria_, 17, 82, 200, 241, 262, 268, 331 _U. pustulata_ Hoffm., 86, 96, 150, 195, 214, 240, 257, 414

Unguentum Armarium, 407

Unguentum sympatheticum, 407

_Urceolaria_ Ach., 48; _see_ _Diploschistes_

_Urococcus_ Kütz., 57, 133, 318

_Usnea_ Dill., 1, 3, 7, 9, 83, 111, 195, 213, 233, 257, 268, 269, 300, 304, 305, 340, 347, 348, 351, 361, 408, 419 _U. articulata_ Hoffm., 210, 268 _U. barbata_ Web., 25, 99 (Fig. 58), 104 (Fig. 63 A), 130, 143 (Fig. 82), 167 (Fig. 95), 168, 177, 200, 211, 215, 226, 234, 239, 246, 339, 348, 364, 417 _U. ceratina_ Ach., 227 _U. compressa_ Hill, 8 _U. dasypoga_ Stiz., 359 _U. florida_ Web., 91 (Fig. 52), 92, 210, 213, 348, 363, 411 _U. hirta_ Hoffm., 348, 355, 366 _U. laevis_ Nyl., 177 _U. longissima_ Ach., 85, 99, 102 (Fig. 61), 105 (Fig. 63 B), 106, 215, 348 _U. macrocarpa_ Arn., 177 _U. melaxantha_ Ach., 346 _U. plicata_ Web., 359 _U. Taylori_ Hook., 104

Usneaceae, 299, 311, 339

Vaillant, 6

Vallot, 253

_Valsa_ Fr., 317

_Varicellaria_ Nyl., 337 _V. microsticta_ Nyl., 77, 92, 187 (Fig. 126)

_Variolaria_ Ach. (_see_ _Pertusaria_), 64, 171, 237

_Vaucheria sessilis_ DC., 65 (Fig. 34)

Ventenat, 21

_Verrucaria_ Web. (non Pers.), 9, 174, 200, 275, 314, 364 _V. aethiobola_ Wahlenb., 391, 392 _V. anceps_ Koerb., 377 _V. aquatilis_ Mudd, 383 _V. calciseda_ DC., 176, 215, 219, 241, 373, 398 _V. Dufourii_ DC., 173 _V. fuscella_ Ach., 373 _V. Hoffmanni_ Hepp; f. _purpurascens_ Arn., 251 _V. hydrela_ Ach., 391, 392 _V. lecideoides_ Koerb., 373 _V. maculiformis_ Krempelh., 379 _V. margacea_ Wahlenb., 391, 392 _V. maura_ Wahlenb., 245, 383, 384, 386 _V. memnonia_ Flot., 383 _V. microspora_ Nyl., 256, 383, 386 _V. mucosa_ Wahlenb., 73, 383 _V. muralis_ Ach., 30, 46 (Fig. 14), 70, 243, 255, 361, 393 _V. nigrescens_ Pers., 56, 254, 369, 377, 392 _V. papillosa_ Ach., 377 _V. prominula_ Nyl., 383 _V. rupestris_ Schrad., 215, 243, 361 _V. scotina_ Wedd., 383 _V. striatula_ Wahlenb., 383 _V. viridula_ Ach., 391

Verrucariaceae, 249, 309, 314, 353, 367

_Verrucarites geanthricis_ Goepp., 354

_Verrucula_ Stein., 265, 276 _V. aegyptica_ Stein., 276 _V. cahirensis_ Stein., 276

Visiani, 405

Volkard, 228, 410

Vouaux, 267

Wahlberg, 11, 168

Wahrlich, 51

Wainio, 31, 48, 70, 112, 114, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 144, 153, 159, 163, 166, 175, 177, 179, 188, 191, 240, 276, 277, 292, 294, 308, 344, 346, 348, 411

Waite, 270

Wallroth, xx, 13, 21, 22, 123, 133, 142, 156, 192, 305

Ward, Marshall, 35, 42, 59

Watson, Sir W., 8

Watson, 365, 373, 385

Watt, 403

Weber, 1, 9

Weddell, 252, 379

Wehmer, 220

Weir, 239

West, G. F., 52, 54, 55, 56

West, W., 225, 233, 357, 374

Wester, 211

Westring, 412

Wettstein, 45

Wheldon, 398

Wheldon and Wilson, 360, 370, 373, 374, 379, 384, 385, 387, 391, 392

Wiesner, 211, 241, 244

Wilde, 395

Wille, 28

Willemet, 10, 401, 415

Wilson, 350

Winter, 30, 138, 263

Winterstein, 209

Wisselingh, 211

Withering, 9

Wolff, 124, 163, 170, 172, 176

Woodward, 152

Woronin, 28

_Woronina_ Cornu, 261

_Xanthocapsa_ (Sect. of _gloeocapsa_), 52, 63, 284, 332, 373

_Xanthoria_ Th. Fr., 166, 246 _X. lychnea_ Th. Fr., 233, 252, 365, 417 _X. parietina_ Th. Fr., 3, 22, 24, 27, 28, 38, 42, 48 (Fig. 15), 50, 56, 65, 67 (Fig. 36), 86, 164, 176, 189, 195, 200, 224, 225, 227, 231, 232, 241, 242, 253, 269, 270, 301, 341, 348, 351, 360, 369, 373, 376, 380, 383, 384, 386, 397, 406, 416, 418 _X. polycarpa_ Oliv., 365, 390

_Xylaria_ Hill, 12, 421

_Xylographa_ Fr., 278, 322 _X. spilomatica_ Th. Fr., 145

_Xyloschistes_ Wain., 322

Zahlbruckner, A., 19, 59, 60, 66, 69, 275, 284, 308, 335, 413

Zopf, 19, 43, 108, 151, 188, 213, 221, 233, 238, 246, 264, 265, 266, 268, 270, 395, 396, 398, 400, 412, 417

Zukal, 18, 26, 38, 61, 68, 70, 82, 128, 129, 130, 163, 179, 187, 215, 219, 230, 237, 244, 267, 268, 271, 313, 395

Zwelser, 419

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS