CHAPTER VIII

THE CENTRAL IDEA

A little reflection must make it manifest that every sentence, or even phrase, has a central idea. When this idea is brought out in vocal expression it is by means of some form of emphasis, such as inflection or force or time, and so forth. The exact form of the manifestation need not concern us here.

Now that the pupils have been trained to look for the thought, the average sentence will take care of itself as far as the leading idea is concerned; but it must be admitted that in the sentence of more than average difficulty we find much obscure and more faulty reading, due, no doubt, to ignorance of the central idea. It is perhaps not wise in all cases to teach this step, as a step, to pupils under eleven years; but when it is taught, great care must be exercised to keep the class from forming the habit of pounding out every important word. Be this as it may, the attention of teachers should be directed to the great importance of such studies as are included in the present chapter. Furthermore, there can be no doubt that the step may be undertaken in the higher grades and in high schools to great advantage.

Perhaps there is no more severe test of the student’s apprehension of the meaning than his emphasis--using that term in its broadest sense. Determining the central idea is essentially a logical process; the student weighs and determines the value of every word, and by a process of elimination finally fixes upon the exact thought to be conveyed.

Rules for emphasis so commonly given are, comparatively, of little value. If the student has the thought, his emphasis may be trusted to take care of itself; where he has not, the rules are confusing and misleading. Mr. Alfred Ayres says facetiously, but truly, “There is only one rule for emphasis--Gumption.”

It is understood that emphasis has a much wider meaning than that of merely making a word stand out distinctly by means of force; it includes any manner of making a thought prominent. What we are here studying is simply that form of emphasis which is manifested by inflection or force, or both. The central idea in colloquial utterance is generally made significant through force; but by far the most suggestive method, when occasion requires, is through inflection. Of course, these two are very often combined in various proportions.

In the following illustrations, two classes of examples will be noticed. In the first, the central ideas are indicated by means of italics and capitals. It is not claimed that some other interpretation might not be possible; but that suggested is at least justifiable. The teacher will study these examples carefully with the object of determining the reason for the marking. In the second list of illustrations, the teacher himself will determine the central idea, and manifest it through his rendition.

By following this plan, the teacher’s own reading will show much improvement, and he will probably learn better how to work out the problem with his classes.

It is to be regretted that we have no recognized symbols for showing shades and degrees of emphasis. The teacher will, no doubt, be able to determine for himself whether the element of force or that of inflection predominates.

[10]There on the dais sat another king Wearing HIS ROBES, _his_ CROWN, his SIGNET-RING.

--_King Robert of Sicily._ LONGFELLOW.

Note that “his” and “robes” are of about equal importance, the former perhaps weighing a little heavier than the latter. In the next phrase the inflection on “his” is much narrower than on the first “his,” while the “crown” becomes more important. Finally, the last “his” has no emphasis, while the climax of thought and emotion is reached on “signet-ring.”

And do you NOW put on your _best attire_! And do you NOW cull out a HOLIDAY? And do you now STREW FLOWERS in HIS way That comes in triumph over Pompey’s blood?

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 1.

Note the climax: “best attire” is weaker than “holiday,” and it than the strewing of flowers. Conversely, the emphasis on “now” diminishes at each repetition. The context should be carefully digested.

I rather tell thee what is to _be fear’d_ Than what I _fear_.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 2.

An actor (?) was once heard to read the above passage, putting his emphasis on “thee” and the second “I.” How illuminating!

If ’twere _done_ when ’tis _done_, then ’twere well It were done quickly.

--_Macbeth_, Act i., Sc. 7.

