CHAPTER XI.

II. SPHENOPHYLLALES.

_Sphenophyllum._

The genus _Sphenophyllum_ is placed in a special class, as representing a type which cannot be legitimately included in any of the existing groups of Vascular Cryptogams. Although this Palaeozoic genus possesses points of contact with various living plants, it is generally admitted by palaeobotanists that it constitutes a somewhat isolated type among the Pteridophytes of the Coal-Measures. Our knowledge of the anatomy of both vegetative shoots and strobili is now fairly complete, and the facts that we possess are in favour of excluding the genus from any of the three main divisions of the Pteridophyta.

In Scheuchzer’s _Herbarium Diluvianum_ there is a careful drawing of some fragments of slender twigs, from an English locality, bearing verticils of cuneiform leaves, which the author compares with the common _Galium_[860]. As regards superficial external resemblance, the _Galium_ of our hedgerows agrees very closely with what must have been the appearance of fresh green shoots of _Sphenophyllum_.

A twig of the same species of _Sphenophyllum_ is figured by Schlotheim[861] in the first part of his work on fossil plants; he regards it as probably a fragment of some species of Palm. Sternberg[862] was the first to institute a generic name for this genus of plants, and specimens were described by him in 1825 as a species of the genus _Rotularia_. The name _Sphenophyllites_ was proposed by Brongniart[863] in 1822 as a substitute for Schlotheim’s genus, and in a later work[864] the French author instituted the genus _Sphenophyllum_. Dawson[865] was the first to make any reference to the anatomy of this genus; but it is from the examination of the much more perfect material from St. Étienne, Autun, and other continental localities, the North of England and Pettycur in Scotland, by Renault, Williamson, Zeiller and Scott, that our more complete knowledge has been acquired.

The affinity of _Sphenophyllum_ has always been a matter of speculation; it has been compared with Dicotyledons, Palms, Conifers (_Ginkgo_ and _Phyllocladus_), and various Pteridophytes, such as _Ophioglossum_, _Tmesipteris_, _Marsilia_, _Salvinia_, _Equisetum_ and the Lycopodiaceae[866].

[Sidenote: DEFINITION.]

We may define the genus _Sphenophyllum_ as follows:—

Stem comparatively slender (1·5–15 mm.?), articulated, usually somewhat tumid at the nodes; the surface of the internodes is marked by more or less distinct ribs and grooves which do not alternate at the nodes, but follow a straight course from one internode to the next. A single branch is occasionally given off from a node. Adventitious roots are very rarely seen, their surface does not show the ridges and grooves of the foliage-shoots.

The leaves are borne in verticils at the nodes, those in the same whorl being usually of the same size, but in some forms two of the leaves are distinctly smaller than the others. Each verticil contains normally 6, 9, 12, 18 or more leaves, which are separate to the base and not fused into a sheath; the number of leaves in a verticil is not always a multiple of six. They vary in form from cuneiform with a narrow tapered base, and a lamina traversed by several forked veins, to narrow uninerved leaves and leaves with a lamina dissected into dichotomously branched linear segments. The leaves of successive whorls are superposed.

The strobili are long and narrow in form, having a length in some cases of 12 cm., and a diameter of 12 mm.; they occur as shortly stalked lateral branches, or terminate long leaf-bearing shoots. The axis of the cone bears whorls of numerous linear lanceolate bracts fused basally into a coherent funnel-shaped disc, bearing on its upper surface sporangiophores and sporangia.

The strobili are usually isosporous, but possibly heterosporous in some forms.

The stem is monostelic, with a triarch or hexarch triangular strand of centripetally developed primary xylem, consisting of reticulate, scalariform and spiral tracheae; the protoxylem elements being situated at the blunt corners of the xylem-strand. Foliar bundles are given off, either singly or in pairs, from each angle of the central primary strand. The secondary xylem consists of radially disposed reticulate or scalariform tracheae, developed from a cambium-layer. The phloem is made up of thin-walled elements, including sieve-tubes and parenchyma. Both xylem and phloem include secondary medullary rays of parenchymatous cells. The cortex consists in part of fairly thick-walled elements; in older stems the greater part of the cortical region is cut off by the development of deep-seated layers of periderm.

The roots are apparently diarch in structure, with a lacunar and smooth cortex.

• • • • •

The branch of _Sphenophyllum emarginatum_ Brongn. given in fig. 109 shows the characteristic appearance of the genus as represented by this well-known species which Brongniart figured in 1822. The Indian species shown in fig. 111 illustrates the occurrence of unequal leaves in the same whorl, and in fig. 110, _B_, we have a form of verticil in which the leaves are deeply divided into filiform segments. A larger-leaved form is represented by _S. Thoni_, Mahr. (fig. 110, _A_), a species occasionally met with in Permian rocks.

No specimens of _Sphenophyllum_ have so far been found attached to a thick stem; they always occur as slender shoots, which sometimes reach a considerable length. One of the longest examples known is in the collection of the Austrian Geological Survey; the axis is 4 mm. in breadth and 85 cm. long, bearing a slender branch 61 cm. in length. The manner of occurrence of the specimen as a curved slender stem on the surface of the rock suggests a weak plant, which must have depended for support on some external aid, either water or another plant. The anatomical structure and other features do not favour the suggestion of some writers that _Sphenophyllum_ was a water-plant[867], but there would seem to be no serious obstacle in the way of regarding it as possibly a slender plant which flung itself on the branches and stems of stronger forest trees for support.

A. The anatomy of Sphenophyllum.

The following account of the structural features of the stem and root is based on the work of Renault[868], Williamson[869] and Williamson and Scott[870]. We may first consider such characters as have been recognised in different examples of the genus, and then notice briefly the distinguishing peculiarities of two well-marked specific types.

_a._ _Stems._

i. Primary structure.

In a transverse section of a young _Sphenophyllum_ stem such as that diagrammatically sketched in fig. 105, _A_, we find in the centre the xylem portion of a single stele with a characteristic triangular form. The primary xylem consists mainly of fairly large tracheae with numerous pits on their walls; towards the end of each arm the tracheids become scalariform, and at the apex there is a group of narrower spiral protoxylem elements. In the British species there is a single protoxylem group at the apex of each arm, but Renault has described some French stems in which the stele appears to be hexarch, having two protoxylem groups at the end of each of the three rays of the stele. The primary xylem strand of _Sphenophyllum_ has therefore a root-like structure, the tracheids having been developed centripetally from the three initial protoxylem groups. This type of structure is typical of roots, but it also occurs in the stems of some recent Vascular Cryptogams.

As a rule the tissue next the xylem has not been petrified, but in exceptionally well-preserved examples it is seen to consist of a band of thin-walled elements, of which those in contact with the xylem may be spoken of as phloem, and those beyond as the pericycle. Succeeding this band of delicate tissue there is a broader band of thicker-walled and somewhat elongated elements, constituting the cortex. The specimen drawn in fig. 105, _A_, shows very prominent grooves in the cortex opposite the middle of each bay of the primary wood. It is these grooves that give to the ordinary casts of _Sphenophyllum_ branches the appearance of longitudinal lines traversing each internode. In a longitudinal section of a stem, the cortical tissue (fig. 104, _c_) is found to be broader in the nodal regions, thus giving rise to the tumid nodes referred to in the diagnosis. The increased breadth at the nodes does not mean that the xylem is broader in these regions, as it is in Calamite stems. Small strands of vascular tissue are given off from the three edges of the triangular stele (fig. 105 _A_) at each node; these branch in passing through the cortex on their way to the verticils of leaves. The space _b_ in the diagrammatic section of fig. 104 was originally occupied by the phloem and inner cortex. In some species of _Sphenophyllum_ the apex of each arm of the xylem strand, as seen in transverse section, is occupied by a longitudinal canal surrounded by spiral tracheids, as in the primary xylem of the old stem shown in fig. 105, _C_.

ii. Secondary structure.

With the exception of very young twigs the petrified _Sphenophyllum_ stems usually show a greater or less development of secondary wood. In the xylem-strand of fig. 105, _B_, the broad concave bays of the primary wood have been filled in by the development of two rows of large secondary tracheids, _x_, but opposite the protoxylem groups, _px_, there are no signs of cambial activity. In the unusually large stem represented by a rough sketch in fig. 105, _C_, the triangular primary xylem lies in the centre of a thick mass of secondary vascular tissue. The secondary and primary wood together have a diameter of about 5 mm.

After the bays between each protoxylem corner have been filled in, the formation of secondary wood proceeds uniformly along the stem radii, but the rows of tracheids and medullary rays which are developed opposite the corners of the primary strand, _c_, differ in certain characters from the broader masses of wood opposite the bays. For convenience, the secondary wood, _c_, opposite the protoxylem groups has been spoken of as _fascicular wood_, and the rest, _d_, as _interfascicular wood_.

The secondary xylem consists either of tracheae with numerous bordered pits on their radial walls (fig. 105, _D_), or of tracheae with broad and bordered scalariform pits (fig. 105, _E_). The suggestion of concentric rings of growth in the wood in fig. 105, _C_, is rather deceptive; there are no well-marked regular rings in _Sphenophyllum_ stems, but irregular bands of smaller elements occasionally interrupt the uniformity of the secondary xylem. In some stems the medullary rays have the form of rows of parenchymatous cells, which in tangential longitudinal section are found to consist frequently of a single row of radially disposed elements; this type of medullary rays occurs in the species _Sphenophyllum insigne_, in which the tracheae are scalariform. Three medullary rays, _r_, are seen on the radial face of the scalariform tracheids in fig. 105, _E_, which represents a radial section of this species. In other species, _e.g._ _S. plurifoliatum_, the medullary rays have a peculiar and characteristic structure; in a transverse section of the stem they appear as groups of a few parenchymatous cells in the spaces between the truncated angles of the large tracheae (fig. 106). In longitudinal section these medullary-ray elements resemble thick bars stretching radially across the face of the tracheae (fig. 105, _D_, _r_); the apparent septa or bars are however thin-walled cells connecting the different groups of medullary-ray cells, as seen in a transverse section. These radial connecting cells are occasionally seen as short rays in transverse sections of stems.

The cambium and phloem elements are occasionally preserved in good specimens of older stems; the former consist of tabular flatted thin-walled cells, and the latter in some cases include large sieve-tubes and narrower parenchymatous elements.

The sections shown in fig. 107, _E_ and _F_, illustrate the preservation of cambial and phloem tissue. In the transverse section of fig. 107, _F_, the secondary xylem with the medullary rays, _r_, is succeeded by a few tabular cambium cells, and external to these there are thin-walled elements of unequal size representing the phloem. In fig. 107, _E_, the scalariform tracheids are succeeded by narrow thin-walled cells, and the larger elements with transverse and oblique septa are no doubt sieve-tubes.

In the large stem of fig. 105, _C_, the xylem is succeeded by a band of tissue, a, which is no doubt phloem, and external to this there is a considerable development of periderm (_b_). The periderm in _Sphenophyllum_ stems had a deep-seated origin, the phellogen or cork-cambium occasionally being formed in the secondary phloem-parenchyma, and in other cases in the pericycle, as in the stems of some living dicotyledons. Williamson and Scott[872] describe stems in which a succession of phellogens were formed at different levels, thus producing a scaly type of bark, such as we find in the Pine or the Plane tree.

[Sidenote: SPHENOPHYLLUM PLURIFOLIATUM.]

Before describing the structure of the strobili of _Sphenophyllum_, we may briefly point out the distinguishing features of two specific types of the genus recently described by Williamson and Scott. One of these species, _S. insigne_, was originally described by Williamson as an _Asterophyllites_; the numerous narrow linear leaves in each verticil led to the inclusion of the specimens in the latter genus. The material on which this species is founded is from the volcanic beds of Pettycur, Burntisland, on the coast of the Firth of Forth.

1. _Sphenophyllum insigne_ (Will.). Figs. 105, _C_ and _E_, and 107, _E_ and _F_.

1891. _Asterophyllites insignis_. Williamson[873].

An _intercellular space_ occurs at each angle of the three-rayed primary xylem strand, and spiral tracheae are abundant. The tracheae of the secondary wood have _scalariform markings_ on the radial walls. _Regular medullary rays_ extend through the secondary wood. The phloem contains large sieve-tubes.

This species occurs in the Calciferous sandstone rocks of Burntisland, and has lately been recorded from Germany. It characterises a lower horizon than _S. plurifoliatum_ (Will. and Scott).

2. _Sphenophyllum plurifoliatum_ (Williamson and Scott)[874]. Figs. 105, _A_, _B_, and _D_, and 106.

1891. _Asterophyllites sphenophylloides._ Will.[875]

The specific name _plurifoliatum_ was proposed by Williamson and Scott for a type of stem originally described by Williamson[876] as an _Asterophyllites_, from the Coal-Measures of Oldham, Lancashire. This form of stem has not so far been connected with any of the older species founded on external characters, but it evidently bore foliage in which the leaves were deeply divided, as in _Sphenophyllum trichomatosum_ (fig. 110, _B_).

In this species there are _no canals_ at the angles of the primary xylem, and there are fewer spiral tracheae than in _S. insigne_. The tracheae of the secondary wood have _numerous small pits_ on the radial walls, and the medullary rays are chiefly composed of parenchymatous cells, which appear in transverse section as _groups of cells_ between the truncated angles of the tracheae. The characters are fairly well seen in the xylem portion of a stele shown in fig. 106. The fascicular wood includes some rows of parenchymatous medullary-ray cells in addition to the characteristic groups, as seen in the figure. A slightly oblique transverse section of a stem is often convenient in the interpretation of histological features; one of the sections of _S. plurifoliatum_ in the Williamson collection (no. 893), which has been cut somewhat obliquely, shows very clearly the differences in pitting exhibited by the different xylem elements.

_b. Roots._

Our knowledge of the anatomy of _Sphenophyllum_ roots is very limited. Renault has described a somewhat imperfect example of a silicified root from St. Étienne and Autun. The drawing in fig. 107, _B_, which is copied from one of Renault’s figures, shows a cylindrical mass of xylem with a small band of narrower elements occupying the centre, and surrounded by rows of larger secondary tracheae. The central bipolar band is described as the diarch primary xylem, around which the secondary pitted elements have been developed.

It is probable that the specimen described by Renault is a root of _Sphenophyllum_, but my impression gained from an examination of the section was that the diarch primary strand is not quite so clear as in the published figures. Until we possess better material we cannot attempt any very satisfactory description of the anatomical features of the roots of this genus.

A section of a _Sphenophyllum_ stem has been figured by Felix[877], in which a lateral member is being given off; this may possibly represent the origin of an adventitious root, but the preservation is not sufficiently distinct to render this certain.

_c. Leaves._

Renault[878] has described some silicified leaves of _Sphenophyllum_ from Autun in which the laminae consist of thin-walled loose parenchyma, traversed by small groups of tracheids constituting the simple or forked veins. The epidermis is made up of a single layer of cells, with here and there indistinct indications of stomata. A more perfect stoma has, however, been described by Solms-Laubach from the epidermis of a bract in a strobilus (fig. 107, _A_).

_d. Cones._

The history of the recognition of the cones of _Sphenophyllum_ has already been briefly alluded to in chapter V., p. 100. The main points in the structure of the cones of this genus were known for several years, before the fact was established that they belonged to _Sphenophyllum_ stems. In 1871 Williamson[879] published an account of an imperfect fossil strobilus from the Lower Coal-Measures of Oldham, Lancashire, under the name of _Volkmannia Dawsoni_. The generic term _Volkmannia_ has been used by different writers for cones varying considerably in structural features; in the case of Williamson’s fossil, Weiss[880] substituted the name _Bowmanites_, a genus instituted by Binney[881] for a strobilus apparently of the same type as _Volkmannia Dawsoni_. In 1891 Williamson[882] described some additional specimens of _Bowmanites Dawsoni_, and, as in his earlier paper, he compared the strobilus with _Asterophyllites_ and _Sphenophyllum_, but it was still a matter of speculation as to what was the form of the vegetative branches. Soon after the more complete account of the English cones was published, Zeiller[883] recognised a close agreement between some French and Belgian specimens of _Sphenophyllum_ strobili and the strobilus described by Williamson. A closer comparison thoroughly established the connection between _Bowmanites Dawsoni_ and _Sphenophyllum_; and there is little doubt that this strobilus belongs to the stem known as _Sphenophyllum cuneifolium_ (Sternb.)—a well-known species of the genus.

[Sidenote: STROBILUS.]

The most important morphological features of the strobilus of _Sphenophyllum_ may best be illustrated by a detailed account of one specific type, and by a brief reference to other forms which are characterised by certain differences in the number and attachment of the sporangia. When we know that a given strobilus must have grown on a _Sphenophyllum_ stem, the obvious name to assign to it would seem to be that of the plant which bore it; but there are advantages in making use of special generic terms for detached cones, which cannot be referred with certainty to a particular species of stem. The genus _Calamostachys_ affords an example of a name which is intended to denote that a cone so called belongs to a Calamarian plant; similarly such a name as _Sphenophyllostachys_ may be used for Sphenophylloid cones which cannot be connected with certainty to particular species of _Sphenophyllum_. It has been suggested that the genus _Bowmanites_, first used for a cone which was afterwards recognised as belonging to a _Sphenophyllum_, should be employed instead of the sesquipedalian term _Sphenophyllostachys_. The latter is used here as being in accordance with a generally accepted and convenient system of nomenclature, and as a name which at once denotes the fact that the fossil is not only a cone but that it belongs to a _Sphenophyllum_.

_Sphenophyllostachys Dawsoni_ (Will.). Figs. 107, _A_ and _G_, 108.

Probably the strobilus of _Sphenophyllum cuneifolium_ (Sternb.).

The cone consists of a central axis bearing a number of verticils of bracts coherent in their lower portions in the form of a widely open funnel-shaped disc, which splits up peripherally into 14–20 linear-lanceolate segments. The free segments of each verticil have an obliquely ascending or almost vertical position, and extend upwards for a distance of about six internodes. The smaller drawing in fig. 108 shows the appearance in side view of the narrow bracts of a single whorl. A transverse section of a strobilus would include, therefore, sections of several concentric series of ascending bracts. The verticils of _Sphenophyllostachys Dawsoni_ are probably superposed, but this point has not been definitely settled. From the upper surface of the coherent basal portion of each verticil, there are given off twice as many sporangiophores as there are free segments, and these are attached close to the line of junction of the axis of the cone and the funnel-shaped disc. Each sporangiophore has the form of a slender stalk which bends inwards at its distal end and bears a single sporangium (_cf._ fig. 107, _D_). The sporangiophores given off from the same verticil of bracts vary in length. All the sporangiophores are attached to the coherent bracts at the same distance from the axis of the cone; but as the sporangia between each verticil of bracts are arranged in two or three concentric series, it follows that the length of the sporangiophores varies considerably. The diagrammatic longitudinal section of a strobilus in fig. 108 shows three concentric series of sporangia between successive bract-verticils. A similar diagram was published by Williamson in 1892[884], and afterwards copied by Potonié[885], but in Williamson’s restoration the sporangiophores of the three series of sporangia are erroneously represented as arising from different points on the surface of the bracts. There is little doubt, as regards the strobilus of _S. cuneifolium_, that the sporangiophores were given off in a single series close to the axils of the bracts, as is partially shown in fig. 108.

The central part of the axis of the cone is occupied by a single triangular stele like that of the stem, except that each ray of the xylem strand has a comparatively broad blunt termination, and is not tapered to a narrow arm as in fig. 105, _A_ and _B_. The wood consists of pitted tracheae, with two groups of protoxylem elements at each of the truncated angles of the solid strand of xylem. From the angles of the stele branches of vascular tissue pass out through the cortex to supply the sterile and fertile segments of each verticil. One of the transverse sections of the _Sphenophyllum_ cone in the British Museum Collection (no. 1898 _E_) affords a good example of the misleading appearance occasionally presented by an intruded ‘rootlet’ of _Stigmaria_; the vascular tissue of the cone has disappeared, and a Stigmarian appendage with its vascular bundle occupies the position of the stelar tissues.

The bracts consist of parenchymatous tissue limited externally by an epidermis containing stomata. A single stoma with subsidiary cells is represented in fig. 107, _A_. The sporangiophores are composed internally of thin-walled cells with stronger cells towards the surface. The longer sporangiophores in a series may be more or less coherent for part of their length to the upper surface of the verticil of bracts. In fig. 108 the slender sporangiophores do not appear to come off always from the same portion of the bracts, but this is due to some of them lying on the surface of the latter during part of their course to support the external circle of sporangia. The hook-like distal end of a sporangiophore, towards the point of attachment of the sporangium, is characterised by the larger size and greater prominence of the surface cells; these larger cells, which pass over the upper surface of a sporangium base, probably constitute a kind of _annulus_ which determines the dehiscence of the sporangial wall[886].

Fig. 107, _G_, represents a sporangiophore and its sporangium cut through transversely just below the point of attachment of the latter to the end of the hook-like termination of the former. The spores are characterised by an irregularly reticulate thickening of the outer coat or exospore, as seen in the figure.

One of the chief points of interest suggested by a _Sphenophyllum_ cone is the exact morphological nature of the sporangiophores. Are they branches borne in the axils of bracts, or may we regard each sporangiophore as a modified leaf, which has become coherent with the whorls of sterile leaves? Or is a sporangiophore merely a stalk of a sporangium; or a ventral lobe of a leaf, of which the sterile bracts represent the dorsal lobes? Although it is impossible without the evidence of development to decide with certainty between these alternatives, it would seem most probable that a sporangiophore may be looked upon as a ventral lobe of a leaf, the sterile lobes forming the bracts or members of the sterile whorls of the cone. This question is discussed by Zeiller[887] and Williamson and Scott[888], also more recently by Scott[889] in his memoir on _Cheirostrobus_.

_Sphenophyllostachys Römeri_ (Solms-Laubach)[890]. Fig. 107, _C_ and _D_.

In another type of _Sphenophyllum_ strobilus, recently described by Solms-Laubach, the incurved end of each sporangiophore bore two sporangia. In most respects this species, which has not been found in connection with a vegetative shoot, agrees with _Sphenophyllostachys Dawsoni_.

In fig. 107, _C_, which is copied from one of Solms-Laubach’s drawings[891], we have an oblique transverse section of part of a strobilus, including portions of two series of sporangia borne on one verticil of bracts, and at the right-hand edge the section has passed through the sporangia belonging to another whorl of bracts. There were probably three concentric series of sporangia attached to each verticil of bracts, as in the case of fig. 108. The unshaded area, _b_ (fig. 107, _C_), represents the bracts of two successive sterile whorls in transverse section. The shaded areas are the sporangia, with their sporangiophores, _s_. The relative position of the sporangia and sporangiophores suggests that each pedicel bore two sporangia at its tip, instead of one, as in the strobilus of _Sphenophyllum cuneifolium_ (Sternb.).

A further variation in the structure of the strobili is illustrated by some specimens of _S. trichomatosum_ Stur, described by Kidston[892], from the Coal-Measures of Barnsley. Each whorl of bracts bears a single series of oval sporangia which appear to be sessile on the basal portion of the whorl. It is possible that delicate sporangiophores may have been present, but in the imperfect examples in Kidston’s collection[893] the sporangia present the appearance of being seated directly on the surface of the bracts. As the specimens do not show any internal structure, it would be unwise to lay too much stress on the apparent absence of the characteristic sporangiophores. In any case, Kidston’s cones afford an illustration of the occurrence of a single series of sporangia in each whorl, instead of the pluriseriate manner of occurrence in some other species.

The statement is occasionally met with that some _Sphenophyllum_ cones possessed two kinds of spores, but we are still in want of satisfactory evidence that this was really the case. Renault has described an imperfect specimen, which he considers points to the heterosporous nature of a _Sphenophyllum_ cone, but Zeiller and Williamson and Scott have expressed doubts as to the correctness of Renault’s conclusions. While admitting the possibility of undoubted heterosporous strobili being discovered, we are not in a position to refer to _Sphenophyllum_ as having borne strobili containing two kinds of spores[894].

[Sidenote: SPHENOPHYLLUM EMARGINATUM.]

[The following are some of the specimens in the Williamson Cabinet which illustrate the structure of _Sphenophyllum_:—

_S. plurifoliatum._ 874, 882, 884, 893, 894, 897, 899, 901, 903, 908, 1893. _S. insigne._ 910, 914, 919, 921, 922, 924, 926, 1420, 1898. _Sphenophyllostachys._ 1049A–1049C, 1898.]

B. Types of vegetative branches of Sphenophyllum.

1. _Sphenophyllum emarginatum_ (Brongniart). Fig. 109.

1822. _Sphenophyllites emarginatus_, Brongniart[895]. 1828. _Sphenophyllum emarginatum_, Brongniart[896]. 1828. _Sphenophyllum truncatum_, Brongniart[896]. 1828. _Rotularia marsileaefolia_, Bischoff[897]. 1862. _Sphenophyllum osnabrugense_, Römer[898].

This species of _Sphenophyllum_ bears verticils of six or eight wedge-shaped leaves varying in breadth and in the extent of dissection of the laminae; they are truncated distally, and terminate in a margin characterised by blunt or obtusely-rounded teeth, each of which receives a single vein. The larger leaves are usually more or less deeply divided by a median slit. The narrow base of each leaf receives a single vein which branches repeatedly in a dichotomous manner in the substance of the lamina. Several drawings have been given by Sterzel[899] in a memoir on Permian plants, showing the variation in leaf-form in _Sphenophyllum emarginatum_, but as Kidston[900] and Zeiller[901] have pointed out Sterzel’s specimens probably belong to _S. cuneifolium_ (Sternb.).

Branches are given off singly from the nodes, and the cones are borne at the tips of branches or branchlets. The cone of _S. emarginatum_ agrees very closely with that of _S. cuneifolium_, and is of the same type as that shown in fig. 108. The small branch of _S. emarginatum_ represented in fig. 109 does not show clearly the detailed characters of the species, as the leaf-margins are not well preserved.

In one of the largest specimens of this species which I have seen, in the Leipzig Museum, the main stem has internodes of about 3·9 cm. in length, from which a lateral branch with much shorter internodes is given off from a node.

It is important to notice the close resemblance, as pointed out by Zeiller, between some of the narrower-leaved forms of _S. emarginatum_ and _S. cuneifolium_ (Sternb.)[902]; but in the latter species the margins of the leaves have sharp, and not blunt teeth.

The cone described and figured by Weiss[903] as _Bowmanites germanicus_, since investigated by Solms-Laubach[904], must be referred to this species. Geinitz[905] figured a cone in 1855 as that of _S. emarginatum_, but his determination of the species is a little doubtful. Good figures of the true cone of _S. emarginatum_ have been given by Zeiller[906] in his _Flore de Valenciennes_, as well as in his important memoir on the fructification of _Sphenophyllum_.

[Sidenote: LEAVES.]

2. _Sphenophyllum trichomatosum_ Stur. Fig. 110, _B_.

