Part 1231

1447. Election of Pope Nicholas V., founder of the Vatican Library. Death of the last of the ducal family of Visconti, leaving the duchy in dispute.

1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade in England. Possession of Milan and the duchy won by Francesco Sforza.

1451. Rebellion of Ghent against Philip of Burgundy. Founding of the University of Glasgow.

1452. Birth of Savonarola (d. 1498). Birth of Leonardo da Vinci (d. 1519).

1453. Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. Defeat of the men of Ghent at Gaveren and their submission to the duke of Burgundy. Austria raised to the rank of an archduchy by the Emperor Frederick III. Unsuccessful rising in Rome, against the Papacy, under Stefano-Porcaro.

1454. Production of the first known Printing with movable type by Gutenberg and Fust, at Mentz. Treaty of Venice with the Turks, securing trade privileges and certain possessions in Greece.

1455. Beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England.

1456. The Turks in possession of Athens. Siege of Belgrade by the Turks and their defeat by Huniades; death of Huniades. Publication at Mentz of the first printed Bible, now called the Mazarin Bible. [Uncertain date]

1457. Organization of the church of the Unitas Fratrum in Bohemia. Death of Ladislaus Posthumus, king of Bohemia and of Hungary and archduke of Austria.

1458. Submission of Genoa to the king of France. Election of Matthias, son of Huniades, king of Hungary, and George Podiebrad, leader of the church-reform party, king of Bohemia. Division of the crowns of Naples and Sicily (the Two Sicilies) on the death of Alfonso of Aragon.

1460. Death of Prince Henry the Navigator.

1461. Death of Charles VII., king of France, and accession of Louis XI. Emancipation of Genoa from the yoke of France. Surrender of Trebizond, the last Greek capital, to the Ottoman Turks. Deposition of Henry VI. declared by a council of lords in England and Edward Duke of York crowned king (Ed ward IV.); defeat of Lancastrians at Towton.

{3831}

1463. War between Turks and Venetians in Greece. Birth of Pico della Mirandola (d. 1494).

1464. Submission of Genoa to the duke of Milan.

1465. League of the Public Weal, in France, against Louis XI.; battle of Montlehery. Siege, capture and pillage of Athens by the Venetians.

1467. Accession of Charles the Bold to the dukedom of Burgundy; beginning of his war with the Liégois. Crusade against George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, proclaimed by the Pope. Birth of Erasmus [Uncertain date] (d. 1536).

1468. Visit of Louis XI. to Charles the Bold, at Peronne; capture and destruction of Liege by Charles. War of the king of Bohemia with Austria and Hungary.

1469. Beginning of the rule of Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent) in Florence. Marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon. Birth of Machiavelli (d. 1527).

1470. Restoration of Henry VI. to the English throne by Earl Warwick; flight of Edward IV. Siege and capture of Negropont by the Turks, and massacre of the inhabitants.

1471. Acquisition of Cyprus by the Venetians. Return of Edward IV. to England; his victories at Barnet and Tewksbury and recovery of the throne; death of Henry VI. in the Tower. Death of George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and election of Ladislaus, son of the king of Poland, to succeed him. Translation by Caxton of "Recueil des Histoires de Troyes," by Raoul le Fèvre. Birth of Albert Durer (d. 1528). Birth of Cardinal Wolsey (d. 1530).

1473. Birth of Copernicus (d. 1543).

1474. Birth of Las Casas (d. 1566). Birth of Ariosto (d. 1533).

1475. Birth of the Michael Angelo (d. 1564). Birth of the Chevalier Bayard (d. 1524).

1477. Marriage of Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., to Mary of Burgundy. Invasion of Italy by the Turks, approaching to within sight of Venice. Production from Caxton's press of the "Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophers," the first book printed in England. War with the Swiss, defeat and death of Charles the Bold. Grant of the Great Privilege of Holland and Zealand by Duchess Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. Birth of Giorgione (d. 1511). Birth of Titian (d. 1576).

