Part 1221

"The Manchus, from the earliest period of Chinese history, have occupied the country bounded on the east by the Japanese Sea, which is drained in its southern portion by the Tumun, by the right affluents of the Ya-lu-kiang, and by the upper portions of the left affluents of the Liau; and in its northern portion by the right affluents of the Upper Soongari, and the Lower Soongari, and Lower Amoor, with their affluents on both sides. This extent of country may be fitly called Manchuria Proper, to distinguish it from the present political Manchuria. This latter embraces not only the real Manchuria, but also a tract on the east side of the Liau, composed of the lower valleys of its left affluents, and of the Liau peninsula, and another on the west of the Liau, lying between its right bank and the Great Wall. Now these two tracts, known severally as Liau-tung or Liau East and Liau-se or Liau West, have, from the earliest historical periods, been occupied by a Chinese population, with the settled habits of their nation: agriculturists, artisans, and traders, dwellers in villages and cities. Hence, though situated beyond the Great Wall, it has always been a part, though a very exposed and often politically separated part, of China Proper. Manchuria Proper, as above defined, is a mountainous, well-watered tract, formerly altogether covered with forests, of which large portions still remain. The principal mountain range is the Chang-pih-shan, or Shan-a-lin, or Long White Mountains. … As the great arid plateau, the Shamo, has given to the Mongols their national characteristics, so the Long White Mountains, with their northerly spurs, separating the Upper Soongari, the Hurka, and the Usuri, have constituted the character-giving home and stronghold of the Manchus. These, unlike the Mongols, who have 'moved about after grass and water,' have always been a settled people, who in ancient times dwelt during the cold season in holes excavated in the sides of dry banks, or in pits in the earth, and during summer in huts formed of young trees and covered with bark or with long wild grass. They have, unlike the Mongols, from the earliest periods been somewhat of agriculturists; like them they have always reared domestic animals. … It has hitherto been the custom among Occidentals to speak of the Manchus as 'Tartars;' but if, as I believe, this name generally conveys the idea of a people of nomadic herdsmen, and usually large owners of camels, it will be seen from the foregoing sketch that it is altogether a misnomer as applied to the Manchus. … In the 11th century before Christ this nation appeared at the court of the Chow dynasty as Suh-chin, and presented tribute, a portion of which consisted of stone-headed arrows. In the 3d century after Christ they reappeared as Yih-low. … In the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries after Christ we find them under the names of Wuh-keihs, and Mo-hos, still described as rude barbarians, but politically organized as a confederation of seven large tribes or seven groups of tribes. At length, in the beginning of the 8th century, a family named Ta, belonging to the Suhmo-Mo-hos, that member of the confederation whose territory lay immediately on the north of Corea and north-east of Liau East, established themselves as rulers over the whole of Manchuria Proper, over Liau East, and over a large portion of Corea. In A. D. 712, the then Whang-ti, or Emperor of China, conferred the title of Prince of Po-hae on the head of the family; but the immediate successors of this prince shook off even the form of vassalage, and by their conquest of Northern Corea and Liau East, assumed a position of hostility to the Whang-ti. Po-hac, the name adopted by the new rulers, became the name of the Manchu Nation; which under it for the first time takes a place in history, as constituting a civilized State with a centralized administration. … It was overthrown by the Ketans. About these the Chinese accounts conflict as to whether they were a Manchu or a Mongol tribe: I consider them more of the former than of the latter. They took their rise in the valleys of the Hu-lan, a small northern branch of the Soongari, which falls into the latter about 100 miles below its junction with the Nonni. {3792} The Ketans had possessed themselves of Eastern Mongolia, and been engaged in successful war on China before they, in A. D. 926, attacked the Po-hae state, which they speedily overthrew, incorporating into their own dominions all Manchuria Proper and the East of the Liau. Before the middle of the 10th century, they had conquered nearly all Mongolia and Northern China. … They assumed for their dynasty the name of Liau, that of the river which flows past this port. Under the eighth of the line, their power had sunk so much that it fell easily before the attacks of A-kuh-ta, the chief of a purely Manchu tribe or commune, the Neu-chins, whose original seat was the country between the Upper Soongari and the Hurka. The Neu-chins rebelled against the Ketans or Liaus in A. D. 1113. Within 15 years, they had possessed themselves of the whole of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Northern China, driving the Chinese Whang-ti to the south of the Great River, and themselves establishing a rival line under the name of Kin, or Golden; adopted because their own country Manchuria 'was a gold-producing one.' The Neu-chins or Kins were in their turn overthrown by the Mongols, under Ghenghis Khan and his immediate successors. Manchuria came under their power about A. D. 1217, Northern China, about A. D. 1233, and Southern China, about A. D. 1280, when they established—it was the first time the thing had happened—a line of non-Chinese Whang-tis in undisputed possession of that dignity. … The Mongol dynasty maintained itself in China for about 90 years, when (in A. D. 1368) the last Whang-ti of the line was driven to the north of the Great Wall by the forces of a Chinese rebel, who established himself at Nanking as the first Whang-ti of the Ming dynasty."

_T. T. Meadows (Quoted in A. Williamson's "Journeys in North China," volume 2, chapter 4)._

In 1644 the Ming dynasty was overthrown by a domestic rebellion in China, and a Manchu prince, called in by one of the generals of the fallen government, established himself on the throne, where his descendants have reigned to this day.

See CHINA:A. D. 1294-1882 (page 420) and after.

MANSFIELD, Lord, and Commercial Law.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1756-1788, and 1783 (page 1973).

MARSHALL, John, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1801 (page 3326).

MARX, Karl, and the socialistic movements of his time.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894, 1843-1883, 1862-1872 (pages 2941, 2945, 2951).

MASAILAND, Exploration of.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1860-1861, 1871 and after.

MASHONALAND, English occupation of.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893 (page 2965); also (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

MASSACHUSETTS, Free Libraries in.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

MASTER OF THE ROLLS.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1066 (page 1988).

MATABELELAND, English occupation of.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893 (page 2965); also (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1888.

MEDICAL PROFESSION, Women in the.

See WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1842-1892 (page 3658).

MENNONITES, The.

"The Mennonites take their name from Menno Simons, born in Witmarsum, Holland, in 1492. He entered the priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1524 was appointed chaplain in Pingium. Two years later he began to read the Scriptures, which he had hitherto ignored. Becoming a close student of them, his views on various doctrines soon changed, and he was known as an evangelical preacher. … He renounced Catholicism early in 1536, and was baptized at Leeuwarden. In the course of the following year he was ordained a minister in what was then known as the Old Evangelical or Waldensian Church. From this time on to his death, in 1559, he was active in the cause of evangelical truth, traveling through northern Germany, and preaching everywhere. The churches which he organized as a result of his labors rejected infant baptism and held to the principle of non-resistance. A severe persecution began to make itself felt against his followers, the Mennonites; and, having heard accounts of the colony established in the New World by William Penn, they began to emigrate to Pennsylvania near the close of the 17th century. … Successive immigrations from Holland, Switzerland, Germany, and, in the last twenty-five years, from southern Russia, have resulted in placing the great majority of Mennonites in the world on American soil, in the United States and Canada."

_H. K. Carroll, The Religious Forces of the United States, chapter 28._

MICHIGAN WILD CAT BANKS.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1837-1841 (page 2215).

MIDDLE AGES, Commerce of the.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

MILLS TARIFF BILL, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3085).

MINNESOTA, University of.

"Two years after the organization of the territory, the Legislature petitioned Congress for a grant of 100,000 acres of land to endow a university, and on the very day of this petition two townships were set aside for that purpose. The Legislature went on to enact that the University of Minnesota should be established at or near the Falls of St. Anthony and should have the income from all land thereafter granted by the United States for University purposes. Under this grant the regents selected a large portion of the lands and erected a costly edifice, but they were soon obliged to mortgage both building and lands in order to meet the obligations incurred. Affairs were in this condition when Congress passed the act admitting Minnesota to the Union, by which two townships of land were granted for the use and support of a State university. … Efforts were at once made to open the university, but the financial crisis of 1857 and the Civil War checked further action and encumbered the university with debt. … The present organization of the university dates from 1868, when an act was passed 'to reorganize the University of Minnesota and to establish an agricultural college therein.' In the following year college classes were first organized. The act of 1868 provided that the university should have the income from the agricultural college grant. … From the university lands that have been sold something over $800,000 has been received, from which there is an annual income of about $37,000."