The finely-divided leaves of the single whorl shown in fig. 110, _B_ (from the Middle Coal-Measures of Barnsley, Yorkshire), afford an example of a form of _Sphenophyllum_ which is represented by such species as _S. tenerrimum_ Ett.[907], _S. trichomatosum_ Stur[908], and _S. myriophyllum_[909] Crép. Probably the specimen should be referred to _S. trichomatosum_, but it is almost impossible to speak with certainty as to the specific value of an isolated leaf-whorl of this form. It has long been known that the leaves of _Sphenophyllum_ may vary considerably, as regards the size of the segments, on the same plant; and the occurrence of such finely-divided leaves has lent support to an opinion which was formerly held by some writers, that _Asterophyllites_ and _Sphenophyllum_ could not be regarded as well-defined separate genera. This heterophylly of _Sphenophyllum_ has thus been responsible for certain mistaken opinions both as to the relation of the genus to _Calamocladus_[910] (_Asterophyllites_), and as regards the view that the finely-divided laminae belonged to submerged leaf-whorls, while the broader segments were those of floating or subaerial whorls.

There is a very close resemblance between some of the deeply-cut and linear segments of a _Sphenophyllum_ and the leaves of _Calamocladus_, but in the former genus the linear segments are found to be connected basally into a narrow common sheath. The assertion[911] that the deeply-cut leaves occur on the lower portions of stems is not supported by the facts. Kidston[912] has pointed out that the cones are often borne on branches with such leaves, and the same author refers to a figure by Germar, in which entire and much-divided leaves occur mixed together in the same individual specimen. M. Zeiller recently pointed out to me a similar irregular association of broader and narrower leaf-segments on the same shoots in some large specimens in the École des Mines, Paris. Cones of _Sphenophyllum tenerrimum_ have been figured by Stur[913] and others; they are characterised by their small size and by the dissection of the slender free portions of the narrow bracts[914].

3. _Sphenophyllum Thoni_ Mahr. Fig. 110, _A_.

Another type of _Sphenophyllum_ is illustrated by _S. Thoni_ Mahr as shown in fig. 110, _A_. This species was first described by Mahr[915] from the Coal-Measures of Ilmenau, and has since been figured by Zeiller and other authors. Each whorl consists of six large obcuneiform leaves with the broad margin somewhat irregularly fringed. The unusually good specimen of which fig. 110, _A_, represents a single verticil was originally described and figured by Zeiller in 1880[916]; it is now in the École des Mines Museum, Paris.

The leaf-forms illustrated by figs. 109 and 110 are some of the more extreme types of _Sphenophyllum_ leaves; but these are more or less connected by a series of intermediate forms. For a more complete systematic account of the different species the student should consult such works as those by Coemans and Kickx[917], Zeiller, Schimper, and others.

4. _Sphenophyllum speciosum_ (Royle). Fig. 111.

1834. _Trizygia speciosa_, Royle[918].

The species shown in fig. 111 has been usually described as a separate genus _Trizygia_, a name instituted by Royle in 1834 for some Indian fossils from the Lower Gondwana rocks of India[919]. Zeiller[920] has lately pointed out the advisability of including this Asiatic type in the genus _Sphenophyllum_. The slender stem bears verticils of cuneate leaves in three pairs at each node, the anterior pair being smaller than the two lateral pairs. The characteristic _Sphenophyllum_ venation is clearly seen in the enlarged leaf, fig. 111, _B_.

The inequality of the members of a single whorl, which characterises this Indian plant, is sometimes met with in European species. A specimen of _Sphenophyllum oblongifolium_, which Prof. Zeiller showed me in illustration of this point, was practically indistinguishable from _Trizygia_[921].

In some of the earlier descriptions of the Indian species the generic name _Sphenophyllum_[922] was used by McClelland and others, but the supposed difference in the leaf-whorls was made the ground of reverting to the distinct generic term _Trizygia_. Now that a similar type of leaf-whorl is known to occur in _Sphenophyllum_, it is better to adopt that genus rather than to allow the question of locality to unduly influence the choice of a separate generic name for an Indian plant.

[Sidenote: GEOLOGICAL RANGE.]

C. Affinities, range and habit of Sphenophyllum.

It has been pointed out in the description of _Sphenophyllum_, that the most widely separated families of recent plants have been selected by different authors as the nearest living allies of this Palaeozoic genus. It is now generally admitted that _Sphenophyllum_ is a generic type apart; it cannot be classed in any family or sub-class of recent or fossil plants, without considerably extending or modifying the recognised characteristics of existing divisions of the plant-kingdom. The anatomical characters of the _Sphenophyllum_ stem are such as one finds in some recent genera of the Lycopodineae, especially _Psilotum_. If the stele of _Psilotum_ were composed internally of a solid strand of xylem, we should have a close correspondence between the centripetally-developed wood of this genus and that of _Sphenophyllum_. Similar comparisons might be drawn with other existing genera, but the more detailed consideration of the affinities of the Palaeozoic plant will be more easily dealt with after other members of the Pteridophytes have been described. The recent discovery of an entirely new type of Carboniferous strobilus in rocks of Calciferous sandstone age on the shores of the Firth of Forth has thrown new light on the position of _Sphenophyllum_. _Cheirostrobus Pettycurensis_, the new cone which Scott has described in an able memoir, affords certain points of contact with _Sphenophyllum_ on the one hand and with _Calamites_ on the other. This important question will be dealt with after we have given an account of _Cheirostrobus_[923]. To put the matter shortly, _Sphenophyllum_ agrees with some Lycopodinous plants in its anatomical features; with the Equisetales it is connected by the verticillate disposition of the leaves, and some of the forms of _Sphenophyllum_ strobili present features which also point to Equisetinous affinities.

In his Presidential address to the Botanical Section at the British Association Meeting of 1896 Scott[924] thus refers to the Sphenophyllums:—“We may hazard the guess that this interesting group may have been derived from some unknown form lying at the root of both Calamites and Lycopods. The existence of the Sphenophyllae certainly suggests the probability of a common origin for these two series.” The result of the subsequent investigation of the new cone _Cheirostrobus_ amply justifies this opinion as to the position of _Sphenophyllum_.

It is probable that _Sphenophyllum_ lived during the Devonian period, but the unsatisfactory specimens on which Dawson has founded a species of this age, _S. antiquum_[925], can hardly be said to afford positive evidence of the Pre-Carboniferous existence of the genus. From the Culm rocks and other strata older than the Coal-Measures, we have such species as _S. insigne_ (Will.), _Sphenophyllostachys Römeri_ (Solms-Laubach), and _Sphenophyllum tenerrimum_, Ett.[926] while _S. emarginatum_[5], Brongn. occurs in the Upper Coal-Measures and in the Transition rocks. _S. cuneifolium_[927] (Sternb.) has been recorded from the Transition, Middle and Lower Coal-Measures. _Sphenophyllum oblongifolium_, Germ.[928], is recorded from Lower Permian rocks, as is also _S. Thoni_[929], Mahr.

The comparison which has naturally been drawn between _Sphenophyllum_ with its slender stems bearing occasionally dimorphic leaves, and water-plants is not, I believe, supported by the facts of anatomy or external characters. The entire and finely-dissected leaves do not exhibit that regularity of relative disposition which is characteristic of aquatic plants; the two forms of leaves may occur indiscriminately on the same branch. The well-developed and thick xylem is not in accordance with the anatomical features usually associated with water-plants. It is true that in some living dicotyledons of the family Leguminosae, which inhabit swampy places, the secondary xylem is represented by a thick mass of unlignified and thin-walled parenchyma, as in the genus _Aeschynomene_[930], from which the material of ‘pith’-helmets is obtained; but the wood of _Sphenophyllum_ was obviously thick-walled and thoroughly lignified.

It is not improbable that the long and slender stems of this plant may have grown like small lianas in the Coal-Measure forests, supporting themselves to a large extent on the stouter branches of Calamites and other trees. The anatomical structure of a _Sphenophyllum_ stem would seem to be in accord with the requirements of a climbing plant. It has been shewn[931] that in recent climbing plants the tracheae and sieve-tubes are characterised by their large diameter, a fact which may be correlated with the small diameter of climbing stems and the need for rapid transport of food material. In _Sphenophyllum_ the tracheae of the xylem have a wide bore, and in _S. insigne_ the phloem contains unusually wide sieve-tubes. The central position of the stele is another feature which is not inconsistent with a climbing habit. Schwendener and others[932] have demonstrated that in climbing organs, as in underground stems and roots, there is a tendency towards a centripetal concentration of mechanical or strengthening tissue. The axial xylem strand of _Sphenophyllum_ would afford an efficient resistance to the tension or pulling force which climbing stems encounter.

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=Geikie, A.= (93) A Text-book of Geology. _London_, 1893. (Edit iii.)

=Geinitz, H. B.= (55) Die Versteinerungen der Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen. _Leipzig_, 1855.

=Germar, E. F.= (44) Die Versteinerungen des Steinkohlengebirges von Wettin und Löbejün in Saalkreis, bildlich dargestellt und beschrieben. _Halle_, 1844–53.

=Germar, E. F.= and =Kaulfuss, F.= (31) Über einige merkwürdige Pflanzen-Abdrücke. _Nova Acta Leop. Car._ vol. XV. 1831.

=Giesenhagen, K.= (92) Über hygrophile Farne. _Flora_, vol. LXXVI. p. 157, 1892.

=Gomont, M.= (88) Recherches sur les enveloppes cellulaires des nostocacées filamenteuses. _Bull. Soc. Bot. France_, vol. XXXV. p. 204, 1888.

—— (92) Monographie des Oscillariées. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. XV. [7] p. 263, 1892.

=Göppert, H. R.= (36) Über den Zustand in welchem sich die fossilen Pflanzen befinden, und über den Versteinerungsprocess insbesondere. _Poggendorf’s Annalen_, vol. XXXVIII. p. 561, 1836. (Also the _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, vol. XXIII. p. 73, 1837.)

—— (36²) Die fossilen Farnkräuter. _Nova Acta Leop. Car._ vol. XVII. (Supplt.) 1836.

—— (45) Tchihatcheff’s Voyage Scientifique dans l’Altaï oriental, pp. 379–390. _Paris_, 1845.

—— (52) Über die Flora des Übergangsgebirges. _Nova Acta Ac. Caes. Leop. Car._ vol. XXII. (Supplt.) 1852.

—— (57) Über den versteinten Wald von Radowenz bei Adersbach in Böhmen und über den Versteinerungsprocess überhaupt. _Jahrb. k. k. Geol. Reichs. Wien_, vol. VIII. p. 725, 1857.

—— (60) Über die fossile Flora der Silurischen, der Devonischen und unteren Kohlenformation. _Nova Acta Ac. Caes. Leop. Car._ vol. XXVII. p. 427, 1860.

—— (64) Die fossile Flora der Permischen Formation. _Palaeontograph._ vol. XII. 1864–65.

=Göppert, H. R.= and =Berendt, G. C.= (45) Der Bernstein und die in ihm befindlichen Pflanzenreste der Vorwelt. _Berlin_, 1845.

=Göppert, H. R.= and =Menge, A.= (83) Die Flora des Bernsteins. Vol. I. _Danzig_, 1883.

=Gottsche, C. M.= (86) Über die im Bernstein eingeschlossenen Lebermoose. _Bot. Central._ vol. XXV. p. 95, 1886.

=Grand’Eury, C.= (69) Observations sur les Calamites et les Asterophyllites. _Compt. Rend._ vol. LXVIII. p. 705, 1869.

—— (77) Flora Carbonifère du dépt. de la Loire et du centre de la France. _Mém. Ac. Sci. Paris_, vol. XXIV. 1877.

—— (82) Mémoire sur la formation de la houille. _Ann. Mines_, vol. I. 1882.

—— (87) Formation des couches de houille et du terrain houiller. _Mém. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. IV. [3] 1887.

—— (89) Calamariées. Arthropitus et Calamodendron. _Compt. Rend._ vol. CVIII. p. 1086, 1889.

—— (90) Géologie et paléontologie du bassin houiller du Gard. _St. Étienne_, 1890.

=Greville, R. K.= (47) Notice of a new species of _Dawsonia_. _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. XIX. p. 226, 1847.

=Guillemard, F. H. H.= (86) The Cruise of the “Marchesa” to Kamschatka and New Guinea. _London_, 1886.

=Gümbel, C. W.= (71) Die sogenannten Nulliporen. Pt. ii. _Abh. k. Münchener Akad. Wiss._ vol. XI. p. 231, 1871.

=Gutbier, A. von.= (49) Die Versteinerungen des Rothliegendes in Sachsen. _Dresden_ and _Leipzig_, 1849.

=Haberlandt, G.= (96) Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie (_edit._ 2). _Leipzig_, 1896.

=Hall, J.= (47) and (52) Natural History of New York. Palaeontology. Vol. I. _Albany_, 1847, vol. II. _Albany_, 1852.

=Harker, A.= (95) Petrology for students. _Cambridge_, 1895.

=Harper, R. A.= (95) Die Entwickelung des Peritheciums bei _Sphaerotheca Castagnei_. _Bericht. deutsch. Bot. Ges._ vol. XIII. p. 475, 1895.

=Harrison, J. B.= (91) _Vide_ Jukes-Browne.

=Hartig, R.= (78) Die Zersetzungserscheinungen des Holzes der Nadelholzbäume und der Eiche in förstlicher botanischer und chemischer Richtung bearbeitet. _Berlin_, 1878.

—— (94) Text-book of the diseases of trees. (Translation by W. Somerville.) _London_, 1894.

=Harvey, W. H.= (58) Phycologia Australica. _London_, 1858.

=Hauck, F.= (85) Die Meeresalgen Deutschlands und Oesterreichs. _Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora_, vol. II. _Leipzig_, 1885.

