Part 2

Chapter 23,757 wordsPublic domain

There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a =barbed dowel-pin=, which is made as shown in Fig. 3 (_k_). This type of nail, or dowel, is used for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds, and frames of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the wooden dowel used in former times. The length of pin to be employed is regulated by the thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are used ¼ inch shorter than the thickness of the woodwork.

An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring. They are made with both chisel points, as shown in Fig. 4, and diamond points, and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style of head wanted should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in all sizes from tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to spikes ⅜ inch in diameter and 12 inches long.

=7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.=—Nails and spikes, either cut or wire, that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with this metal are termed =galvanized=. By this process they are rendered practically rust-proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained in the same sizes and types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do not regularly carry them in stock, they will as a rule have them galvanized to order. In order to secure durability, it is advisable to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed to dampness, as in shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures erected near the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that ordinary nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized nails cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.

The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them into vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is to rub the nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark the paper the same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is only a sham and has no redeeming qualities.

WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION AND SPECIAL BOLTS

=8. Wood Screws.=—The ordinary =wood screw=, which is one of the staple articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap or rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types of screws now on the market are illustrated in Fig. 5, and the common types, such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are easily procured.

Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized, bronze-plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated. Brass and bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or oval heads, in either natural color or, on special order, finished to match the hardware. Special screws are also manufactured for various purposes, which are sufficiently explained by the illustration, Fig. 5.

Screws are always measured for length from the point to the top of the head. The sizes in which screws can be obtained are given in Table IV. The diameter of screws is always measured directly under the head, and is always given in numbers of the screw makers’ gauge. The numbers vary from 0 to 30, going consecutively without skip from 0 to 18 and from then on using only the even numbers. In Table IV are also given the numbers of the screw makers’ gauge and their equivalents in decimals of an inch.

TABLE IV

SIZE OF WOOD SCREWS

SCREW MAKERS’ GAUGE --------+--------------- Number | Equivalent of Screw| in Decimals Gauge | of an Inch --------+--------------- 0 | .05784 1 | .07100 2 | .08416 3 | .09732 4 | .11048 5 | .12364 6 | .13680 7 | .14996 8 | .16312 9 | .17628 10 | .18944 11 | .20260 12 | .21576 13 | .22892 14 | .24208 15 | .25524 16 | .26840 17 | .28156 18 | .29472 20 | .32104 22 | .34736 24 | .37368 26 | .40000 28 | .42632 30 | .45264 ========+===============

=9. Drive Screws.=—A screw known as the =drive screw= is used mostly in the manufacture of various articles where cost is the controlling factor. These screws, shown in Fig. 6, are made somewhat on the order of the wood screw, but without the deep-cut thread and gimlet point. Screws of this type are driven into the wood with a hammer and have slotted heads so that they may be withdrawn by means of a screwdriver. The thread is so constructed that the wood may be penetrated without breaking down its fiber when the screws are driven, and is shaped so as to engage with the wood while resisting a pulling stress. These screws are made with flat, round, or oval heads, as illustrated respectively at (_a_), (_b_), and (_c_), and may be had in sizes from ½ inch to 4 inches in length.

=10. Expansion Bolts.=—The =expansion bolt= is a device that has proved extremely valuable in the building trades, as it provides a means of bolting to stone, brick, concrete, slate, or other materials of this nature. Expansion bolts are used principally in places where it is not desirable or practicable to drill through the material to which the fastenings are to be made. This type of bolt has also a great advantage over other fastenings in that it can be removed with as much ease and facility as it is applied, and also without injury either to the article fastened or the material to which it is fixed, the bolt likewise sustaining no injury.

Many styles of expansion bolts are now manufactured under various patents, and these may be procured in all sizes and made of iron, steel, or brass.

In Fig. 7 are shown several makes of expansion bolts. The _McCabe expansion bolt_, shown at (_a_), is constructed of a malleable, cylindrical-shaped, slotted case, or shell, _a_, the aperture of which reduces in size and engages with a bevel-shaped hexagon nut _b_. By turning the bolt, the nut is drawn toward the head and thus expands the outer case in its passage; this in turn binds against the sides of the hole in the masonry into which the bolt is inserted. The shell, as the outside case _a_ is called, can be procured in any length or diameter, and can be used with any machine bolt having a standard thread. The McCabe bolt is suitable for bolting any thickness of material, provided the proper length of bolt is employed.