1478. Conspiracy of the Pazzi in Florence. Overthrow of the city-republic of Novgorod by Ivan III. of Russia.

1480. Birth of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535).

1481. Founding of the Holy Office of the Inquisition at Seville. Printing in England of Caxton's translation of "Reynard the Fox." [Uncertain date]

1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy and succession of her infant son, Duke Philip, to the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1483. Death of Edward IV. king of England; murder of the princes, his sons, and usurpation of the throne by his brother Richard. Death of Louis XI., of France, and accession of Charles VIII. Appointment of Torquemada Inquisitor General for Castile and Aragon. Birth of Luther (d. 1546). Birth of Raphael (d. 1520).

1484. Birth of the Swiss reformer, Zwingli (d. 1531).

1485. Arrival of Columbus in Spain, seeking help for a westward voyage to find the Indies. Overthrow and death of Richard III. in England, on Bosworth Field; accession of Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line. Appearance in England of the Sweating Sickness. Capture of Vienna by Matthias of Hungary and expulsion of the Emperor Frederick III. from his hereditary dominions. Printing of Malory's "Morte d' Arthur." [Uncertain date]

1486. Election of Maximilian, son of the Emperor, Frederick III., King of the Romans. Unconscious doubling of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.

1487. Rebellion of Lambert Simnel in England. Birth of Andrea del Sarto (d. 1531).

1488. Capture and confinement for four months of Maximilian, then King of the Romans, by the citizens of Bruges. Rebellion in Scotland and defeat and death of James III. at Sauchie Burn.

1490. Beginning of the preaching of Savonarola at Florence. Death of Matthias, king of Hungary, and election to the Hungarian throne of the Bohemian king, Ladislaus II. Birth of Thomas Cromwell [Uncertain date] (d. 1540). Birth of Vittoria Colonna (d. 1547).

1491. Union of Brittany with France, by marriage of the Duchess Anne to Charles VIII. Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella; end of Moorish dominion in Spain. Birth of Loyola (d. 1556).

1492. First voyage of Columbus westward, resulting in the discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti. Death of Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence. Outbreak of the Bundschuh insurrection in Germany. Expulsion of Jews from Spain. Election of Pope Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia).

1493. Papal bull granting to Spain the New World found by Columbus and defining the rights of Spain and Portugal. Second voyage of Columbus. Death of the Emperor Frederick III.; assumption of the title (without coronation at Rome), of "emperor elect" by his son Maximilian, already elected King of the Romans. Birth of Paracelsus (d. 1541).

1494. Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal, partitioning the ocean. Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. Expulsion of Pietro de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, from Florence; formation of the Christian Commonwealth at Florence under Savonarola. Passage of the Poynings Laws in Ireland. Birth of Hans Sachs (d. 1578 [Uncertain date]). Birth of Correggio Granada (d. 1534).

1495. Abolition of the right of private warfare (diffidation) in Germany. Easy conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. of France, and his quick retreat. Birth of Rabelais [Uncertain date] (d. 1553). Birth of Clement Marot [Uncertain date] (d. 1544).

1496. Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, to Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Rebellion of Perkin Warbeck in England. Establishing of the Estienne or Stephanus press in Paris.

{3832}

1497. Discovery of the continent of North America by John Cabot. Disputed first voyage of Americus Vespucius to the New World. Discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama. Excommunication of Savonarola by the Pope. Birth of Melancthon (d. 1560).

1498. Third voyage of Columbus, to the northern coast of South America; his arrest and return to Spain in irons. Arrest and execution of Savonarola at Florence. Death of Charles VIII., king of France, and accession of Louis XIII. Birth of Hans Holbein (d. 1559).

1499. Voyage of Americus Vespucius, with Ojeda, to the Venezuela coast. Conquest of Milan and the duchy by Louis XII. of France. Founding of the Sefavean dynasty in Persia and establishment of the Shiah sect in ascendancy.

1500. Voyage of the Cortereals to Newfoundland. Discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese navigator, Cabral. Birth of Charles, eldest son of Philip of Burgundy and Joanna of Spain, who became, the Emperor Charles V. and who united the sovereignties of Austria, Burgundy and Spain. Birth of Benvenuto Cellini (d. 1570).

Sixteenth Century.

1501. Voyage of Americus Vespucius, in the Portuguese service, to the Brazilian coast. Creation of the Aulic Council by the Emperor Maximilian. Joint conquest and partition of the kingdom of Naples by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Aragon.

1502. Fourth and last voyage of Columbus coasting Central America. Election of Montezuma to the military chieftainship of the Aztecs. Marriage of King James IV. of Scotland to Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of England, which brought the Stuarts to the English throne. Quarrel and war between the French and Spaniards in Naples.

1503. Election of Pope Julius II. Birth of Garcilaso de la Vega (d. 1536).

1504. Expulsion of the French from Naples by the Spaniards, under the Great Captain. Suppression of the independence of the Scottish Lord of the Isles.

1505. Birth of John Knox (d. 1572).

1506. Death of Columbus. Death of Philip, consort of Queen Joanna of Castile, and acting sovereign. Beginning of the building of St. Peter's at Rome by Pope Julius II. Birth of Saint Francis Xavier (d. 1552).

1507. Unsuccessful revolt of Genoa against the French.

1508. Formation of the League of Cambrai against Venice by the kings of France and Aragon, the Emperor, the Pope and the republic of Florence. Birth of the duke of Alva, or Alba (d. 1582).

1509. First Spanish settlement on the American mainland. Death of Henry VII., king of England, and accession of Henry VIII. Publication of Barclay's "Ship of Fools." Birth of Calvin (d. 1564).

1510. Portuguese occupation of Goa on the coast of India. Dissolution of the League of Cambrai, and alliance of Pope Julius II. with Venice and the Swiss against France. Birth of Palissy the potter (d. 1590).

1511. Spanish conquest of Cuba. Formation of the Holy League of Pope Julius II. with Venice, Aragon and England against France.

1512. Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. Restoration of the Medici to power in Florence. Birth of Tintoretto (d. 1594).

1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Beginning of the ministry of Wolsey in England. Invasion of France by Henry VIII. of England, and his victory in the Battle of the Spurs. War of the Scots and English and defeat of the Scots at Flodden. Peasant insurrection of the Kurucs in Hungary. Complete expulsion of the French from Italy. Death of Pope Julius II. and election of the Medicean, Leo X.

1515. Death of Louis XII., king of France, and accession of Francis I.; his invasion of Italy, victory over the Swiss at Marignano, and occupation of Milan. Death of Ladislaus II., king of Hungary and of Bohemia, and succession of his son. Louis II., on both thrones. Birth of Saint Philip Neri (d. 1595).

1516. Founding of the piratical power of the Barbarossas at Algiers. Treaty and Concordat of Francis I. of France with the Pope, guaranteeing to the former the duchy of Milan and securing to him the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and taking away the liberties of the Gallican Church. Appointment of Las Casas Protector of the Indians by Cardinal Ximenes. Publication of the "Utopia" of Sir Thomas More.

1517. Appearance of Tetzel in Germany, selling papal indulgences; Luther's denunciation of the traffic; posting of the Ninety-five Theses on the church-door at Wittenberg. Preaching of reformed doctrines at Zurich by Zwingli. Execution of Balboa by Pedrarias Davila, in the colony of Darien. Discovery of Yucatan by Cordova. Birth of Camoëns [Uncertain date] (d. 1579).