=Heer, O.= (53) Beschreibung der angeführten Pflanzen und Insekten. _Neue Denksch. Schweiz. Ges. gesammt. Wiss._ Vol. XIII. 5, p. 117, 1853. (Appendix to a Memoir by A. Escher v. d. Linth.)

—— (55) Flora Tertiaria Helvetiae. _Winterthur_, 1855.

—— (65) Die Urwelt der Schweiz. _Zürich_, 1865.

—— (68) Flora fossilis Arctica. Die fossile Flora der Polarlände. Vol. I. 1868. Vol. II. 1871. Vol. III. 1875. Vol. IV. 1877. Vol. V. 1878. Vols. VI. and VII., _Flor. foss. Grön._ Die fossile Flora Grönlands. 1882–83.

—— (76) Flora fossilis Helvetiae. _Zürich_, 1876.

—— (77) Beiträge zur Jura-Flora Ost-Sibiriens und des Amurlandes. _Flora fossilis Arctica_, vol. V. _Zürich_, 1877.

—— (82) Nachträge zur Jura-Flora Sibiriens. (_Flor. foss. Grönlandica_, Th. i.) _Flora foss. Arct._ vol. VI. _Zürich_, 1882.

=Heim, A.= (78) Untersuchungen über den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung. _Basel_, 1878.

=Heinricher, E.= (82) Die näheren Vorgänge bei der Sporenbildung der _Salvina natans_ verglichen mit den der übrigen Rhizocarpeen. _Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien_, vol. LXXXVII. Abt. I. p. 494, 1882.

=Hensen, V.= (92) Ergebnisse der in dem Atlantischen Ocean Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt Stiftung. _Kiel_ and _Leipzig_, vol. I. 1892.

=Herzer, H.= (93) A new fungus from the Coal-Measures. _American Geologist_, vol. XI. p. 365, 1893.

=Hick, T.= (78) and (81) _Vide_ Cash, W.

—— (93) _Calamostachys Binneyana_, Schimp. _Proc. Yorks. Geol. Polytech. Soc._ vol. XII. pt. IV. p. 279, 1893.

—— (93²) The fruit-spike of _Calamites_. _Nat. Science_, vol. II. p. 354, 1893.

—— (94) On the primary structure of the stem of _Calamites_. _Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc._ [4] vol. VIII. p. 158. _Manchester_, 1894.

—— (95) On the structure of the leaves of _Calamites_. _Ibid._ vol. IX. [4] p. 179, 1895.

—— (96) On a sporangiferous spike, from the Middle Coal-Measures, near Rochdale. _Ibid._ vol. X. [4] p. 73, 1896.

=Hicks, H.= (81) On the discovery of some remains of plants at the base of the Denbighshire grits, near Corwen, N. Wales; with an appendix by R. Etheridge. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XXXVII. p. 482, 1881.

=Hinde, G. J.= and =Fox, H.= (95) On a well-marked horizon of Radiolarian rocks in the Lower Culm-Measures of Devon, Cornwall and West Somerset. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. LI. p. 609, 1895.

=Hirschwald, J.= (73) Über Umwandlung von verstürzter Holzzimmerung in Braunkohle im alten Mann der Grube Dorothea bei Clausthal. _Zeit. deutsch. geol Ges._ vol. XXV. p. 364, 1873.

=Holmes, E. M.= and =Batters, E. A.= (90) A revised list of British marine algae. _Annals Bot._ vol. V. p. 63, 1890–91.

=Holmes, W. H.= (80) Fossil forests of the Volcanic Tertiary formations of the Yellowstone National Park. _Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv._ vol. V. no. 2, 1880.

=Hooker, J. D.= (44) The Botany of the Antarctic voyage of H. M. Discovery Ships “Erebus” and “Terror” in the years 1839–43. _London_, 1844.

—— (53) _Vide_ Strickland.

—— (81) Presidential Address before Section E of the York meeting of the British Association. _Annual Report_, p. 727, 1881.

—— (89) On _Pachytheca_. _Annals Bot._ vol. III. p. 135, 1889.

—— (91) Himalayan Journals. _London_, 1891. (_Minerva Library Edition._)

=Hooker, W. J.= (20) Musci Exotici. Vol. II. _London_, 1820.

—— (61) A second century of ferns. _London_, 1861.

=Howse, R.= (88) A catalogue of fossil plants from the Hutton Collection. _Newcastle_, 1888.

=Hughes, T. McKenny= (79) On the relation of the appearance and duration of the various forms of life upon the earth to the breaks in the continuity of the sedimentary strata. _Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge_, vol. III. pt. VI. p. 247, 1879.

—— (84) On some tracks of terrestrial and freshwater animals. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XL. p. 178, 1884.

=Humboldt, A. von.= (48) Cosmos. (Translated by E. C. Otté.) _London_, 1848.

=Huxley, T. H.= (93) Science and Hebrew tradition. _Collected Essays_, vol. IV. _London_, 1893.

=Jäger, G. F.= (27) Über die Pflanzenversteinerungen welche in dem Bausandstein von Stuttgart vorkommen. _Stuttgart_, 1827.

=James, J. F.= (93) Studies in the problematic organisms. No. 2. The genus _Fucoides_. _Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist._ 1893.

—— (93²) Notes on fossil fungi. _U. S. Dpt. Agriculture_, vol. VII. no. 3, p. 268, 1893.

—— (93³) Fossil fungi. Translated from the French of R. Ferry, with remarks. _Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist._ 1893, p. 94.

=Judeich, J. F.= and =Nitsche, F.= (95) Lehrbuch der mitteleuropäischen Forstinsektenkunde. _Vienna_, 1895.

=Jukes-Browne, A. J.= (86) The Student’s Handbook of Historical Geology. _London_, 1886.

=Jukes-Browne, A. J.= and =Harrison, J. B.= (91) The Geology of Barbados. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XLVII. p. 197, 1891.

=Kayser, E.= (95) Text-book of Comparative Geology. (Translated and edited by P. Lake.) _London_, 1895.

=Kent, S.= (93) The Great Barrier Reef of Australia. _London_, 1893.

=Kickx, J. J.= (64) _Vide_ Coemans, E.

=Kidston, R.= (83) Report on fossil plants collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland in Eskdale and Liddesdale. _Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XXX. p. 531, 1883.

—— (83²) On the affinities of the genus _Pothocites_, Paterson; with the description of a specimen from Glencartholm, Eskdale. _Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XVI. p. 28.

—— (86) Catalogue of the Palaeozoic plants in the department of geology and palaeontology, British Museum. _London_, 1886.

—— (88) _Vide_ Young.

—— (90) On the fructification of _Sphenophyllum trichomatosum_, Stur, from the Yorkshire Coal-field. _Proc. R. Soc. Phys. Edinburgh_, vol. XI. p. 56, 1890–91.

—— (90²) Note on the Palaeozoic species mentioned in Lindley and Hutton’s fossil Flora. _Proc. R. Soc. Phys. Edinburgh_, vol. X. p. 345, 1890–91.

—— (92) On the occurrence of the genus _Equisetum_ (_E. Hemingwayi_, Kidston) in the Yorkshire Coal-Measures. _Annals Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. IX. [6] p. 138, 1892.

—— (93) On the fossil plants of the Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kilwinning Coal-fields, Ayrshire. _Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XXXVII. pt. II. p. 307, 1893.

—— (94) On the various divisions of British Carboniferous rocks as determined by their fossil flora. _Proc. R. Soc. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XII. p. 183, 1894.

=Kinahan, J. R.= (58) The genus _Oldhamia_. _Trans. R. Irish Acad._ vol. XXIII. p. 547, 1858.

=Kippis, A.= (78) A narrative of the voyage round the world, performed by Captain James Cook. _London_, 1878.

=Kitton, F.= (81) _Vide_ Shrubsole, W. H.

=KJellman, F. R.= (83) The Algae of the Arctic Sea. _Kongl. Svensk Vetenskaps Akad. Hand._ vol. XX. no. 5, 1883.

=Knowlton, F. H.= (89) Fossil wood and lignite of the Potomac formation. _Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv._ no. 56, 1889.

—— (89²) Description of a problematic organism from the Devonian at the falls of the Ohio. _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. XXXVII. [3] p. 202, 1889.

—— (94) Fossil plants as aids to geology. _Journ. Geol._ vol. II. no. 4, p. 365, 1894.

—— (96) The nomenclature question. _Bot. Gazette_, vol. XXI. p. 82, 1896.

=Koechlin-Schlumberger, J.= _Vide_ Schimper, W. P.

=Kölliker, A.= (59) On the frequent occurrence of vegetable parasites in the hard structures of animals. _Annals Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. IV. [3] p. 300, 1859.

—— (59²) Über das ausgebreitete Vorkommen von pflanzlichen Parasiten in den Hartgebilden niederer Thiere. _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool._ vol. X. p. 215, 1859.

=König, C.= (29) _Vide_ Murchison (29) p. 298.

=Kuntze, O.= (80) Über Geysirs und nebenan entstehende verkieselte Bäume. _Ausland_, 1880, p. 361.

=Lake, P.= (95) The Denbighshire series of South Denbighshire. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. LI. p. 9, 1895.

=Lamarck, de.= (16) Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres. _Paris_, vol. II. 1816.

=Lamouroux, J.= (21) Exposition méthodique des genres de l’ordre des Polypiers. _Paris_, 1821.

=Lapworth, C.= (81) Appendix to W. Keeping’s Geology of Central Wales. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XXXVII. p. 171, 1881.

=Leckenby, J.= (64) On the sandstones and shales of the Oolites of Scarborough, with descriptions of some new species of fossil plants. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XX. p. 74, 1864.

=Lehmann.= (1756) Dissertation sur les fleurs de l’Aster montanus. _Hist. Acad. R. Sci. et bell. lett. Berlin_, 1756.

=Lesquereux, L.= (66) Geological Survey of Illinois. Vol. II. _New York_, 1866.

—— (70) _Ibid._ vol. IV. 1870.

—— (79) Atlas to the Coal Flora of Pennsylvania and of the Carboniferous formation throughout the United States. _Second Geol. Surv. Penn. Report of Progress P. Harrisburg_, 1879.

—— (80) Description of the Coal Flora of the Carboniferous formation in Pennsylvania and throughout the United States. _Ibid._ 1880 and 1884.

—— (84) _Ibid._ vol. III. 1884.

—— (87) A species of Fungus recently discovered in the shale of the Darlington Coal bed at Canneton, Pennsylvania. _Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc._ vol. XVII. p. 173, 1887.

=Lhwyd (Luidius), E.= (1760) (1699) Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia. _Oxford_, 1760. (First edition published in 1699.)

=Limpricht, K. G.= (90) Die Laubmoose. _Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora_, vol. IV. _Leipzig_, 1890.

=Lindenberg, J. B. W.= (39) Species Hepaticarum. _Bonn_, 1839.

=Lindley, J.= and =Hutton, W.= (31) The fossil Flora of Great Britain. _London_, 1831–37.

Vol. I. Pls. 1–79; 1831–33. Vol. II. Pls. 80–156; 1833–35. Vol. III. Pls. 157–230; 1837.

=Linnarsson, J. G. O.= (69) On some fossils found in the Eophyton Sandstones at Lugnås in Sweden. _Geol. Mag._ vol. VI. p. 393, 1869.

=Lister, A.= (94) A monograph of the Mycetozoa, being a descriptive Catalogue of the species in the Herbarium of the British Museum. _London_, 1894.

=Ludwig, R.= (57) Fossile Pflanzen aus der jüngsten Wetterauer Braunkohle. _Palaeontograph_, vol. V. p. 81, 1857.

—— (59) Fossile Pflanzen aus der ältesten Abtheilung der Rheinisch-Wetterauer Tertiär-Formation. _Palaeontograph_, vol. VIII.

=Luerssen, C.= (89) Die Farnpflanzen oder Gefässbündelkryptogamen. _Rabenhorst’s Krypt. Flora_, vol. III. _Leipzig_, 1889.

=Lydekker, R.= (89) _Vide_ Nicholson.

=Lyell, C.= (29) On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire. _Trans. Geol. Soc._ vol. II. [2] p. 73, 1829.

—— (45) Travels in North America. _London_, 1845.

—— (55) A manual of Elementary Geology. _London_, 1855, (Edit. 5).

—— (67) Principles of Geology. _London_, 1867, (Edit. 10).

—— (78) Elements of Geology. _London_, 1878, (Edit. 3).

=M‘Coy, F.= (47) On the Fossil Botany and Zoology of the rocks associated with the coal of Australia. _Annals Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. XX. p. 145, 1847.

=Mahr=, — (68) Über _Sphenophyllum Thoni_, eine neue Art aus dem Steinkohlengebirge von Ilmenau. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XX. p. 433, 1868.

=Mantell, G.= (44) Medals of Creation. LONDON, 1844.

=Marsh, O. C.= (71) Notice of a fossil forest in the Tertiary of California. _Amer. Journ. Sci._ vol. I. [3] p. 266, 1871.

=Martin, W.= (09) Petrificata Derbiensia. _Wigan_, 1809.

=Maskell, W. M.= (87) The Scale-insects. _Wellington_, 1887.

=Massalongo, E. G.= (51) Sopra le piante fossili dei terreni terziarj del Vicentino, Osservazioni, &c. _Padova_, 1851.

—— (59) Studii sulla flora fossile e geologia stratigrafica del Senigalliese. _Imola_, 1859.

=Matthew, G. F.= (89) The Cambrian organisms in Acadia. _Trans. R. Soc. Canada_ (Sect. IV.) 1889, p. 135.

=Meek, F. B.= (73) Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio. Vol. I.

=Meschinelli, A.= (92) Fungi fossiles. In P. A. Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum. Vol. X. p. 741, _Patavii_, 1892.