The above is a fine illustration of the claim that the study of the “Central Idea” is essentially a logical process. Any other emphasis is puerile, and yet every other emphasis is heard except this. Let us look a little closer. The passage beginning with this line resolves itself into this: I am hampered with doubts and fears; I can find no rest by day or night until I kill the king or resolve to abandon the attempt. But if I can be assured that there shall be no after consequences here, I’ll risk the life to come. Hence, the following paraphrase is the equivalent of the first line: If it [the murder] were out of people’s minds, if it were blotted out of recollection, consigned to oblivion, when it is committed [when I do the murder], then the sooner it is done the better for my peace of mind. In a word, if it is all _over_ when it is _committed_, “then ’twere well it were done quickly.” Many purposely avoid repeating the emphasis on “done” because they believe the two “done’s” are identical in meaning. Nothing could be farther from the truth, as shown above. The truth is, this line is one of those grim plays upon words in which Shakespeare is so prolific. It need hardly be added that when properly read the sense will be made clear by keeping in mind the paraphrase just given. The result will be that the first “done” will be read with a very decided falling inflection, and the second with a rising circumflex inflection (the mind looking forward at the end to the conclusion of the sentence). Perhaps to the sensitive student of literature there is another argument. Shakespeare’s vocabulary would indeed have been very limited had he found it necessary to use three “done’s” in the opening line of a most important soliloquy. To one who is alive to æsthetic effects, the very fact that Shakespeare does use them suggests a more careful analysis, and one soon discovers the cause. The play on the words makes the salient idea more striking.

And flood upon flood hurries on never ending; and it never _will_ rest nor from travail be free.

--_The Diver._ SCHILLER-LYTTON.

MACBETH. I dare do all that may become a man; Who dares do more is none.

LADY MACBETH. What _beast_ was’t then That made you _break_ this enterprise to me? When you _durst do_ it, _then_ you were a _man_, And, to be _more_ than what you were, you would Be so much _more_ the man. Nor _time_ nor _place_ Did _then_ adhere, and yet you would _make both_, They have made _themselves_, and that their fitness _now_ Does _un_make _you_.

--_Macbeth_, Act i., Sc. 7.

... it becomes The thronèd MONARCH _better_ than his CROWN.

--_The Merchant of Venice_, Act iv., Sc. 1.

Why is “better” not the most significant word?

Lives of great men all remind us We can make _our_ lives sublime.

--_Psalm of Life._ LONGFELLOW.

Why not emphasize “we”?

... perchance to dream; ay, there’s the rub! For in that sleep of death _what_ dreams may come.

--_Hamlet_, Act iii., Sc. 1.

“What” is equivalent to what _horrible_ or _awful_.

CASSIUS. I may do that I shall be sorry for. BRUTUS. You _have_ done that you _should_ be sorry for.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act iv., Sc. 3.

It is the bright day that brings forth the adder, And _that_ craves wary walking.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act ii., Sc. 1.

And since the quarrel Will bear no color for the thing he _is_, Fashion it thus; that what he _is_, AUGMENTED, Would run to these and these extremities.

--_Ibid._

This reading brings out most clearly the _rationale_ of Brutus’s attitude. The soliloquy should be studied in its entirety.

Give me that man That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him In my _heart’s core_, ay, in my HEART of heart, As I do thee.

--_Hamlet_, Act iii., Sc. 2.

This example is used in Fulton and Trueblood’s _Practical Elocution_. The authors state:

It has been a question with the actors which word of the phrase _heart of heart_ should receive the chief emphasis, some claiming the reading should be “_heart_ of heart,” others “heart _of_ heart,” still others “heart of _heart_.” The first seems to us the preferable reading, for if the lines read, “I will wear him in my heart’s core, ay, in the _center_ of it,” the case would be clear. Here “center” stands in the place of the first “heart.”

She looked down to blush and she looked up to sigh, With a _smile_ on her _lip_ and a _tear_ in her _eye_.

--_Lochinvar._ SCOTT.

There are those who argue that “lip” and “eye” should not be emphasized. This is a serious error. The phrases “on her lip” and “in her eye” are elaborative, and hence the emphasis is distributed over the entire phrase. If this is wrong, we must blame the writer for tautology. But literature has many similar examples. Here is another:

Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him: and put a _ring_ on his _hand_, and _shoes_ on his _feet_.--_Luke_ xv. 22.

There is a rule telling us to emphasize words in antithesis. In many cases we do so; but these cases would emphasize themselves, so to speak. There are, however, many cases of rhetorical antithesis where it interferes with the sense to emphasize both members of the antithesis, and here the rule steps in to lead astray the pupil. To illustrate: “I am going to town to-morrow, but _you_ need not go until the day _after_.”

Mr. A. Melville Bell has put this very clearly. In his _Essays and Postscripts on Elocution_, he says:

The emphasis of contrast falls necessarily on the second of a contrasted pair of words, but not necessarily on the first. The first word is emphatic or otherwise, according as it is new, or implied in preceding thoughts; but it is not emphatic in virtue of subsequent contrast. A purposed anticipation may give emphasis to the first word, but such anticipatory emphasis should not be made habitual.

If the bright blood that fills my veins, transmitted free from godlike ancestry, were like the slimy ooze which stagnates in your arteries, I had remained at home.

Is it not clear that the anticipatory emphasis on “my” is not only unnecessary, but would, if given, weaken the force of the succeeding phrase?

I have nothing more to say, but the honorable _gentleman_ will no doubt speak for hours.

What could I do _less_; what could _he_ do _more_?

MESSALA. It is but change, Titinius; for Octavius Is overthrown by noble Brutus’ power, As Cassius’ legions are by Antony. TITINIUS. These tidings will well comfort Cassius. MESSALA. Is not that he that lies upon the ground? TITINIUS. He lies not like the living. Oh my heart! MESSALA. Is not that he? TITINIUS. No, this was he, Messala, But Cassius is no more,--O setting sun! As in thy red rays thou dost sink to-night, So in his red blood Cassius’ day is set; The sun of Rome is set! Our day is gone; Clouds, dews, and dangers come; our deeds are done! Mistrust of my success hath done this deed.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act v., Sc. 3.

It is evident that the speakers have been conversing about the two parts of the battle, and Titinius has told his friend that Cassius has been overthrown. To this Messala replies, comfortingly, Affairs are balanced, then, etc. The entire extract needs and will amply repay most critical study. It would be hard to find one containing more difficulties.

BASSANIO. This is no answer, thou unfeeling man, To excuse the current of thy cruelty. SHYLOCK. I am not bound to please thee with my answer. BASSANIO. Do all men kill the things they do not love? SHYLOCK. Hates any man the thing he would not kill? BASSANIO. Every offense is not a hate at first. SHYLOCK. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice?

--_Merchant of Venice_, Act iv., Sc. 1.

DUNCAN. Go, pronounce his present[11] death, And with his former title greet Macbeth. ROSS. I’ll see it done. DUNCAN. What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won.

--_Macbeth_, Act i., Sc. 2.

Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none.

--_Macbeth_, Act i., Sc. 3.

MACBETH. The thane of Cawdor lives: why do you dress me In borrow’d robes? ANGUS. Who was the thane, lives yet.

--_Ibid._

LIGARIUS. What’s to do? BRUTUS. A piece of work that will make sick men whole. LIGARIUS. But are not some whole that we must make sick?

--_Julius Caesar_, Act ii., Sc. 1.

When beggars die, there are no comets seen; The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act ii., Sc. 2.

BRUTUS. He hath the falling sickness. CASSIUS. No, Caesar hath it not; but you and I, And honest Casca, we have the falling sickness.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 2.

Romans now Have thews and limbs like to their ancestors, But, woe the while! our fathers’ minds are dead, And we are govern’d with our mothers’ spirits.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 3.

That you do love me, I am nothing jealous; What you would work me to, I have some aim; How I have thought of this, and of these times, I shall recount hereafter; for this present, I would not, so with love I might entreat you, Be any further mov’d. What you have said, I will consider; what you have to say, I will with patience hear, and find a time Both meet to hear, and answer such high things.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 2.

Cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act ii., Sc 2.

FLAVIUS. Thou art a cobbler, art thou? CITIZEN. Truly, sir, all that I live by is with the awl.

--_Julius Caesar_, Act i., Sc. 1.

SIR PETER. Very well, ma’am, very well! So a husband is to have no influence--no authority!

LADY TEAZLE. Authority? No, to be sure! If you wanted authority over me, you should have adopted me, and not married me; I am sure you were old enough!--_The School for Scandal._ SHERIDAN.

We live in deeds, not years; in thought, not breath; In feelings, not in figures on a dial; We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives, Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best.

--_Festus._ BAILEY.

I must be cruel, only to be kind; Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind.

Our new heraldry is--hands, not hearts.

He jests at scars that never felt a wound.

Friendship was in their looks, but in their hearts there was hatred.

Oh! the blood more stirs To rouse a lion than to start a hare.

You will find it less easy to uproot faults than choke them by gaining virtues.

A maiden’s wrath has two eyes--one blind, the other keener than a falcon’s.

The storm that rends the oak uproots the flower.

But break, my heart, for I must hold my tongue.

Suggestions for a class lesson follow:

Let us look at the following sentence: “I heard William say it.” Can you read that sentence now? I should say you could not, and my reason is, that you are not quite sure of its meaning. Let us see what that meaning is.

One person might mean that _he_ had heard William say it, but that _you_ had not. How would you read the sentence then? Another person might mean, “I am _sure_ William said it, for I was there to hear him.” How would you express that? Again, a third person might mean that he was sure _George_ or _John_ had not said it, but _William_. How would you read that?

We learn from this another reason why we must use great care in preparing our reading lesson. You see, if we do not, we shall not stop to consider just what the sentence means, and then in reading we shall not express the author’s meaning. Let us try a few more examples. In each make up your mind just what you want to say, and then say it as if you meant it.

EXAMPLE 1.--“I like geography better than I do history.” Now, if you have been talking to a friend about the studies you like best, and he has just said, “I like geography as well as I do history,” how would you read the above example? Of course, you see that the main idea in your mind would be to tell him that you liked geography not only as well as, but better than, history. Well then, now you may read the example.

EXAMPLE 2.--“I should rather be a lawyer than a doctor.” Suppose in this case a friend has said, “My father wants me to be a doctor.” How would you then read the sentence?

EXAMPLE 3.--“Queen Victoria has reigned longer than any other monarch who ever sat upon the English throne.” Suppose you are telling this to your classmates, and that you have not been talking about Queen Victoria before, but you want only to give them a piece of information.

Let us remember, then, that every sentence has a principal, or, as we sometimes say, a central idea. We need be extremely careful to get that central idea, and if we have been, we notice that certain words will stand out very prominently in our reading. This is true because reading is just like speaking. If some one asks you where you are going, and you are going to school, what do you think of? You don’t think of each word of your answer; you think only one idea--school. So you say, “I am going to school,” and you make the word “school” very prominent, or important. “School” is the central idea.

Until our next step I want you to study every sentence of every reading lesson, bearing in mind this very important fact regarding the central idea. Every sentence has such a central idea, and until you have found it you cannot read the sentence.

Very few directions are necessary except to warn the teacher against speaking about the various _kinds_ of emphasis. No matter what the kind, the thought will find its natural channel if the conditions be right. It is true, that sometimes a word is made prominent by inflection (rising, falling, circumflex), sometimes by slower time, sometimes by force alone. But let us remember, these various forms are the results of various forms of thinking. If those are right, correct reading will follow.

It is further worth noting that the best authorities use “emphasis” as signifying any means of making the thought stand out. Hence, the teacher is urged not to use the term “emphasis” at all. If a pupil err, tell him he has not given you the central, or leading, idea.