_F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, no. 1), pages 295-297._

{3793}

MISSIONS, Christian, in Africa.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

MISSISSIPPI RIVER: The question of navigation in dispute with Spain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784-1788 (page 3293).

MORMONS: Abandonment of Polygamy.

See UTAH: A. D. 1882-1893 (page 3591).

MORRISON TARIFF BILL, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3083).

MORSE, SAMUEL F. B., Telegraphic inventions of.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1825-1874 (page 773).

_T. O'Conor Sloane The Standard Electrical Dictionary https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535_

MORTON, Dr., and the discovery of Anæsthetics.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19th CENTURY (page 2144).

MOSQUITO COUNTRY.

See (in this Supplement) NICARAGUA.

N.

NANSEN, Dr., Arctic expeditions of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888, and 1893.

NAPOLEON I., and Germany.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1796-1807.

NARES, Captain, Polar voyage of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876.

NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

NETHERLANDS, Commerce of the.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL, AND MODERN.

NEUTRALITY, The Queen of England's Proclamation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (page 3428).

NEW CHURCH, The.

See (in this Supplement) SWEDENBORG.

NEW HARMONY COMMUNITY. The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824, and 1805-1827 (pages 2936-2937).

NEW JERSEY, College of.

See (in this Supplement) PRINCETON COLLEGE.

NEW LANARK, Robert Owen's experiment at.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824 (page 2935).

NEWNHAM HALL.

See EDUCATION (page 746).

NICARAGUA, AND THE MOSQUITO INDIANS.

The question of the sovereignty of Nicaragua over the Mosquito country was settled affirmatively by a convention concluded in November, 1894. Great Britain at the same time gave assurances to the United States that she asserts no rights of sovereignty or protection over the country in question.

NIHILISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1860-1870 (page 2948).

NILE, Exploration of the sources of the.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

NON-INTERCOURSE, The Jefferson policy of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809. and 1808-1810 (pages 3332 and 3338).

NORDENSKIÖLD, Professor (Baron), Achievement of the Northeast Passage by.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879.

NORTH AMERICA, The Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1780-1784 (page 2212).

NORTHEAST AND NORTHWEST PASSAGE, Search for.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

NORWAY, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

O.

OBERLIN COLLEGE.

"Oberlin is a development from the missionary and reform movements of the early quarter of our century. Its direct impulse was the new spirit of active benevolence which tested old doctrines by experience and by their fitness for organized philanthropy. Its foundations were laid 23 years after the organization of the American Foreign Missionary Association, 7 years after the first American temperance society, 15 years before the first public move to extend the rights of women, and in the same year with the American Anti-Slavery Society. All of these reform movements were more or less united in the Oberlin movement. The founders were themselves home missionaries in the West and among the Indians, and Oberlin has ever since been vital with the missionary spirit. From the first, alcoholic beverages have been excluded. Although not adopting the extreme doctrine of woman's rights, yet Oberlin was the first college in the world to admit young women to all its privileges on equal terms with young men; and as for its anti-slavery leanings, it had received colored students into its classes 28 years before emancipation. Such bold disregard of the old landmarks was not attractive to the power and wealth of the country, and so for 50 years Oberlin owed its life to the sacrifice and devotion of its founders and instructors. … In 1831 John J. Shipherd, under commission from the American Home Missionary Society, entered upon his work as pastor of the church at Elyria, Ohio. … In the summer of 1832 he was visited by Philo P. Stewart, an old school friend in the days when they both attended the academy at Pawlet, Vermont. Stewart, on account of the failing health of his wife, had returned from mission work among the Choctaws in Mississippi, but his heart was still burning with zeal for extending Christian work in the West. The two men, after long consultations and prayer, finally concluded that the needs of the new country could best be met by establishing a community of Christian families with a Christian school, … the school to be conducted on the manual labor system, and to be open to both young men and young women. {3794} It was not proposed to establish a college, but simply an academy for instruction in English and useful languages, and, if Providence should favor it, in 'practical theology.' In accordance with this plan the corporate name 'Oberlin Collegiate Institute' was chosen. Not until 1851 was a new and broader charter obtained, this time under the name of 'Oberlin College.' The name 'Oberlin' was chosen to signify the hope that the members of the new enterprise might be moved by the spirit of the self-sacrificing Swiss colporteur and pastor, John Friederich Oberlin."