=Michelin, H.= (40) Iconographie zoophytologique. _Paris_, 1840–47.

=Migula, W.= (90) Die Characeen. _Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora_, vol. V. _Leipzig_, 1890.

=Milde, J.= (67) Monographia Equisetorum. _Nova Act. Acad. Caes. Leop. Car._ vol. XXXII. p. 1, 1867.

=Morris, J.= (54) A catalogue of British fossils. _London_, 1854, (Edit. 2).

=Morton, G. H.= (91) The geology of the country around Liverpool. _London_, 1891, (Edit. 2).

=Moseley, H. N.= (75) Notes on freshwater algae obtained at the boiling springs at Furnas, St. Michael’s, Azores, and the neighbourhood. With notes by W. T. Thiselton-Dyer. _Journ. Linn. Soc._ vol. XIV. (Botany) p. 321, 1875.

=Mougeot, A.= (44) _Vide_ Schimper.

—— (52) Essai d’une flore du nouveau Grès Rouge des Vosges. _Epinal_, 1852.

=Munier-Chalmas, E.= (77) Observations sur les algues calcaires appartenant au groupe des Siphonées verticillées (Dasycladées Harv.) et confondues avec les Foraminifères. _Compt. Rend._ vol. LXXXV. p. 814, 1877.

—— (79) Observations sur les algues calcaires confondues avec les Foraminifères et appartenant au groupe des Siphonées dichotomes. _Bull. Soc. Géol._ [3] vol. VII. p. 661, 1879.

=Murchison, R. I.= (29) On the Coal-field of Brora in Sutherlandshire, and some other stratified deposits in the North of Scotland. _Trans. Geol. Soc._ [2] vol. II. p. 293.

—— (72) Siluria. (Edit. 5.) _London_, 1872.

=Murray, G.= (92) On a fossil alga belonging to the genus _Caulerpa_, from the Oolite. _Phycological Memoirs_, pt. I. p. 11, 1892.

—— (95) An introduction to the study of seaweeds. _London_, 1895.

—— (95²) Calcareous pebbles formed by Algae. _Phycol. Mem._ pt. III. p. 74, 1895.

—— (95³) A new part of _Pachytheca_. _Ibid._ p. 71, 1895.

—— (97) On the reproduction of some marine Diatoms. _Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. XXI. p. 207, 1897.

=Murray, G.= and =Blackman, V. H.= (97) Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres. _Nature_, vol. LV. p. 510, 1897.

=Murray, J.= and =Renard, A.= (91) _Vide_ “Challenger.”

=Nathorst, A. G.= (80) Reseberättelse. _Öfversigt Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akad. Förh._ 1880, no. 5, p. 23.

—— (81) Om spår af några evertebrerade djur m. m. och deras paleontologiska betydelse. _K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Hand._ vol. XVIII. no. 7, 1881.

—— (81²) Om Aftryck af Medusar i Sveriges Kambriska layer. _K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Hand._ vol. XIX. no. 1, 1881.

—— (83¹) Quelques remarques concernant la question des algues fossiles. _Bull. Soc. Géol._ [3] vol. XI. p. 452, 1883.

—— (83²) Fossil Algae. (Letter.) _Nature_, vol. XXVIII. p. 52, 1883.

—— (86) Nouvelles observations sur des traces d’animaux et autres phénomènes d’origine purement mécanique décrits comme “algues fossiles.” _Kongl. Svensk. Vetenskaps-Akad. Hand._ vol. XXI. no. 14. _Stockholm_, 1886.

—— (90) Beiträge zur mesozoischen Flora Japans. _Denkschr. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien_, vol. LVIII. 1890.

—— (94) Zur paläozoischen Flora der arktischen Zone. _Kongl. Svensk. Vetenskaps-Akad. Hand._ vol. XXVI. no. 4, 1894.

—— (94²) Sveriges Geologi. _Stockholm_, 1894.

=Naunyn, B.= (96) A treatise on Cholelithiasis. (Translation by A. E. Garrod.) _New Sydenham Society, London_, 1896.

=Neumayr, M.= (83) Über klimatische Zonen während der Jura- und Kreidezeit. _Denkschr. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien_, vol. XLVII. 1883.

=Newberry, J. S.= (88) Fossil fishes and fossil plants of the Triassic rocks of New Jersey and the Connecticut Valley. _U. S. Geol. Surv._ (_Monographs_), vol. XIV. 1888.

—— (91) The genus _Sphenophyllum_. _Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist._ 1891, p. 212.

=Nicholson, H. A.= (69) On the occurrence of plants in the Skiddaw Slates. _Geol. Mag._ vol. VI. p. 494, 1869.

=Nicholson, H. A.= and =Etheridge, R. junr.= (80) A monograph of the Silurian fossils of the Girvan district in Ayrshire. _Edinburgh_, 1880.

=Nicholson, H. A.= and =Lydekker, R.= (89) A manual of Palaeontology. _London_, 1889.

=Nicol, W.= (34) Observations on the structure of recent and fossil Coniferae. _Edinb. New Phil. Journ._ vol. _XVI._ p. 137, 1834.

=Noll, F.= (95) Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen. Strasburger, Noll, Schimper und Schenk. _Jena_, 1895, p. 248 (Edit. 2).

=Parkinson, J.= (11) Organic Remains of a former world. _London_, 1811. (Vol. I. 1811, vol. II. 1808, vol. III. 1811.)

=Parsons, J.= (1757) An account of some fossil fruits and other bodies found in the island of Sheppey. _Phil. Trans._ vol. L. pt. I. p. 396, 1757.

=Paterson= (41) Description of _Pothocites Grantoni_, a new fossil vegetable from the Coal Formation. _Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh_, vol. I. p. 45, 1841.

=Penhallow, D. P.= (89) On _Nematophyton_ and allied forms from the Devonian (Erian) of Gaspé and Bay des Chaleurs. _Trans. R. Soc. Canada_, vol. VI. sect. 4 (1888).

—— (93) Notes on _Nematophyton crassum_. _Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum_, vol. XVI. p. 115, 1893.

—— (96) _Nematophyton Ortoni_, n. sp. _Annals Bot._ vol. X. p. 41, 1896.

=Petzholdt, A.= (41) Über Calamiten und Steinkohlenbildung. _Dresden_ and _Leipzig_, 1841.

=Pfitzer, E. H. H.= (67) Über die Schutzscheide. _Pringsh. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot._ vol. VI. p. 292, 1867–68.

—— (71) Untersuchungen über Bau und Entwickelung der Bacillariaceen. _Hanstein’s Bot. Abhand._ 1871.

=Philippi, R. A.= (37) Beweis das die Nulliporen Pflanzen sind. _Wiegmann, Archiv._ vol. I. Jahrg. 3, p. 387, 1837.

=Phillips, J.= (29) Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire. _York_, 1829.

—— (75) _Ibid._ (Edit. 3) edited by R. Etheridge. _London_, 1875.

=Phillips, W.= (93) The breaking of the Shropshire Meres. _Midland Naturalist_, vol. XVI. p. 56, 1893.

=Plot, R.= (1705) The Natural History of Oxfordshire. _Oxford_, 1705.

=Potonié, R.= (87) Die fossile Pflanzen-Gattung _Tylodendron_. _Jahrb. k. Preuss. geol. Landesanst._ 1887, p. 313.

—— (90) Der im Lichthof der Königl. Geol. Landesanstalt und Bergakademie aufgestellte Baumstumpf mit Wurzeln aus dem Carbon des Piesberges. _Ibid._ 1890, p. 246.

—— (92) Der äussere Bau der Blätter von _Annularia stellata_ (Schloth.) mit ausblicken auf _Equisetites zeaeformis_ (Schloth.) Andrae, und auf die Blätter von _Calamites varians_ Sternb. _Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges._ vol. X. Heft 8, p. 561, 1892.

—— (93) Die Flora des Rothliegenden von Thüringen. (Th. I.) _Jahrb. k. Preuss. geol. Landesanst._ vol. IX. 1893.

—— (94) Über die Stellung der Sphenophyllum im System. _Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges._ Bd. XII. Heft 4, p. 97, 1894.

—— (96) Die floristische Gliederung des deutschen Carbon und Perm. _Abhand. k. Preuss. geol. Landesanst._ (N. F.) Heft. XXI. p. 1, 1896.

—— (96²) Palaeophytologische Notizen. _Naturwiss. Wochenschrift_, vol. XI. no. 10, p. 115, 1896.

=Quekett, J.= (54) Lectures on Histology. Vols. I. and II. _London_, 1852–54.

=Raciborski, M.= (94) Flora Kopalna ogniotrwalych Glinek Krakowskich. _Pamiȩt. Akad. Umiejȩtności_, 1894.

=Reinsch, P. F.= (81) Neue Untersuchungen über die Mikrostruktur der Steinkohle. _Leipzig_, 1881.

=Renault, B.= (73) Recherches sur l’organisation des Sphenophyllum et des Annularia. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ [5] vol. XVIII. p. 5, 1873.

—— (76) Recherches sur la fructification de quelques végétaux. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ [6] vol. III. p. 5, 1876.

—— (76²) Nouvelles recherches sur la structure des Sphenophyllum. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ [6] vol. IV. p. 277, 1876.

—— (82) Cours de botanique fossile. Vol. II. _Paris_, 1882.

—— (85) Recherches sur les végétaux fossiles du genre Astromyelon _Ann. Sci. Géol._ vol. XVII. 1885.

—— (93) Bassin Houiller et Permien d’Autun et d’Epinac. (_Atlas._) _Études des gîtes minéraux de la France_, Fasc. IV. _Paris_, 1893.

—— (95) Note sur les cuticles de Tovarkovo. _Soc. Hist. Nat. d’Autun_, 1895.

—— (95²) Sur quelques Bactéries des temps primaires. _Autun_, 1895.

—— (96) Bassin Houiller et Permien d’Autun et d’Epinac. (_Text._) _Études des gîtes minéraux de la France_, Fasc. IV. _Paris_, 1896.

—— (96²) Notice sur les travaux scientifiques. _Autun_, 1896.

—— (96³) Recherches sur les Bactériacées fossiles. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ [8] vol. II. p. 275, 1896.

=Renault, R.= and =Bertrand= (94) Sur une bactérie coprophile de l’époque Permienne. _Compt. Rend._ vol. CXIX. p. 377, 1894.

=Renault, R.= and =Zeiller, R.= (88) Études sur le terrain houiller de Commentry. _St Étienne_, 1888–90. Pt. I. pp. 1–366, 1888. Pt. II. pp. 367–746, 1890.

“=Report=” (62) Report of the Jury trial in the action of declaration, &c. at the instance of Mr and Mrs Gillespie, of Torbanehill, against Messrs James Russell and Son, Coal-masters, Falkirk. _Edinburgh_, 1862.

=Reuss, A. E.= (61) Über die fossile Gattung _Acicularia_ d’Archiac. _Sitzb. d. k. Akad. Wiss._ Bd. XLIII. Abth. I. p. 7, 1861.

=Rodway, J.= (95) In the Guiana Forest. _London_, 1895.

=Römer, A.= (54) Beiträge zur geologischen Kenntniss des nordwestlichen Harzgebirges von Friedrich. _Palaeontograph._ vol. III. p. 1, 1854.

=Römer, F.= (62) Beiträge zur geologischen Kenntniss des nordwestlichen Harzgebirges. _Palaeontograph._ vol. IX. 1862.

—— (70) Geologie von Oberschlesien. _Breslau_, 1870.

=Rosanoff, S.= (66) Recherches anatomiques sur les Mélobésiées. _Mém. Soc. Sci. nat. Cherbourg_, vol. XI. 1865.

=Rose, C. B.= (55) On the discovery of parasitic borings in fossil fish-scales. _Trans. mic. soc._ (_N. S._) vol. III. p. 7, 1855.

=Rosenvinge, L. K.= (93) Grønlands Havalger. Conspectus florae Groenlandicae. Pt. III. p. 765. Grønlands Havalger. (_Meddelelser om Grønland._ III. _Supplt._ 3), 1887–94.

=Rothpletz, A.= (80) Die Flora und Fauna der Carbon Culmformation bei Hainischen in Sachsen. _Bot. Cent._ vol. II. (_Gratis Beilage_ 3), 1880.

—— (90) Über _Sphaerocodium Bornemanni_, eine neue fossile Kalkalge aus den Raibler Schichten der Ostalpen. _Bot. Cent._ vol. XLI. p. 9, 1890.

—— (91) Fossile Kalkalgen aus den Familien der Codiaceen und der Corallineen. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XLIII. p. 295, 1891.

—— (92) Über die Bildung der Oolithe. _Bot. Cent._ vol. LI. p. 265, 1892.

—— (92²) Über die Diadematiden-Stacheln und _Haploporella fasciculata_ aus dem Oligocän von Astrupp. _Bot. Cent._ vol. LII. p. 235, 1892.

—— (94) Ein geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ost-Alpen nebst Anhang über die sogenannte Glarner Doppelfalte. _Stuttgart_, 1894.

—— (96) Über die Flysch-Fucoiden und einige andere fossile Algen sowie über liassische Diatomeen führende Hornschwämme. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XLVIII. p. 854, 1896.

=Royle, J. F.= (39) Illustrations of the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains and of the flora of Cashmere. _London_, 1839.

=Rultey, F.= (92) Notes on Crystallites. _Min. Mag._ vol. IX. p. 261, 1891.

=Salter, J. W.= (63) On some fossil crustacea from the Coal-Measures and Devonian rocks of British North America. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XIX. p. 75, 1863.

—— (73) A catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian fossils. _Cambridge_, 1873.

=Saporta, de G.= (68) Prodrome d’une flore fossile des travertins anciens de Sézanne. _Mém. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. VIII. [2] 1865–68.

—— (72) Plantes Jurassiques. _Paléont. Franç. Végétaux_, vols. I–IV. 1872–1891.

—— (73) _Ibid._ vol. I. Algues, Équisétacées, Characées, Fougères, 1873.

—— (75) _Ibid._ vol. II. Cycadées, 1875.

—— (77) Sur la découverte d’une plante terrestre dans la partie moyenne du terrain Silurien. _Compt. Rend._ vol. LXXXV. p. 500, 1877.

—— (79) Le monde des plantes avant l’apparition de l’homme. _Paris_, 1879.

—— (81) _Vide_ Saporta and Marion.

—— (82) A propos des algues fossiles. _Paris_, 1882.

—— (84) Les organismes problématiques des anciennes mers. _Paris_, 1884.

—— (86) Nouveaux documents relatifs à des fossiles végétaux et à des traces d’invertébrés associés dans les anciens terrains. _Bull. Soc. bot. France_, vol. XIV. [3] p. 407, 1886.

—— (91) Plantes Jurassiques. Vol. IV. _Paris_, 1891.

=Saporta, de G.= and =Marion, A. F.= (81) L’Évolution du règne végétal. Les Cryptogames. _Paris_, 1881.

=Schenk, A.= (65) _Vide_ Schoenlein.

—— (67) Die fossile Flora der Grenzschichten des Keupers und Lias Frankens. _Wiesbaden_, 1867.

—— (83) Pflanzliche Versteinerungen. _Richthofen’s “China,”_ vol. IV. _Berlin_, 1883.

—— (88) Die fossile Pflanzenreste. (_Handbuch der Botanik._) _Breslau_, 1888.

—— (90) _Vide_ Schimper.

=Scheuchzer, J. T.= (1723) Herbarium diluvianum. _Lugduni Batavorum_, 1723.

=Schiffner, V.= and =Müller, C.= (95) Engler und Prantl; Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Teil I. Abt. 3. _Leipzig_, 1895.

=Schimper, W. P.= (65) Euptychium Muscorum Neocaledonicorum genus novum et genus _Spiridens_. _Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Car._ vol. XXXII. 1865.

—— (69) Traité de Paléontologie végétale. _Paris_, vol. I. 1869, vol. II. 1870–72, vol. III. 1874.

—— (74) _Ibid._ Atlas.

=Schimper, W. P.= and =Koechlin-Schlumberger, J.= (62) Mémoire sur le Terrain de transition des Vosges. _Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Strasbourg_, vol. V. 1862.

=Schimper, W. P.= and =Mougeot= (44) Monographie des plantes fossiles du grès bigarré de la Chaîne des Vosges. _Leipzig_, 1844.

=Schimper, W. P.= and =Schenk, A.= (90) Palaeophytologie. _Zittel’s Handbuch der Palaeontologie_, Abt. II. _Munich_ and _Leipzig_, 1890.

=Schlotheim, E. F. von.= (04) Beschreibung merkwürdiger Kräuter-Abdrücke und Pflanzen-Versteinerungen. _Gotha_, 1804.

—— (20) Die Petrefactenkunde auf ihrem jetzigen Standpunkte durch die Beschreibung seiner Sammlung versteinerter und fossiler Überreste des Thier- und Pflanzenreichs der Vorwelt erläutert. _Gotha_, 1820.

—— (22) Nachträge zur Petrefactenkunde. _Gotha_, 1822–23.

=Schlüter, C.= (79) _Coelotrochium Decheni_, eine Foraminifere aus dem Mitteldevon. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XXXI. p. 668, 1879.

=Schmalhausen, J.= (79) Beiträge zur Juraflora Russlands. _Mém. Acad. imp. St Pétersbourg_, [7] vol. XXVII. no. 4, 1879.

=Schmitz, F.= (97) Rhodophyceae. Engler und Prantl; Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Teil I. Abt. 2. _Leipzig_, 1897.

=Schoenlein, J. L.= and =Schenk, A.= (65) Abbildungen von fossilen Pflanzen aus dem Keuper Frankens. _Wiesbaden_, 1865.

=Schröter, J.= (89) Engler und Prantl; Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Teil I. Abth. 1. 1889.

=Schulze, C. F.= (1755) Kurtze Betrachtung derer Kräuterabdrücke im Steinreiche. _Dresden_ and _Leipzig_, 1755.

=Schulze, F.= (55) Über das Vorkommen wohlerhaltener Cellulose in Braunkohle und Steinkohle. _Bericht. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_, 1855, p. 676.

=Schütt, F.= (93) Das Pflanzenleben der Hochsee. _Kiel_ and _Leipzig_, 1893. (From Hensen’s Plankton-Expedition.)

—— (96) Bacillariales. Engler und Prantl; Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Teil I. Abt. 1. b. 1896.

=Schweinfurth, G.= (82) Zur Beleuchtung der Frage über den versteinerten Wald. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XXXIV. p. 139, 1882.

=Schwendener, S.= (74) Das mechanische Princip im anatomischen Bau der Monocotylen. 1874.

=Scott, D. H.= (94) (95) (96) _Vide_ Williamson, W. C.

—— (96) An introduction to structural Botany. Pt. II. Flowerless plants. _London_, 1896.

—— (96²) Presidential address. (Liverpool Meeting.) _British Assoc. Report_, p. 992, 1896.

—— (97) On the structure and affinities of fossil plants from the Palaeozoic rocks. On _Cheirostrobus_, a new type of fossil cone from the Lower Carboniferous strata (Calciferous Sandstone Series). _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ vol. CLXXXIX. B. p. 1, 1897.

=Seeman, B.= (65) A gigantic _Equisetum_. _Journ. Bot._ vol. III. p. 123, 1865.

=Seward, A. C.= (88) On _Calamites undulatus_. _Geol. Mag._ vol. V. p. 289, 1888.

—— (89) _Sphenophyllum_ as a branch of _Asterophyllites_. _Mem. and Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. III. [4] p. 1, 1889–90.

—— (94) Algae as rock-building organisms. _Science Progress_, vol. II. no. 7, p. 10, 1894.

—— (94²) Catalogue of the Mesozoic plants in the Department of Geology, British Museum. The Wealden Flora, Pt. I. _London_, 1894.

—— (95) _Ibid._ Pt. II. _London_, 1895.

—— (95²) Coal: its structure and formation. _Science Progress_, vol. II. p. 355, 1895.

—— (95³) Notes on _Pachytheca_. _Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge_, vol. VIII. pt. 5, p. 278, 1895.

—— (96) Notes on the geological history of Monocotyledons. _Annals Bot._ vol. X. p. 205, 1896.

—— (96²) _Vide_ Feilden, H. W.

—— (97) On _Cycadeoidea gigantea_, a new Cycadean stem from the Purbeck beds of Portland. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. LIII. p. 22, 1897.

—— (97²) On the association of _Sigillaria_ and _Glossopteris_ in South Africa. _Ibid._ p. 315, 1897.

=Sharpe, S.= (68) On a remarkable incrustation in Northamptonshire. _Geol. Mag._ vol. V. p. 563, 1868.

=Sherborn, C. D.= (93) An index to the genera and species of the Foraminifera. _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, 856. _Washington_, 1893.

=Shrubsole, W. H.= and =Kitton, F.= (81) The Diatoms of the London Clay. _Journ. R. Mic. Soc._ [2] vol. I. p. 381, 1881.

=Skertchly, J. B. J.= (77) The geology of the Fenland. _Mem. Geol. Surv_. 1877.

=Smith, W. G.= (77) A fossil _Peronospora_. _Gard. Chron._ Oct. 20, 1877, p. 499.

=Sollas, W. J.= (86) On a specimen of slate from Bray-Head traversed by the structure known as _Oldhamia radiata_. _Proc. R. Soc. Dublin_ (N.S.) vol. V. pp. 355, 358, 1886–87.

=Solms-Laubach, Graf zu.= (81) Die corallinen Algen des Golfes von Neapel und der augrenzenden Meeres-Abschnitte. _Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel_, vol. IV. _Leipzig_, 1881.

—— (91) Fossil Botany. _Oxford_, 1891.

—— (93) Über die Algen-genera _Cymopolia_, _Neomeris_ und _Bornetella_. _Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg_, vol. XI. p. 61, 1893.

—— (95) William Crawford Williamson. (Obit. notice.) _Nature_, vol. LII. p. 441, 1895.

—— (95²) Über Devonische Pflanzenreste aus den Lenneschiefern der Gegend von Gräfrath am Niederrhein. _Jahrb. k. preuss. geol. Landesanst._ _Berlin_, 1895, p. 67.

—— (95³) Monograph of the Acetabularieae. _Trans. Linn. Soc._ [2] vol. V. pt. 1. p. 1, 1895.

—— (95⁴) _Bowmanites Römeri_, eine neue Sphenophylleen-Fructification. _Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanst._ _Wien_, vol. XLV. Heft 2, p. 225, 1895.

—— (96) Über die seinerzeit von Unger beschriebenen Struktur bietenden Pflanzenreste des Unterculm von Saalfeld in Thüringen. _Abhand. k. Preus. Geol. Landesanst._ (N.F.) Heft XXIII. _Berlin_, 1896.

—— (97) Über die in den Kalksteinen des Culm von Glätzisch Falkenberg in Schlesien enthaltenen Structur bietenden Pflanzenreste. _Bot. Zeit._ Heft XII. p. 219, 1897.

=Sorby, H. C.= (79) Presidential Address. _Proc. Geol. Soc._ 1878–79, p. 56.

=Spencer, J.= (81) _Astromyelon_ and its affinities. _Geol. Polytech. Soc._ W. R. Yorks. 1881, p. 439.

=Sprengel, A.= (28) Commentatio de Psarolithis. _Halle_, 1828.

=Stefani, K. de.= (82) Vorläufige Mittheilung über die rhätischen Fossilen der apuanischen Alpen. _Verhand. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst._ _Wien_, 1882, p. 96.

=Steinhauer, H.= (18) On fossil Reliquia of unknown vegetables in the Coal Strata. _Trans. Phil. Soc. America_, N. S. vol. I. p. 265, 1818.

=Steinmann, G.= (80) Zur Kenntniss fossiler Kalkalgen (Siphoneae). _Neues Jahrb._ vol. II. p. 130, 1880.

=Stenzel, G.= (86) _Rhizodendron oppoliense_, Göpp. _Jahresbericht. Schles. Ges. Vat.-Cult._ Ergänzheft LXIII. 1886.

=Sternberg, C. von.= (20) Versuch einer geognostisch-botanischen Darstellung der Flora der Vorwelt. Fasc. I. _Leipzig_, 1820.

—— (21) _Ibid._ Fasc. II.

—— (25) _Ibid._ Fasc. IV.

—— (38) _Ibid._ Fasc. VIII.

=Sterzel, J. T.= (82) Über die Fruchtähren von _Annularia Sphenophylloides_ (Zenk.). _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XXXIV. p. 685, 1882.

—— (86) Die Flora des Rothliegenden im nordwestlichen Sachsen. _Pal. Abh. Dames und Kayser_, vol. III. Heft 4, 1886.

—— (93) Die Flora des Rothliegenden im Plauenscher Grunde bei Dresden. _Abhand. k. Sächs. Ges. Wiss._ vol. XIX. _Leipzig_, 1893.

=Stokes, C.= (40) Notice respecting a piece of recent wood partly petrified by carbonate of lime, with some remarks on fossil wood. _Trans. Geol. Soc._ [2] vol. V. p. 207, 1840.

=Stolley, E.= (93) Über Silurische Siphoneen. _Neues Jahrb._ vol. II. p. 135, 1893.

=Strasburger, E.= (91) Über den Bau und die Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen. _Histologische Beiträge_, Heft III. _Jena_, 1891.

=Strickland, H. E.= and =Hooker, J. D.= (53) On the distribution of organic contents of the Ludlow bone-bed in the districts of Woolhope and May Hill. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. IX. p. 8, 1853.

=Stur, D.= (75) Die Culm-Flora. Heft 1. Die Culm-Flora des mährischschlesischen Dachschiefers. Heft 2. Die Culm-Flora des Ostrauer und Waldenburger Schichten. _Abhand. k. k. geol. Reichsanst._ _Wien_, vol. VIII. 1875–77.

—— (85) Über die in Flötzen-reiner Steinkohle enthaltenen Stein-Rundmassen und Torf-Sphärosiderite. _Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanst._ _Wien_, vol. XXXV. Heft 3, p. 613, 1885.

—— (87) Die Carbon-Flora der Schatzlarer Schichten. Abt. II. Die Calamarien. _Abhand. k. k. geol. Reichsanst._ _Wien_, vol. XI. Abt. 2, 1887.

=Suckow, G. A.= (1784) Beschreibung einiger merkwürdigen Abdrücke von der Art der sogenannten Calamiten. _Hist. Comm. Acad. elect. Sci. litt. Theod.-Palat._ vol. V. p. 355. _Mannheim_, 1784.

=Tenison-Woods, J. E.= (83) On the Fossil Flora of the Coal deposits of Australia. _Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales_, vol. VIII. p. 37. _Sydney_, 1884.

=Thiselton-Dyer, W. T.= (72) On some fossil wood from the Lower Eocene. _Geol. Mag._ vol. IX. P. 241, 1872.

—— (91) Note on Mr Barber’s paper on _Pachytheca_. _Annals Bot._ vol. V. p. 223, 1890–91.

—— (95) Presidential address. _Brit. Assoc. Report_, _Ipswich_, p. 836, 1895.

=Thomas, K.= (48) On the Amber of East Prussia. _Annals Mag._ vol. II. [2] p. 369, 1848.