The _Brohard expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_), performs the same functions as the bolt illustrated at (_a_). The case, or shell, _a_, is composed of two or more parts riveted to a wrought circular plate, near the head, as at _b_. These several parts are expanded by means of the beveled nut, which approaches the head as the bolt is turned. The principal feature of the Brohard expansion bolt is that the beveled nut _c_ cannot be forced from the case on account of the lug _d_, which is attached to the nut and travels in the slot _e_ when the bolt is turned.

The _Steward and Romaine double-expansion bolt_ is shown at (_c_). The shell of this bolt is composed of two semicylindrical parts, as at _a, a_, that are somewhat longer in diameter than the wedge-shaped nut and the sleeve at _b_ and _c_, respectively. Each half of the shell is held in place by light rubber bands. The wedge-shaped parts are caused to approach each other by the turning of the bolt, and thereby expand the split case at both ends simultaneously. From the fact that this bolt is expanded at both ends, it is called a =double-expansion bolt=, although it may be made single-expansion by omitting the wedge-shaped sleeve at the head.

The _Star expansion bolt_, shown in Fig. 8 (_a_), performs exactly the same duty as other expansion bolts, but its construction is radically different. This bolt consists of only two parts, called _shields_. Each shield is semicircular in form and interlocks at the joints. The exterior of these shields has four rows of corrugated ridges, or star-shaped projections, that prevent the shields from turning in the hole. The interior of the shell is threaded and decreases in size toward the farther end. Thus, by inserting a lag, or coach, screw of any length, so as to engage with the thread, the shields are spread apart at the farther end while the screw is entering the aperture.

The _Diamond expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_) is practically the same as the one just described, as will be observed from the figure.

Expansion bolts are also made with all the parts entirely of brass or bronze, with either plain, capped, or fancy heads, or nuts, and in any finish desired.

=11. Screw Anchors.=—The device known as a _screw anchor_ can be used in place of an expansion bolt for securing light materials. Several kinds of screw anchors are in the market at present. The _star anchor_, which is made in one piece of composition metal that is slotted about seven-eighths of its length, may be obtained in various diameters and lengths. The exterior has two star-like projections, to prevent the anchor from turning, while the interior is constructed of ridges projecting from the tube, with the hole reduced toward the slotted end. This internal construction permits the star anchor to be used in combination with trade wood or machine screws of any length. The screw used engages with the ridges in the interior, cutting its own thread and expanding the anchor in its passage. These composition anchors are very cheap, the price ranging from 1 to 3 cents, according to the size. They are made in different lengths, from ½ inch to 1½ inches, and for Nos. 6, 10, 14, and 18 wood screws.

=12. Special Bolts.=—In Fig. 9 is shown a =toggle bolt=. This device is a recent production for fastening materials to surfaces having a hollow interior that will not admit the use of expansion or tap bolts because of its frail character, as, for instance, sheet metal, hollow fireproofing, etc. The toggle bolt shown in the figure is constructed with long, fine-pitch threads cut nearly to the head, so as to allow for securing thin materials. The =T=-shaped head _a_ is constructed either hollow, as shown in the figure, or of flat strip metal, and is riveted loosely to the end of the bolt, allowing the head to pivot and fold over the bolt, and thus permitting the head to pass through a small opening. The head is then tipped into its proper position, when the bolt is ready for securing in place the work to be fastened. The construction of the bolt is shown in Fig. 9 (_a_), while the process of affixing it is illustrated at (_b_) and (_c_). These toggle bolts are generally made with ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⁵/₁₆-inch bolts, from 2½ to 6 inches long, and of either iron, steel, or brass.

SASH WEIGHTS

=13. Cast-Iron Weights.=—The term =sash weight= is applied to a counterweight used for balancing double-hung, or sliding, sash. These weights are generally very rough, being made from either the poorest iron or waste iron. The stock sizes are usually long and cylindrical in form—from 1⅜ to 2¼ inches in diameter—have an eye cast in the upper end, as shown in Fig. 10, and weigh from 2 to 30 pounds, the weight determining the length of the sash weight. In Table V are given the weight, diameter, and length of sash weights as they are generally furnished to the trade, although it is almost impossible to give this data with any degree of accuracy, as the different manufacturers vary the diameters of the weights slightly, and this changes the length measurement. Square weights or special weights can be easily procured at small additional cost.

