Part 1

Chapter 13,101 wordsPublic domain

Transcriber’s Notes:

Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ in the original text. Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= in the original text. Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. Antiquated spellings have been preserved. Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.

_International Library of Technology_ 333

Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design

223 ILLUSTRATIONS

Prepared Under Supervision of W. S. LOWNDES, Ph. B.

DIRECTOR, SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES MILL DESIGN

Published by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, PA. 1925

Builders’ Hardware: Copyright, 1908, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 1: Copyright, 1899, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. Copyright, 1908, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 2: Copyright, 1899, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. Copyright, 1909, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Mill Design: Copyright, 1907, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

PRESS OF INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, PA.

PREFACE

The volumes of the International Library of Technology are made up of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising the various courses of instruction for students of the International Correspondence Schools. The original manuscripts are prepared by persons thoroughly qualified both technically and by experience to write with authority, and in many cases they are regularly employed elsewhere in practical work as experts. The manuscripts are then carefully edited to make them suitable for correspondence instruction. The Instruction Papers are written clearly and in the simplest language possible, so as to make them readily understood by all students. Necessary technical expressions are clearly explained when introduced.

The great majority of our students wish to prepare themselves for advancement in their vocations or to qualify for more congenial occupations. Usually they are employed and able to devote only a few hours a day to study. Therefore every effort must be made to give them practical and accurate information in clear and concise form and to make this information include all of the essentials but none of the non-essentials. To make the text clear, illustrations are used freely. These illustrations are especially made by our own Illustrating Department in order to adapt them fully to the requirements of the text.

In the table of contents that immediately follows are given the titles of the Sections included in this volume, and under each title are listed the main topics discussed. At the end of the volume will be found a complete index, so that any subject treated can be quickly found.

INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

CONTENTS

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE _Section Page_ Staple Hardware 55 1 Cut and Wire Nails 55 2 Wood Screws, Expansion and Special Bolts 55 11 Sash Weights 55 18 Finishing Hardware 55 20 Metals and Their Manipulation 55 20 Hinges, Hinge Butts, and Special Hinges 55 24 Locks and Their Appurtenances 55 55 Window and Sash Hardware 55 77 Door Hardware and its Application 55 102 Shutter Hardware 55 129 Cabinet Trim 55 132 Design and Specification of Hardware for Buildings 55 138 Hardware of Special Design 55 138 Selection, Estimation, and Application of Hardware 55 146 Schedules and Drawings for the Hardware Contractor 55 154 Glass and Glazing 55 157

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES Scope of Subject 60 1 Approximate Estimating 60 3 Accurate Estimating Schedule 60 5 Excavation 60 11 Concrete Work 60 18 Masonry 60 24 Brickwork 60 31 Carpentry 60 38 Roofing 60 46 Plastering 60 58 Joinery 60 61 Structural Steel 60 69 Heating and Ventilating System 60 69 Plumbing and Gas-Fitting 60 70 Painting and Papering 60 72 Glazing 60 78

Example in Estimating 61 1 Excavation 61 2 Stonework 61 4 Brickwork 61 8 Carpentry 61 10 Roofing 61 21 Lathing and Plastering 61 22 Joinery 61 23 Hardware 61 33 Heating and Ventilating System 61 35 Plumbing 61 37 Gas-Fitting 61 40 Wiring 61 41 Painting 61 42 Summary of Cost of Building 61 44

MILL DESIGN Site and Arrangement 64 1 Preliminary Considerations 64 1 Types of Mill Construction 64 13 Girder and Plank-on-Edge Construction 64 13 Standard Slow-Burning Construction 64 18 Factory Buildings of Reinforced Concrete 64 23 Steel-Frame Mill Buildings 64 31 Details of Mill Construction and Design 64 34 The Power Plant 64 41 Chimneys 64 45 Fire-Protection of Mill Buildings 64 50

INDEX i

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE

STAPLE HARDWARE

INTRODUCTION

=1.= The hardware used in building construction may be classified as _staple_ and _finished_. =Staple hardware= may be considered as including such materials as nails and spikes, bolts and screws, sash weights, and other materials of this character, while =finished hardware= may include such devices and appliances as locks and latches, hinges, door and window trimmings, and the various metallic fixtures used in equipping the different classes of buildings. To this last classification the term _builders’ hardware_ is frequently applied.

Strictly speaking, glass cannot be considered as hardware; nevertheless, it is frequently supplied to the builder through hardware supply houses, and it is so closely allied to the hardware of building construction that the subject of glass, its trade terms, and other information relating to its characteristics, will not be out of order in this Section.