_J. R Commons, Oberlin College (in Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1801, no. 5), pages 55-56._

OERSTED, and his discovery of the Electro-Magnet.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

_T. O'Conor Sloane The Standard Electrical Dictionary https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535_

OHIO UNIVERSITY.

"Ohio University bears the double distinction of being the first college in the United States founded upon a land endowment from the national Government, and also of being the oldest college in the Northwest Territory. … The university owes its origin and endowment to the Ohio Company of Associates, who in 1787 purchased a large tract of land from the old board of treasury for the purpose of colonizing it with pioneers from New England. … The honor of obtaining this endowment belongs to Dr. [Manasseh] Cutler. … In 1795 the lands to be devoted to the support of the university were located. The townships selected were those now called Athens and Alexander, in Athens County. General Rufus Putnam, who was deeply interested in the proposed institution, used his influence to secure settlers for the college lands. … December 18, 1799, the Territorial legislature appointed Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Ives Gilman, and Jonathan Stone 'to lay off, in the most suitable place within the townships, a town plat, which should contain a square for the colleges; also lots suitable for house lots and gardens for a president, professors, tutors, etc., bordering on or encircled by spacious commons, and such a number of town lots adjoining the said commons and outlots as they shall think will be for the advantage of the university.' … In 1802 the legislature of the Northwest Territory passed an act establishing a university and giving to it in trust the land grant."

_G. W. Knight and J. R. Commons, History of Higher Education in Ohio (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1891, number 5)._

ONEIDA COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1848 (page 2946).

ONTARIO SCHOOL SYSTEM.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

OTHO THE GREAT, and the restoration of the Empire.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 962.

OWEN, Robert, and his social experiments.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824, 1805-1827, and 1816-1886 (pages 2935, 2937, and 2938).

OYER AND TERMINER, Courts of.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1285 (page 1982).

P.

PAMIR, The.

The Pamir and Tibet, which converge north of India and east of the Oxus, form jointly the culminating land of the continent. Disposed at right angles, and parallel, the one to the equator, the other to the meridian, they constitute the so-called 'Roof,' or 'Crown of the World,' though this expression is more usually restricted to the Pamir alone. With its escarpments, rising above the Oxus and Tarim plains west and east, the Pamir occupies, in the heart of the continent, an estimated area of 30,000 square miles. With its counterforts projecting some 300 miles, it forms the western headland of all the plateaux and mountain systems skirting the Chinese Empire; it completely separates the two halves of Asia, and forms an almost impassable barrier to migration and war-like incursions. Yet notwithstanding its mean elevation of 13,000 feet above arable land, it has been frequently crossed by small caravans of traders or travellers, and by light columns of troops. The attempt could not fail to be frequently made to take the shortest route across the region separating the Oxus from Kashgaria, and Europe from China. Hence the Pamir has often been traversed by Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Italians, Chinese, some as traders, some as explorers, some inspired by religious zeal. But of these travellers very few have left any record of their journey, and all took the lowest routes across the plateau."

_E. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Asia, volume 1, chapter 3, section 2._

PANIC OF 1873, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1873 (page 3574).

PAPACY: Start--------

PAPACY: 11th Century. The Church and the first Crusading movement.

See (in this Supplement) CRUSADES.

PAPACY: 11-12th Centuries. The Question of the Investitures.