=14. Lead Weights.=—The weight of lead is about 80 per cent. greater than that of cast-iron; hence, =lead sash weights= must be resorted to where the construction of the pockets is too narrow to permit the use of iron weights, or where heavy plate glass is used. They are also used in cases where the sash are very wide and low, as here a short weight must be used in order to obtain the necessary travel for the sash.

Lead weights can be procured in either round or square shapes, and of any diameter or measurement to suit existing conditions, but they are generally made to special order. A wrought- or malleable-iron eye, or fastening, for applying the cord or chain is usually inserted at the top. The cost of lead weights, however, is generally five times as great as that of iron weights.

=15. Sectional Sash Weights.=—There is a form of sash weight in the market known as the =Walda sectional weight=, which is illustrated in Fig. 11. This weight, as will be observed, is so arranged that units or sections may be detached or added, as desired, to diminish or to increase the weight. Such a weight can be nicely adjusted to counterbalance any sash, and has the advantage over the cast-iron weight in that each part is interchangeable and no mistake can be made in ordering, as the necessary weight for any sash can be made up on the site.

TABLE V

WEIGHT, DIAMETER, AND LENGTH OF SASH WEIGHTS

========+==========+======== Weight | Diameter | Length Pounds | Inches | Inches --------+----------+-------- 3 | 1⅜ | 8½ 3½ | 1⅜ | 9¾ 4 | 1⅜ | 11 4½ | 1⅜ | 12¼ 5 | 1½ | 12 5½ | 1½ | 12½ 6 | 1½ | 14 6½ | 1½ | 15 7 | 1½ | 16 7½ | 1½ | 17 8 | 1½ | 18 8½ | 1⅝ | 16½ 9 | 1⅝ | 17½ 9½ | 1⅝ | 18½ 10 | 1⅝ | 19½ 10½ | 1⅝ | 20½ 11 | 1⅝ | 21½ 11½ | 1¾ | 19 12 | 1¾ | 20 13 | 1¾ | 21½ 14 | 2 | 18 15 | 2 | 19 16 | 2 | 20¼ 17 | 2 | 21½ 18 | 2 | 22½ 19 | 2 | 23½ 20 | 2 | 24½ 21 | 2⅛ | 25 22 | 2¼ | 23 23 | 2¼ | 24 24 | 2¼ | 25 25 | 2¼ | 25½ 26 | 2¼ | 26 27 | 2¼ | 27 28 | 2¼ | 28 29 | 2¼ | 28½ ========+==========+========

FINISHING HARDWARE

METALS AND THEIR MANIPULATION

=16. Historical.=—From the days of Tubal-Cain, “an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron,” to the present time, no element in the world’s composition has rendered greater service in advancing man’s development than has the uninviting metal known as _iron_.

Recent discoveries show the very ancient existence of iron in Assyria, and also in Egypt under the Pharaohs. It was found in considerable quantities in Syria, in Canaanite times, and many tools and implements of warfare were made from it. The Chalybes, located near the Black Sea, were in Biblical times considered famous workers in “northern iron,” while Damascus steel, for ages, has been justly celebrated.

_Copper_ was well known to the Israelites and Egyptians before the Exodus, and for many years previous to that event the Egyptians obtained it from Arabia. It was also a native product of Palestine, and was very largely exported from Cyprus, whence its name.

_Tin_ was early known in the Orient, being one of the imports of Egypt from Spain, through the Phoenician merchants, who also obtained it from Britain. It was one of the principal commodities in the marts of Tyre, and was used as an alloy with other metals.

_Gold_ and _silver_, the precious metals, are mentioned in the earliest times and were highly esteemed; they were utilized in the manufacture of articles for domestic use, for personal adornment, and for ceremonial accessories. These metals were obtained by the Hebrews from Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Spain. Gold was used as a medium of exchange, like money, as early as the time of Abraham, but was then weighed, not counted. Silver was profusely used at that time in the East, and seems to have been very abundant in the time of Solomon. An alloy of gold and silver, called _electrum_, was also used.

_Zinc_ was discovered in 1520 by Paracelsus, an alchemist and astrologer of Europe, and was immediately adopted as a valuable alloy.

_Bronze_, a composition of copper and tin, seems to have been much used in Europe before the adoption of iron for the same purposes, as Roman remains testify; this was probably due to its greater ease in working.