1519. Landing of Cortes in Mexico and advance to the capital. Sailing of Magellan on his voyage of circumnavigation. Luther's disputation with Eck. Death of the Emperor Maximilian and election of his grandson, Charles V., already sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies, the Netherlands, and the Austrian possessions. Cession of the Austrian sovereignty by Charles V. to his brother Ferdinand. Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi by Garay.

1520. Long battle of Cortés with the Aztecs in the city of Mexico; death of Montezuma; retreat of the Spaniards. Rebellion of the Holy Junta in Spain. Birth of William Cecil, Lord Burleigh (d. 1598).

1521. Siege and conquest of the Mexican capital by Cortés and the Spaniards. Conquest of Belgrade by the Turks. Promulgation of the first of the edicts of Charles V. against heresy in the

{3833}

Netherlands, called Placards. Excommunication of Luther by the Pope; his appearance before the Diet at Worms; his abduction by friends and concealment at Wartburg.

1522. Appointment of Cortés to be Governor, Captain-General, and Chief Justice of New Spain (Mexico). Conquest of Rhodes by the Turks from the Knights of St. John. Election of Pope Adrian VI.

1523. Treason of the Constable of Bourbon, escaping from France to take command of the Imperial army. Abrogation of the mass and image worship at Zurich. Organization of the reformed Church in northern Germany. Election of Pope Clement VII. Publication of Lord Berner's translation of Froissart. Publication of Luther's translation of the New Testament.

1524. Voyage of Verrazano, in the service of France, to the North American coast. Death of the Chevalier Bayard in battle with the imperialists under Bourbon. Invasion of Italy by Francis I. of France; Outbreak of the Peasants' War, in Thuringia.

1525. Bloody suppression of the Peasants' revolt, in Germany, and execution of Münzer. Battle of Pavia; defeat and captivity of Francis I. of France. Marriage of Luther to Catherine Bora. Protestant League of Torgau.

1526. Great defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Mohacs and death of King Louis II. Election of John Zapolya to the vacant throne of Hungary, and rival election of Ferdinand of Austria. Treaty of Madrid, for the release of Francis I. from his captivity, and its perfidious repudiation by the king of France when free. Victory of Babar the Mongol at Panipat in India. Printing (at Worms) of Tyndale's English version of the New Testament.

1527. Expulsion of Zapolya from Hungary by Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, who wins the Hungarian crown. Capture and sack of Rome by the Spanish and German imperialists, commanded by the Constable Bourbon. The republic restored in Florence by a popular rising.

1528. Alliance of John Zapolya, king of Hungary, with the Turkish sultan Solyman, against his rival, Ferdinand of Austria. Deliverance of Genoa from the French by Andrea Doria. Marriage of Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I. of France, to the king of Navarre. Birth of Paul Veronese (d. 1588).

1529. Fall of Wolsey from power in England. Unsuccessful siege of Vienna by the Turkish sultan, Solyman. Siege of Florence by the imperialists; surrender of the city and restoration of the Medici. Peace of Cambrai, or the Ladies' Peace, between Francis I. of France and the Emperor Charles V. Protest of the German reformers (against action of the Diet of Spires) which caused them to be called Protestants.

1530. German Diet at Augsburg; formulation of the Protestant Confession of Faith; the condemnatory Augsburg Decree; formation of the Protestant League of Smalkalde. Cession of Malta by the Emperor to the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. Siege of Buda by the Austrians.

1531. Breach of Henry VIII. with the Pope on the question of the annulling of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

1532. Religious peace, with freedom of worship, restored in Germany by the Pacification of Nuremberg. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.

1533. Annulment of the marriage of Henry VIII. to Catherine of Aragon by Cranmer; marriage of the English king to Anne Boleyn. Murder of the Ynca, Atahualpa, by Pizarro. Birth of Montaigne (d. 1592).

1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, to the St. Lawrence. The Anabaptist seizure of the city of Munster. Passage by the English Parliament of the Act of Supremacy, establishing independence of Rome in the English Church. Beginning of fierce persecution of the reformers in France. Election of Pope Paul III.

1535. Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. Execution of Sir Thomas More in England. Suppression of the English monasteries. Establishing of Protestantism in Geneva. Printing of Coverdale's English version of the Bible. Second voyage of Jacques Cartier and exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal.

1536. Trial and execution of Anne Boleyn, and marriage of Henry VIII. to Jane Seymour. Martyrdom of Tyndale. Renewed war between Charles V. and Francis I. Publication of the "Institutions" of Calvin.

1537. Death in childbed of Jane Seymour, the English queen. Brief of Pope Paul III. forbidding further enslavement of Indians in America.

1538. Treaty of Peace between Charles V. and Francis I. Formation of the Holy League of the Catholic Princes of Germany. Birth of Cardinal Borromeo (d. 1584).

1539. Enactment of the Bill of the Six Articles in England. Landing of Hernando de Soto in Florida and beginning of his explorations. Revolt of Ghent against the exactions of the Emperor Charles V.

1540. Marriage and divorce of Anne of Cleves by Henry VIII. and his marriage to Catherine Howard. Submission of Ghent to the Emperor, annulling of its charter and removal of the great bell Roland. Death of John Zapolya, king of Hungary, and support given by the Turkish sultan to the claims of his son, against Ferdinand (now emperor). Expedition of Coronado from Mexico into New Mexico, seeking the "Seven Cities of Cibola." Papal sanction of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola. First known Printing done in America (in Mexico).

1541. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers. Buda occupied by the Turks, becoming the seat of a pasha who ruled the greater part of Hungary. Assassination of Pizarro. Third and last voyage of Cartier to the St. Lawrence.

{3834}

1542. Execution of Catherine Howard, fifth queen of Henry VIII. Death of Hernando de Soto on the shores of the Mississippi. Renewed war between Charles V. and Francis I. Alliance of the latter with the Turks, who ravaged the coasts of Italy. Organization of Calvin's religious state in Geneva. Mission of Saint Francis Xavier to Goa. War of the Scots and English; Scottish panic at Solway Firth; death of James V.; birth of Mary Stuart. Promulgation of the "New Laws" of Charles V., prohibiting the enslavement of Indians in America.

1543. Marriage of Henry VIII. to Catherine Parr.

1544. Victory of the French at Cerisoles over the Imperialists; treaty of Crespy, terminating the war. Birth of Torquato Tasso (d. 1595).

1545. Assembling of the Council of Trent (called in 1542).

1546. Massacre of Waldenses in southeastern France. Death of Luther. Treaty of the Emperor Charles V. with the Pope, binding the former to make war on the Protestants of Germany. Murder of Cardinal Beatoun in Scotland. Birth of Tycho Brahe (d. 1601).

1547. Death of Henry VIII. and accession of Edward VI., in England; repeal of the Six Articles and completion of the English Reformation. Death of Francis I. king of France, and accession of Henry II. Defeat of the Elector of Saxony by the Emperor, at the battle of Muhlberg; his imprisonment and deposition; bestowal of the Electorate of Saxony on Duke Maurice of Saxony. The Interim of Augsburg. Marriage of Jeanne d'Albret, heiress to the crown of Navarre, to Antoine de Bourbon. Assumption of the title of Czar, or Tzar, by the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan IV., called the Terrible. Siege of the Castle of St. Andrew's in Scotland; captivity and condemnation of John Knox to the French galleys. Birth of Cervantes (d. 1616).

1549. Mission of Xavier to Japan. Election of Pope Julius III. Publication of the English Book of Common Prayer (First Book of Edward VI).

1550. Promulgation of the most infamous of the edicts of Charles V. against heresy in the Netherlands. Election of Pope Julius III. Birth of Coke (d. 1634).

1551. Alliance of the French king, Henry II., with the Protestants of Germany. Narrow escape of the Emperor Charles V. from capture by Maurice of Saxony.