While little consideration is given to the hardware on the average building, there is no more important part of the construction, nor one to which greater attention should be given. On the quality and the selection of proper hardware depends the avoidance of the petty annoyances often found in buildings where this subject has not received proper consideration.

The architect should be well informed regarding this subject, and should be in a position to know the kind and quality of hardware that, when specified, will give the best results. He will find that a thorough knowledge of builders’ hardware will assist him materially in writing comprehensive specifications for this portion of the work. Consequently, the writing of the hardware specifications will receive attention in this Section, and the proper manner of estimating, or “taking off,” hardware will also be considered.

CUT AND WIRE NAILS

=2. Cut Nails.=—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and this mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe. These hand-made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the machine-made nails of today.

The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more manual labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or steel is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail is long. This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared off in tapering strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized by clamps that hold it just long enough for the heading hammer to strike the blow that forms the head.

The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the =cut nail=, and is much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not only has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable, especially when used in damp places.

=3.= Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from sheet steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for which the makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is undoubtedly the best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will outlast it where dampness exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc.

As shown in Fig. 1, cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for the various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they count fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All nails are sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for smaller and special nails being added to the base price. For special work, certain types of nails can be obtained in copper and brass.

=4. Size and Gauge of Nails.=—Both cut and wire nails are designated by the trade term _penny_. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic of medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact that it defined the _cost per hundred nails_, so that _tenpenny nails_ would mean that 100 of such nails cost _ten pence_. A more likely interpretation of the term is that it implied the _weight_ and not the _cost_, and that the term penny is a corruption of the Old English word _pun’_ (for pound), so that _tenpunny_ or _tenpenny_ implied that 1,000 of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The smallest standard size of nail is known as _twopenny_ or _threepenny_, while the largest is designated as _sixtypenny_. These sizes range in length from 1 to 6 inches. In designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d” (for penny) is used, so that a nail about 2 inches long is designated as 6d. The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge of cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which they are cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire from which the nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their decimal equivalents of an inch are given in Table I. The special wire gauge commonly used to indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham. In Table II is given a list of the stock sizes of standard, common, cut nails. This table, besides giving the thickness of the nail and its length, gives the number of nails to the pound.

TABLE I

STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH

=======+==========+===============+=======+========+============ Number | American,| |Washburn|Trenton|United | Old English of Wire| or, Brown| Birm-| & Moen | Iron | States | From Brass Gauge | & Sharpe |ingham|Manufac-|Company|Standard| Manufac- | | | turing | | | turers’ | | | Company| | | Lists -------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+------------ 000000 | | | .4600 | | .46857 | 00000 | | | .4300 | .4500 | .43750 | 0000 | .460000 | .454 | .3930 | .4000 | .40625 | 000 | .409640 | .425 | .3620 | .3600 | .37500 | 00 | .364800 | .380 | .3310 | .3300 | .34375 | 0 | .324950 | .340 | .3070 | .3050 | .31250 | 1 | .289300 | .300 | .2830 | .2850 | .28125 | 2 | .257630 | .284 | .2630 | .2650 | .26563 | 3 | .229420 | .259 | .2440 | .2450 | .25000 | 4 | .204310 | .238 | .2250 | .2250 | .23438 | 5 | .181940 | .220 | .2070 | .2050 | .21875 | 6 | .162020 | .203 | .1920 | .1900 | .20313 | 7 | .144280 | .180 | .1770 | .1750 | .18750 | 8 | .128490 | .165 | .1620 | .1600 | .17188 | 9 | .114430 | .148 | .1480 | .1450 | .15625 | 10 | .101890 | .134 | .1350 | .1300 | .14063 | 11 | .090742 | .120 | .1200 | .1175 | .12500 | 12 | .080808 | .109 | .1050 | .1050 | .10938 | 13 | .071961 | .095 | .0920 | .0925 | .09375 | 14 | .064084 | .083 | .0800 | .0800 | .07813 | .08300 15 | .057068 | .072 | .0720 | .0700 | .07031 | .07200 16 | .050820 | .065 | .0630 | .0610 | .06250 | .06500 17 | .045257 | .058 | .0540 | .0525 | .05625 | .05800 18 | .040303 | .049 | .0470 | .0450 | .05000 | .04900 19 | .035390 | .042 | .0410 | .0390 | .04375 | .04000 20 | .031961 | .035 | .0350 | .0340 | .03750 | .03500 21 | .028462 | .032 | .0320 | .0300 | .03438 | .03150 22 | .025347 | .028 | .0280 | .0270 | .03125 | .02950 23 | .022571 | .025 | .0250 | .0240 | .02813 | .02700 24 | .020100 | .022 | .0230 | .0215 | .02500 | .02500 25 | .017900 | .020 | .0200 | .0190 | .02188 | .02300 26 | .015940 | .018 | .0180 | .0180 | .01875 | .02150 27 | .014195 | .016 | .0170 | .0170 | .01719 | .01875 28 | .012641 | .014 | .0160 | .0160 | .01563 | .01650 29 | .011257 | .013 | .0150 | .0150 | .01406 | .01550 30 | .010025 | .012 | .0140 | .0140 | .01250 | .01375 31 | .008928 | .010 | .0135 | .0130 | .01094 | .01225 32 | .007950 | .009 | .0130 | .0120 | .01016 | .01125 33 | .007080 | .008 | .0110 | .0110 | .00938 | .01025 34 | .006304 | .007 | .0100 | .0100 | .00853 | .00950 35 | .005614 | .005 | .0095 | .0090 | .00781 | .00900 =======+==========+======+========+=======+========+============