_Brass_, a composition of copper and zinc, soon became popular, owing to its being more easily worked than bronze.

_Burnished brass_ is mentioned in Ezekiel, but is considered to have been an alloy of copper, there being a white metal, greatly used for ornaments in the East, called _white copper_.

Locks and contrivances to secure protection and privacy were originally made of wood, and a wooden lock (the oldest yet discovered) was actually found in the ruins of Nineveh. This lock appears to have been used on a gate of an apartment in one of the palaces of Khorsabad. The ancient Egyptians constructed locks and keys from brass and iron, thus showing their creative mechanical skill, while the ornaments discovered in the royal tombs display the high order of their art.

The Greeks and Romans were skilled workers in the metals, and many beautiful examples remain to attest their ability and ingenuity.

During the dark ages, following the conflict waged between the barbarians of Northern Europe and the Romans, and resulting in the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the art of working the metals nearly disappeared. Not until the Revival of Learning in the 13th century did the art again receive the attention to which it was entitled. As late as the reign of Edward III, of England, in the 14th century, the iron pots and pans of the royal kitchen were listed among the “jewels of His Majesty.” During the 15th and 16th centuries, great progress was made among all civilized nations by skilled artificers. Much of their work is still extant, and their “cunning of hand” and “keenness of intellect,” as displayed in their products, serve, like torches, to light the way to higher endeavor. From that time to the present, great progress has been made. During the latter half of the 17th, the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th centuries, especially, art work received a great impetus, and much of the present-day adaptations are modeled from the schools of ornament then produced.

=17. Metals Used in Hardware Manufacture.=—The metals chiefly used in manufacturing the products of the smiths’ art are iron and steel and the copper alloys known as brass and bronze. Iron remains as the chief material of construction for all the cheaper grades of hardware, while brass and bronze are more generally used for “destructible,” or wearing, parts and the finer and more elaborate decorative work. These alloys also adapt themselves admirably to the great variety of finishes that are now in vogue. Iron is also used considerably for elaborate decorations in wrought and cast designs, and is very desirable in the “rustless-iron” finish, technically known as “Bower-Barff,” which derives its name from its two inventors.

White metal has been recently introduced, but will probably not be so universally adopted as brass or bronze, owing to the great number and variety of items used in hardware fittings, which would necessitate stores carrying a full line of white-metal goods. At present, white metal is used principally for hospital buildings and bathrooms.

=18. Commercial and Stock Designs.=—In recent years, manufacturers have made rapid strides in producing beautiful and elaborate trim in the several schools of ornament, and the most exacting critic can now procure artistic designs. The finishes are made to harmonize or contrast with any color treatment.

The principal hardware manufacturers can provide from stock, locks, hinges, and escutcheons finished in any manner and designed in any of the following schools of architectural ornament. They will also provide hardware in special designs from sketches furnished by the architect, including armorial or emblematic designs, if required. These several schools of ornament are here arranged in alphabetical order.

Byzantine Gothic, French Colonial Gothic, German Elizabethan Gothic, Italian Empire Greek English Renaissance Henry II Flemish Indian Francis I Italian Renaissance French Renaissance Japanese German Renaissance L’Art Nouveau Gothic, English

=19. Finishes.=—The basic metals upon which are applied the variety of finishes now obtainable, are iron, steel, brass, bronze, and white metal, of which the three latter, even in their highly polished natural state, are the most durable. These metals will not rust or corrode when exposed as will iron or steel, and when tarnished can be readily cleaned and polished.

Nearly all the fancy finishes are obtained by electroplating and acid treatment on the natural metals, the finish being then lacquered to preserve it. Some of these finishes are very attractive and desirable, but where exposed to constant usage, have not the durability of the natural metals, as they cannot be polished or cleaned without the finish being injured or destroyed.

Many architects or owners purposely select applied finishes with the object in view that they will need little attention. When selections are being made for exterior purposes or where there is likely to be excessive handling, it is best to select the darker shades with sanded surfaces. For interior purposes, the more delicate finishes are desirable for the decorative effect; they also wear reasonably well.

The variety of colors and shades of finishes is exceedingly large, and the choice of color, like that of texture, depends on the character of the design and on the personal taste of the one making the selection.

The standard finishes that can be had are numerous. Many of them may be obtained in various shades of oxidation and in from one to four different textures of surface. The most popular finishes are as follows: