CHAPTER XCIV.

MILITARY OPERATIONS AND CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, AFTER HIS WINTER QUARTERS IN PERSIS, DOWN TO HIS DEATH AT BABYLON.

The first four Asiatic campaigns of Alexander — their direct bearing and importance in reference to Grecian history. — His last seven years, farther eastward, had no similar bearing upon Greece. — Darius at Ekbatana — seeks escape towards Baktria, when he hears of Alexander approaching. — Alexander enters Ekbatana — establishes there his depôt and base of operations. — Alexander sends home the Thessalian cavalry — necessity for him now to pursue a more desultory warfare. — Alexander pursues Darius to the Caspian Gates, but fails in overtaking him. — Conspiracy formed against Darius by Bessus and others, who seize his person. — Prodigious efforts of Alexander to overtake and get possession of Darius. He surprises the Persian corps, but Bessus puts Darius to death. — Disappointment of Alexander when he missed taking Darius alive. Regal funeral bestowed upon Darius. His fate and conduct. — Repose of Alexander and his army at Hekatompylus in Parthia. Commencing alteration in his demeanor. He becomes Asiatized and despotic. — Gradual aggravation of these new habits, from the present moment. — Alexander conquers the mountains immediately south of the Caspian. He requires the Greek mercenaries to surrender at discretion. Envoys from Sparta and other Greek cities brought to him — how treated. — March of Alexander farther Eastward — his successes in Asia and Drangiana. — Proceedings against Philotas, son of Parmenio, in Drangiana. Military greatness and consideration of the family. — Revelation of an intended conspiracy made by Kebalinus to Philotas, for the purpose of being communicated to Alexander. Philotas does not mention it to Alexander. It is communicated to the latter through another channel. — Alexander is at first angry with Philotas, but accepts his explanation, and professes to pass over the fact. — Ancient grudge against Philotas — advantage taken of the incident to ruin him. — Kraterus and others are jealous of Parmenio and Philotas. Alexander is persuaded to put them both to death. — Arrest of Philotas. Alexander accuses him before the assembled soldiers. He is condemned. — Philotas is put to the torture, and forced to confess, both against himself and Parmenio. — Parmenio is slain at Ekbatana, by order and contrivance of Alexander. Mutiny of the soldiers when they learn the assassination of Parmenio — appeased by the production of Alexander’s order. — Fear and disgust produced by the killing of Parmenio and Philotas. — Conquest of the Paropamisadæ, etc. Foundation of Alexandria _ad Caucasum_. — Alexander crosses the Hindoo-Koosh, and conquers Baktria. Bessus is made prisoner. — Massacre of the Branchidæ and their families, perpetrated by Alexander in Sogdiana. — Alexander at Marakanda and on the Jaxartes. — Foundation of Alexandria _ad Jaxartem_. Limit of march northward. — Alexander at Zariaspa in Baktria — he causes Bessus to be mutilated and slain. — Farther subjugation of Baktria and Sogdiana. Halt at Marakanda. — Banquet at Marakanda. — Character and position of Kleitus. — Boasts of Alexander and his flatterers — repugnance of Macedonian officers felt but not expressed. — Scene at the banquet — vehement remonstrance of Kleitus. — Furious wrath of Alexander — he murders Kleitus. — Intense remorse of Alexander, immediately after the deed. — Active and successful operations of Alexander in Sogdiana. — Capture of two inexpugnable positions — the Sogdian rock — the rock of Choriênes. Passion of Alexander for Roxana. — Alexander at Baktra — marriage with Roxana. His demand for prostration or worship from all. — Public harangue of Anaxarchus during a banquet, exhorting every one to render this worship. — Public reply of Kallisthenes, opposing it. Character and history of Kallisthenes. — The reply of Kallisthenes is favorably heard by the guests — the proposition for worship is dropped. — Coldness and disfavor of Alexander towards Kallisthenes. — Honorable frankness and courage of Kallisthenes. — Kallisthenes becomes odious to Alexander. — Conspiracy of the royal pages against Alexander’s life — it is divulged — they are put to torture, but implicate no one else; they are put to death. — Kallisthenes is arrested as an accomplice — antipathy manifested by Alexander against him and against Aristotle also. — Kallisthenes is tortured and hanged. — Alexander reduces the country between the Hindoo-Koosh and the Indus. — Conquest of tribes on the right bank of the Indus — the rock of Aornos. — Alexander crosses the Indus — forces the passage of the Hydaspes, defeating Porus — generous treatment of Porus. — His farther conquests in the Punjab. Sangala the last of them. — He reaches the Hyphasis (Sutledge), the farthest of the rivers of the Punjab. His army refuses to march farther. — Alexander returns to the Hydaspes. — He constructs a fleet and sails down the Hydaspes and the Indus. Dangerous wound of Alexander in attacking the Malli. — New cities and posts to be established on the Indus — Alexander reaches the ocean — effect of the first sight of tides. — March of Alexander by land westward through the desert of Gedrosia — sufferings and losses in the army. — Alexander and the army come back to Persis. — Conduct of Alexander at Persepolis. Punishment of the satrap Orsines. — He marches to Susa — junction with the fleet under Nearchus, after it had sailed round from the mouth of the Indus. — Alexander at Susa as Great King. Subjects of uneasiness to him — the satraps — the Macedonian soldiers. — Past conduct of the satraps — several of them are punished by Alexander — alarm among them all — flight of Harpalus. — Discontents of the Macedonian soldiers with the Asiatizing intermarriages promoted by Alexander. — Their discontent with the new Asiatic soldiers levied and disciplined by Alexander. — Interest of Alexander in the fleet, which sails up the Tigris to Opis. — Notice of partial discharge to the Macedonian soldiers — they mutiny — wrath of Alexander — he disbands them all. — Remorse and humiliation of the soldiers — Alexander is appeased — reconciliation. — Partial disbanding — body of veterans placed under command of Kraterus to return — New projects of conquests contemplated by Alexander — measures for enlarging his fleet. — Visit to Ekbatana — death of Hephæstion — violent sorrow of Alexander. — Alexander exterminates the Kossæi. — March of Alexander to Babylon. Numerous embassies which met him on the way. — Alexander at Babylon — his great preparations for the circumnavigation and conquest of Arabia. — Alexander on shipboard, on the Euphrates and in the marshes adjoining. His plans for improving the navigation and flow of the river. — Large reinforcements arrive, Grecian and Asiatic. New array ordered by Alexander, for Macedonians and Persians in the same files and companies. — Splendid funeral obsequies of Hephæstion. — General feasting and intemperance in the army. Alexander is seized with a dangerous fever. Details of his illness. — No hope of his life. Consternation and grief in the army. Last interview with his soldiers. His death — Effect produced on the imagination of contemporaries by the career and death of Alexander. — Had Alexander lived, he must have achieved things greater still. — Question raised by Livy, about the chances of Alexander if he had attacked the Romans. — Unrivalled excellence as a military man. — Alexander as a ruler, apart from military affairs — not deserving of esteem. — Alexander would have continued the system of the Persian empire, with no other improvement except that of a strong organization. — Absence of nationality in Alexander — purpose of fusing the different varieties of mankind into one common type of subjection. — Mistake of supposing Alexander to be the intentional diffuser of Greek civilization. His ideas compared with those of Aristotle. — Number of new cities founded in Asia by Alexander. — It was not Alexander, but the Diadochi after him, who chiefly hellenized Asia. — How far Asia was ever really hellenized — the great fact was, that the Greek language became universally diffused. — Greco-Asiatic cities. — Increase of the means of communication between various parts of the world. — Interest of Alexander in science and literature — not great. 178-274