TABLE II

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON CUT NAILS

=5. Wire Nails.=—The term =wire nail= is applied to nails made from drawn wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire nails have become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in preference to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are a greater number to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails at the same price per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to the pound are given in Table III. By comparing the columns in Tables II and III giving the number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire nails, it can be readily seen that the wire nails are greater in number for a given weight than cut nails of the same size. For this reason, the wire nails are used by contractors on cheap work.

Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength.

TABLE III

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON WIRE NAILS

====+========+========+=============+============== Size| Length | Gauge | Approximate | Advance Over | Inches | Number | Number to | Base Price | | | the Pound |per 100 Pounds ----+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- 2d | 1 | 15 | 876 | $0.70 3d | 1¼ | 14 | 568 | .45 4d | 1½ | 12½ | 316 | .30 5d | 1¾ | 12½ | 271 | .30 6d | 2 | 11½ | 181 | .20 7d | 2¼ | 11½ | 161 | .20 8d | 2½ | 10¼ | 106 | .10 9d | 2¾ | 10¼ | 96 | .10 10d | 3 | 9 | 69 | .05 12d | 3¼ | 9 | 63 | .05 16d | 3½ | 8 | 49 | .05 20d | 4 | 6 | 31 | Base 30d | 4½ | 5 | 24 | Base 40d | 5 | 4 | 18 | Base 50d | 5½ | 3 | 14 | Base 60d | 6 | 2 | 11 | Base ====+========+========+=============+==============

Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over the base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would cost $2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base price on 100-pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this table. All wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance of 15 cents above base and extra prices.

The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from samples of the same, but Fig. 2, which shows these nails full size, from sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.

=6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.=—Wire nails as well as wrought or cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the specific purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire nails in common use are illustrated in Fig. 3.

A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work, together is illustrated at (_a_), and from its use is known as a =finishing nail=. These nails are used almost exclusively for this purpose and are very light. They have a small head, so that when they are set into the wood with a nail set, a very small opening is left for puttying.

Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described is designated as a =casing nail=, and is shown at (_b_). This nail is a trifle lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that it is countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing nail. The fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding.

The =common wire brad=, shown at (_c_), is used for practically the same purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four gauges heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small head is required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing nail will not penetrate without bending.

The =flooring brad=, shown at (_d_), is a nail used almost exclusively for flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other nails of this type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor. The construction of the head of this type of nail allows for severe “drawing” without splitting the tongue of the flooring boards.

The =fine-wire nail=, shown at (_e_), commonly called a =lath nail=, is made in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to its smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of nail is extensively used.

A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase its holding qualities, is shown at (_f_). This nail is known as a =barbed roofing nail=, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and ready, or prepared, roofing of every description. It is also used with tin roofing caps.

At (_g_) is shown a =slating nail=. This type of nail is formed from heavy gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to its length. This nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable as the cut nail made for this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in only five sizes.

A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the =shingle nail=, is shown at (_h_). This nail is seldom carried in stock, however, as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the purpose. These shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not so durable as cut nails.

A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to provide greater durability, is known as the =fence nail=. This nail is made as shown at (_i_).

At (_j_) is shown a =clinch nail= that is manufactured from soft wire or annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as the old-style wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the construction of batten doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the end of the nail, allows the point to be bent and driven back into the wood to form the clinch. These nails do not differ from the common wire nail, except in the form of the head and the material from which they are made, as will be seen from Fig. 3 (_j_) and Fig. 2.