=van Tieghem, P.= (77) Sur le _Bacillus amylobacter_ et son rô1e dans le putréfaction des tissues végétaux. _Bull. Soc. bot._ vol. XXIV. p. 128, 1877.

—— (79) Sur le ferment butyrique (_Bacillus amylobacter_) à l’époque de la houille. _Compt. Rend._ vol. LXXXIX. p. 1102, 1879.

—— (91) Traité de Botanique. _Paris_, 1891.

=Tilden, J. E.= (97) On some algal characteristics of the Yellowstone Park. _Bot. Gazette_, vol. XXIV. p. 194, 1897.

=Treub, M.= (88) Notice sur la nouvelle Flore de Krakatoa. _Ann. jard. bot. Buitenzorg_, vol. VII. p. 213, 1888.

=Turner, D.= (11) Historia Fucorum. _London_, 1811.

=Unger, F.= (40) Über die Struktur der Calamiten und ihre Rangordnung im Gewächsreiche. _Flora_, Jahrg. XIII. p. 654, 1840.

=Unger, F.= (44) Ein Wort über Calamiten und Schachtelhalmähnliche Pflanzen der Vorwelt. _Bot. Zeit._ Jahrg. 2, p. 177, 1844.

—— (50) Genera et species Plantarum fossilium. _Vienna_, 1850.

—— (58) Beiträge zur näheren Kenntniss des Leithakalkes. _Denksch. k. Akad. Wiss._ _München_, vol. XIV. p. 13, 1858.

=Vaillant=, —. (1719) Caractères de quatorze genres de plantes. _Hist. Acad. Roy. Sciences_, Ann. 1719, p. 9. _Paris_, 1721.

=Vinci, Leonardo da.= (83) Literary works. Compiled and edited from the original MSS. by J. P. Richter. _London_, 1883.

=Vines, S. H.= (95) A student’s text-book of Botany. _London_, 1895.

=Vogelsang, H.= (74) Die Krystalliten. _Bonn_, 1874.

=Volkmann, G. A.= (1720) Silesia subterranea. _Leipzig_, 1720.

=Wallace, A. R.= (86) The Malay Archipelago. _London_, 1886.

=Walther, J.= (85) Die Gesteinbildenden Kalkalgen des Golfes von Neapel und die Entstehung structurloser Kalke. _Zeit. deutsch. geol. Ges._ vol. XXXVII. p. 329, 1885.

—— (88) Die Korallenriffe der Sinaihalbinsel. _Abh. math. phys. Cl. K. Sächs. Ges._ vol. XIV. 1888.

=Ward, L. F.= (84) Sketch of Palaeobotany. _U. S. Geol. Surv. Fifth Ann. Report._ _Washington_, 1883–84.

—— (92) Principles and methods of geologic correlation by means of fossil plants. 1892.

—— (96) Fossil plants of the Wealden. _Science_, June 12, p. 869, 1896.

=Warming, E.= (96) Lehrbuch der ökologischen Pflanzengeographie. (German edit.) _Berlin_, 1896.

=Watelet, Ad.= (66) Description des plantes fossiles du Bassin de Paris. _Paris_, 1866.

=Wedl, C.= (59) Über die Bedeutung der in den Schalen von manchen Acephalen und Gasteropoden vorkommenden Canäle. _Sitzbericht. Akad. Wiss._ _Wien_, vol. XXXIII. p. 451, 1859.

=Weed, W. H.= (87) The formation of Travertine and siliceous Sinter. _U. S. Geol. Surv. Annual Rep._ IX. 1887–88.

=Weiss, C. E.= (76) Steinkohlen-Calamarien, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Fructificationen. _Abhand. geol. Specialkarte von Preussen und den Thüringischen Staaten_, Bd. II. Heft 1, 1876.

—— (84) Steinkohlen-Calamarien. _Ibid._ Bd. V. Heft 2, 1884.

=Westermaier, M.= and =Ambronn, H.= (81) Beziehungen zwischen Lebensweise und Structur der Schling- und Kletterpflanzen. _Flora_, 1881, p. 417.

=Wethered, E.= (93) On the microscopic structure of the Wenlock limestone. _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. XLIX. p. 236, 1893.

=Whitney, J. D.= and =Wadsworth, M. E.= (84) The Azoic system. _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll._ VII. 1884.

=Wille, N.= (97) Die Chlorophyceae. Engler und Prantl; Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Teil I. Abt. 2. _Leipzig_, 1897.

=Williamson, W. C.= (71) On the organization of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-Measures. Memoir I. _Calamites_. _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ vol. CLXI. p. 477, 1871.

—— (71²) On the structure of the woody zone of an undescribed form of Calamite. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. IV. [3] p. 155, 1871.

—— (71³) On a new form of Calamitean Strobilus from the Lancashire Coal-Measures. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. IV. [3] p. 248, 1871.

—— (73) On the organization, &c. Mem. IV. _Dictyoxylon_, _Lyginodendron_ and _Heterangium_. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXIII. p. 377, 1873.

—— (74) _Ibid._ Mem. V. _Asterophyllites._ _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXIV. p. 41, 1874.

—— (76) On the organization of _Volkmannia Dawsoni_, an undescribed verticillate strobilus from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. V. [3] p. 28, 1876.

—— (78) On the organization, &c. Mem. IX. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXIX. p. 319, 1878.

—— (80) _Ibid._ Mem. X. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXI. p. 493, 1880.

—— (81) _Ibid._ Mem. XI. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXII. p. 283, 1881.

—— (82) _Helophyton Williamsonis._ _Nature_, vol. XXV. p. 124, 1882.

—— (83) On some anomalous Oolitic and Palaeozoic forms of vegetation. _R. Instit. Great Britain._ (_Weekly Evening Meeting_), Feb. 16, 1883.

—— (83²) On the organization, &c. Mem. XII. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXIV. p. 459, 1883.

—— (85) On some undescribed tracks of invertebrate animals from the Yoredale rocks. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. X. [3] p. 19, 1885.

—— (87) A monograph of the morphology and histology of _Stigmaria ficoides_. _Palaeont. Soc._ _London_, 1887.

—— (87²) On the relations of _Calamodendron_ to _Calamites_. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. X. [3] p. 255, 1887.

—— (88) On some anomalous cells developed within the interior of the vascular and cellular tissues of the fossil plants of the Coal-Measures. _Annals Bot._ vol. I. 315, 1888.

—— (88²) On the organisation &c. Mem. XIV. The true fructification of _Calamites_. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXIX. p. 47, 1888.

—— (89) _Ibid._ Mem. XV. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXX. p. 155, 1889.

—— (91) General, morphological and histological Index to the Author’s Collective Memoirs on fossil plants of the Coal-Measures. Pt. I. _Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester_, vol. IV. [3] 1891.

—— (91²) On the organisation &c. Mem. XVIII. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXXII. B. p. 255, 1891.

—— (92) The genus _Sphenophyllum_. _Nature_, vol. XLVII. p. 11, 1892.

—— (96) Reminiscences of a Yorkshire Naturalist (edited by Mrs Crawford Williamson). _London_, 1896.

=Williamson, W. C.= and =Scott, D. H.= (94) Further observations on the organisation of the fossil plants of the Coal-Measures. Pt. I. _Calamities_, _Calamostachys_ and _Sphenophyllum_. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXXV. p. 863, 1894.

—— (95) _Ibid._ Pt. II. The roots of _Calamites_. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXXVI. p. 683, 1895.

—— (96) _Ibid._ Pt. III. _Lyginodendron_ and _Heterangium_. _Phil. Trans._ vol. CLXXXVI. p. 703, 1896.

=Wilson, J. S. G.= (87) The Diatomite of Cuithir. _Min. Mag._ vol. VII. p. 35, 1887.

=Witham, H.= (31) A description of a fossil tree discovered in the quarry at Craigleith near Edinburgh. _Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle-on-Tyne_, 1831.

—— (33) The internal structure of fossil vegetables found in the Carboniferous and Oolitic deposits of Great Britain. _Edinburgh_, 1833.

=Woodward, H.= (72) A monograph of the British fossil Crustacea belonging to the order Merostomata. _Palaeont. Soc._ 1866–78.

=Woodward, H. B.= (87) The Geology of England and Wales. _London_, 1887.

—— (95) The Jurassic rocks of Britain. _Mem. Geol. Surv._ vol. V. 1895.

=Woodward, J.= (1695) An essay toward a Natural History of the Earth. _London_, 1695.

—— (1728) A catalogue of the additional English fossils in the collection of J. Woodward, M.A. _London_, vol. II. 1728.

—— (1729) An attempt towards a Natural History of the fossils of England; in a catalogue of the English fossils in the collection of J. Woodward, M.A. _London_, vol. I. 1729.

=Young, G.= and =Bird, J.= (22) A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast. _Whitby_, 1822.

=Young, J.=, =Glen, D. C.= and =Kidston, R.= (88) Notes on a section of Carboniferous strata containing erect stems of fossil trees &c. in Victoria Park, Whiteinch. _Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow_, vol. VIII. p. 227, 1888.

=Zeiller, R.= (80) Végétaux du terrain houiller de la France. _L’explication de la carte géologique de la France_, vol. IV. _Paris_, 1880.

—— (82) Observations sur quelques cuticles fossiles. _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. XIII. [6] p. 217, 1882.

—— (84) Sur des traces d’insectes simulant des empreintes végétales. _Bull. Soc. Géol. France_, [3] vol. XII. p. 676, 1884.

—— (88) Bassin houiller de Valenciennes. Description de la flore fossile. _Études Gîtes Min. France._ _Paris_, 1888.

—— (88) _Vide_ Renault, B.

—— (91) Sur la valeur du genre _Trizygia_. _Bull. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. XIX. [3] p. 673, 1891.

—— (92) Sur les empreintes du sondage de Douvres. _Compt. Rend._ Oct. 24, 1892.

—— (92²) Bassin houiller et permien de Brive. _Études Gîtes Min. France_. _Paris_, 1892.

—— (93) Étude sur la constitution de l’appareil fructificateur des Sphenophyllum. _Mém. Soc. Géol. France_, 1893, p. 3.

—— (94) Note sur la flore des Couches permiennes de Trienbach (Alsace). _Bull. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. XXII. [3] p. 193, 1894.

—— (95) Notes sur la flore des Gisements houillers de la Rhune et d’Ibantelly (Basses-Pyrénées). _Bull. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. XXIII. [3] p. 482, 1895.

—— (95²) Sur la flore des dépôts houillers d’Asie Mineure et sur la présence, dans cette flore, du genre _Phyllotheca_. _Compt. Rend._ vol. CXX. p. 1228, 1895.

—— (96) Remarques sur la flore fossile de l’Altaï. _Bull. Soc. Géol. France_, vol. XXIV. [3] p. 466, 1896.

=Zenker, F. C.= (33) Beschreibung von _Galium sphenophylloides_. _Neues Jahrb. Min._ 1833, p. 398.

=Zigno, A. de= (56) Flora fossilis formationis Oolithicae. Vol. I. _Padova_, 1856.

INDEX.

_Acetabularia_, 165, 166

_A. mediterranea_, 162, 165, 166

_Achyla_, 127

_Acicularia_, 162, 166, 167

_A. Andrussowi_, 162, 168

_A. miocenica_, 162, 168

_A. pavantina_, 167

_A. Schencki_, 162, 166, 168

_Aegoceras planicosta_, 61

Aeolian rocks, 25

_Aeschynomene_, 414

Africa, South, 80, 284

_Agaricus melleus_, 211, 212, 215

Algae, 138–202

_Algites_, 148, 149, 204, 205

Amazons, 66

Amber, 70, 71, 206, 211, 221, 255

America, 182

_Amphiroa_, 184

_Anarthrocanna_, 283

_A. tuberculata_, 386

Andersson, G., 60

Andrae, K. J., 276

Andreaeales, 236

Andrussow, N., 168

_Annularia_, 255, 260, 282, 283, 289, 329, 332, 333, 336–339, 340, 361, 362, 379, 381

_A. calamitoides_, 335

_A. Geinitzi_, 338

_A. longifolia_, 338, 341

_A. radiata_, 283

_A. ramosa_, 363

_A. sphenophylloides_, 340, 341, 363

_A. stellata_, 338–341, 363

_A. westphalica_, 338

Antigua, 79

_Aphlebia_, 142

_Araucaria imbricata_, 101, 104

_Araucarioxylon Withami_, 81, 82

Archaean system, 34–36

_Archaeocalamites_, 254, 255, 256, 263, 285, 336, 383–388

_A. scrobiculatus_, 385–387

d’Archiac, A., 166, 167

Arctic plants, 16, 17

Arenig series, 37

Arran, 88, 89

_Arthrodendron_, 301, 302, 324, 325, 326, 327, 366, 379, 381

_Arthropitys_, 300, 301, 302, 304, 311, 324, 325, 326, 328, 333, 349, 369, 375, 379, 380, 381, 384

_A. approximata_, 371

_A. bistriata_, 326

Arthropod eggs, 108

Artis, F. T., 4, 104, 297

_Artisia_, 104

Ascomycetes, 208, 209, 220

Asia Minor, Coal-Measures of, 282, 283

_Asterocalamites scrobiculatus_, 386

_Asterophyllites_, 264, 276, 329, 332, 333, 338, 369, 371, 379, 397, 409

_A. elegans_, 386

_A. equisetiformis_, 335, 338

_A. insignis_, 397

_A. longifolius_, 338

_A. spaniophyllus_, 386

_A. sphenophylloides_, 397

_Astromyelon_, 342, 343, 381

Australia, 179, 290, 291

Autun, 6, 46, 83, 179, 181, 182, 206, 390, 399

Azoic system, 36

Bacillariaceae, 150–156

_Bacillus_, 135, 136

_B. amylobacter_, 136

_B. permicus_, 135

_B. Tieghemi_, 135, 136

Bacteria, 75, 132, 138

_Bactryllium_, 154–156

_B. deplanatum_, 155

Bala series, 37

_Balanoglossus_, 145

Balfour, Bayley, 178

Balfour, J. H., 101

_Bambusa arundinacea_, 322

Barbados, 188

Barber, C. A., 193, 197, 198, 203, 204

Barrois, C., 146

Barton, R., 80

de Bary, A., 132

Basidiomycetes, 208, 211, 212

Bates, H. W., 64, 66

Bauhin, C., 225

Bear Island, 366

Bentham, G., 98, 99

_Bergeria_, 101

Bernician series, 43

Bertrand, C. E., 87, 154, 178, 181

Beyrich, E., 52

Bilin, 152

_Bilobites_, 148

Binney, E. W., 9, 10, 304, 311, 343, 351, 386, 401

Bituminous deposits, 178–183

Blackman, V. H., 119, 120

_Blandowia_, 231

Boghead, 178–183

Boring algae, 127, 128

Boring fungi, 127, 128

Bornemann, J. G., 129, 130, 148, 177

Bornet, E., 181

Bornet, E. and Flahault, 128, 129

_Bornetella_, 177

_Bornia_, 263

_B. equisetiformis_, 335

_B. scrobiculata_, 386

_B. stellata_, 338

_Bostrychus_, 210, 211

_Bothrodendron_, 133, 134

_Botrydium_, 157

_Bowmanites_, 401, 402

_B. Dawsoni_, 401

_B. Germanicus_, 408

Brazil, 79

Brodie, P. B., 240

Brongniart, A., 5, 6, 9, 11, 17, 18, 111, 112, 145, 177, 233, 269, 281, 288, 289, 291, 297, 299, 300, 301, 332, 336, 351, 390, 391

Bronn, H. G., 118

Brora, 269

Brown, A., 189, 190

_Brukmannia_, 350, 360, 361

Bryales, 236

Bryophyta, 229–241, 243

Bryozoa, 187

_Buccinum_, 159

Buckman, J., 240, 278

Bunbury, Sir C. J. F., 270, 271, 273, 284, 287, 288, 289

Bunter series, 47, 267, 292, 293

Burntisland, 88, 90, 397

_Buthotrephis radiata_, 338

Büzistock, 28

Calamarieae, 255, 295–388

_Calamitea_, 298, 300, 301, 303

_C. bistriata_, 301

_Calamites_, 18, 19, 77, 86, 94, 104, 114, 252, 254–257, 259, 260, 262, 264, 269, 285, 286, 289, 295–383, 386–388, 413

_Calamites_, sub-genera of, 381

_C. alternans_, 378

_C. approximatus_, 369, 370, 374, 378

_C. arborescens_, 363

_C. Beani_, 270, 273

_C. cannaeformis_, 374

_C. communis_, 326, 351

_C. cruciatus_, 376–378

_C. decoratus_, 374

_C. equisetiformis_, 335

_C. giganteus_, 271

_C. gigas_, 271

_C. Göpperti_, 368, 372–374

_C. lateralis_, 276

_C. laticulatus_, 386

_C. obliquus_, 386

_C. pedunculatus_, 358

_C. ramosus_, 363

_C. Sachsei_, 372

_C. scrobiculatus_, 386

_C. Suckowi_, 372, 374, 375

_C. transitionis_, 386

_C. varians_, 371

_C. variolatus_, 386

_C. verticillatus_, 372

_Calamitina_, 260, 266, 267, 329, 330, 362, 364, 365, 367–376, 381, 383, 388

_C. pauciramis_, 367

_Calamocladus_, 227, 289, 328, 329, 332, 333, 336, 337, 350, 361–364, 381, 409

_C. equisetiformis_, 333–335, 363

_C. frondosus_, 289

_Calamodendron_, 300–302, 328, 349, 364, 375, 378, 379, 380, 382

_C. bistriatum_, 300

_C. commune_, 311, 317

_C. cruciatum_, 378

_C. intermedium_, 328

_C. striatum_, 300

_Calamophyllites_, 371

_C. Göpperti_, 372

_Calamopitys_, 301, 302, 381

_Calamostachys_, 339, 342, 350, 351–357, 362, 371, 379, 381, 384, 387, 402

_C. Binneyana_, 351–355, 356, 357, 361

_C. calathifera_, 341, 363

_C. Casheana_, 355–357, 361

_C. longifolia_, 363

_C. ramosa_, 363

_C. Solmsi_, 363, 364

_C. tenuissima_, 261

_C. tuberculata_, 363

Calciferous sandstone, 43, 148, 397, 412

Callus wood, in _Calamites_, 319, 320

_Calothrix_, 126

Cambrian, 36, 37, 149, 177

de Candolle, A., 297

Carboniferous limestone, 40, 42, 43, 387

Carboniferous system, 39–45

Carinal canals, 249, 306, 307, 308

Carlsbad, 123, 126

Carpenter, W. B., 167

_Carpolithus_, 280

Carruthers, W., 9, 10, 87, 193, 197, 202, 212, 217, 240, 304, 351

Cash, W. and Hick, T., 206, 218, 219, 342

Castracane, F., 154

_Casuarina stricta_, 95, 96

_Casuarinites_, 332

_C. equisetiformis_, 335

_C. stellata_, 338

Caterpillars, Liassic, 240

_Caulerpa_, 157–159

_C. abies-marina_, 142

_C. cactoides_, 142, 158

_C. Carruthersi_, 159

_C. ericifolia_, 142

_C. plumaris_, 142

_C. pusilla_, 142

_C. scalpelliformis_, 142

_C. taxifolia_, 142

Caulerpaceae, 157–159

_Caulerpites_, 142, 158

_C. cactoides_, 158

_Celastrum_, 181

_Celluloxylon primaevum_, 198

_Ceratium_, 117

Chalk, 26, 50, 120

Challenger, H. M. S., 65, 66, 101, 117, 118, 119, 122, 151

_Chara_, 69, 223, 228

_C. Bleicheri_, 226

_C. foetida_, 224, 225

_C. Jaccardi_, 226

_C. Knowltoni_, 224, 226, 227

_C. Wrighti_, 226, 227

Characeæ, 222–228

Chareae, 223–228

Charophyta, 222–228

_Cheirostrobus_, 258, 413

_C. Pettycurensis_, 412

Chert, 227

Chlorophyceae, 127–130, 156–190

_Chondrites_, 142, 144

_C. plumosa_, 148

_C. verisimilis_, 146, 147

_Chondrus_, 231

_C. crispus_, 191

Chroococcaceae, 122, 123, 181

Church, A. H., 171

Chytridineae, 216

_Cingularia_, 290, 364

Cladochytrium, 216

_Cladosporites bipartitus_, 217, 220

Clayton, fossil tree, 71

Coal, 44, 45, 68, 76, 92, 133, 134, 178, 179

Coal-balls, 85, 86

Coalbrook Dale, 361

Coal-Measures, 40–45, 55, 84, 85, 217, 238, 256, 259, 261, 268, 282, 283, 296, 301, 302, 325, 329, 358, 375, 376, 378, 382, 397, 401, 406, 413

Coccoliths, 120

Coccospheres, 118–121

Codiaceae, 159–164

_Codium_, 159, 160

_C. Bursa_, 160

_C. tomentosum_, 160

_Coelotrochium_, 176

Coemans, E. and Kickx, J. J., 411

Coenocyte, 116, 117

Cohn, F., 123, 126

Cole, G., 83

Cone-in-cone structure, 83

_Confervites_, 177

_C. chantransioides_, 178

Confervoideae, 177–178

Conglomerate, 24

Coniferae, 232

_Convallarites_, 291

Conwentz, H., 80, 211, 212, 221

Cook, Capt., 122

Coprolites, 108, 135, 137, 182

Coral reefs, 26, 40, 48

_Corallina officinalis_, 183, 184

Corallinaceae, 183–190

Corallineae, 184

Corallines, 159, 169, 184

_Coralliodendron_, 163

Corals, fossil, 25

Corda, A. J., 5, 8

_Cordaites_, 75, 80, 99, 104, 366

Cormack, B. G., 251, 252

_Coscinodiscus_, 153

Costa, Mendes da, 3

Cotta, C. B., 9, 298

‘Crag’, 53, 62

Craigleith Quarry, Edinburgh, 81

Cramer, C., 171, 177

Credner, H., 149

Crépin, F., 109

Cretaceous system, 50, 51, 188

Cromer Forest bed, 53

_Crossochorda_, 148

_Cruziana_, 144, 145

Culm rocks, 42, 68, 383, 413

Cuticles, fossil, 68, 133

Cyanophyceae, 121, 122–132

_Cyathophyllum bulbosum_, 237

Cycadaceæ, 98

_Cycadeoidea gigantea_, 88, 214

_Cycadorachis_, 114, 115

Cycads, 49, 56, 99, 281

_Cyclocladia_, 371

_C. major_, 372

_Cymopolia_, 165, 169, 170, 172, 177

_C. barbata_, 162, 169, 171

_C. elongata_, 172

_C. Mexicana_, 169

_Dactylopora_, 175, 176

_D. cylindracea_, 176

_Dactyloporella_, 176

Darwin, C., 16, 17, 65, 70, 79, 100

Dasycladaceae, 164–176

_Dasyporella_, 176

Dawes, J. S., 297, 302

Dawson, Sir W., 147, 192, 193, 195, 338, 390, 413

_Dawsonia_, 237

_D. polytrichoides_, 237

_D. superba_, 237

Decorticated stems, 105

Deecke, W., 173

Defrance, J. L. M., 172

_Dendrophycus triassicus_, 146

Denudation, 23, 24, 35

Desmideae, 221

Devonian system, 39, 133, 173, 193, 195, 225, 256, 338, 383, 413

Diatomaceae, 150–156

Diatomite, 151

Diatoms, 117, 118, 123, 141, 185

_Dichothrix_, 123

Dicotyledons, 98, 99

Dictyogens, 99

Dinoflagellata, 118

_Diplopora_, 173–176

Dirt-beds, of Portland, 56, 57

Dismal swamp, 74

Dixon, H. N. and Joly, J., 120

Dorset, coast, 56, 226

Dover coal, 45

Drifting of trees &c., 64

Duncan, M., 127, 129

Duval-jouve, J., 247

Dyas system, 46, 209

Echinoid spines, 177

Ehrenberg, C. G., 117, 118, 151, 153

Elaters, 245

Ellis, J., 159, 169

Endophytic algae, 132

Eocene rocks, 29, 52, 164, 171

_Eophyton_, 144, 148

_Eopteris Morierei_, 106

_Ephedra distachya_, 95, 97

Equisetaceae, 19, 244–254, 255, 256

Equisetales, fossil, 254–388

Equisetales, recent, 244–254

_Equisetites_, 254, 257–273, 282, 291, 330, 413

_E. arenaceus_, 268, 269, 275, 280

_E. Beani_, 270–275

_E. Brodii_, 278

_E. Burchardti_, 279, 280

_E. Burejensis_, 280

_E. columnaris_, 72, 265, 269–271

_E. Göpperti_, 386

_E. Hemingwayi_, 259, 262–264

_E. lateralis_, 265, 275–279

_E. Monyi_, 266

_E. Mougeoti_, 267

_E. Münsteri_, 278, 279

_E. Parlatori_, 280

_E. platyodon_, 267

_E. rotiferum_, 279

_E. spatulatus_, 264, 265

_E. Vaujolyi_, 261

_E. Yokoyamae_, 280

_E. zeaeformis_, 265–266

_Equisetum_, 19, 245–254, 258, 262, 263, 267, 268, 281, 282, 285, 286, 287, 290, 292, 297, 298, 304, 307, 308, 309, 327, 337, 346, 360, 381, 384, 388, 390

_E. arvense_, 246, 247, 251, 279

_E. debile_, 95, 96, 97

_E. giganteum_, 245, 297

_E. hiemale_, 270

_E. limosum_, 263

_E. litorale_, 253

_E. maximum_, 245, 246, 247, 250–253

_E. palustre_, 247, 253

_E. ramosissimum_, 259, 265, 270

_E. sylvaticum_, 247, 279

_E. Telmateia_, 245

_E. trachyodon_, 270

_E. variegatum_, 95, 252

_E. xylochaetum_, 250

_Eryngium Lassauxi_, 99

_E. montanum_, 99

Etheridge, R., 200, 215, 290

Ettingshausen, C. von, 6, 7, 311, 332, 372

_Eucalamites_, 367, 376, 379

_Eurypterus_, 371

_E. mammatus_, 371

Feilden, Col. H. W., 211

Feistmantel, O., 284, 291, 293, 387

Felix, J., 399

Fischer, A., 217

Fish-scales, 127, 182

_Fleurs d’eau_, 132, 182

Fliche, P. and Bleicher, 232

Flint, 62

Florideae, 175, 183–190

Flowers, fossil, 70

Flysch, 147, 148, 192

_Fontinalis_, 240

Foraminifera, 26, 161, 163, 175, 185

Forbes, E., 16

Forbes, H. O., 63

Forest-bed, 53

Forests, fossil, 56

Fossil, meaning of term, 67

Fossil plants, determination of, 93–109

Fossil trees, 74, 79, 80

Fossils in half-relief, 77

Fracastaro, 2

Freeman, E. J., 23

_Frullania_, 236

Frustules of Diatoms, 150

Fuchs, T., 159, 164

_Fucoides_, 142, 191

_F. erectus_, 233

Fucoids, 87, 147, 148

_Fucus_, 191, 192, 202, 231

_F. crispus_, 191

Funafuti Island, 184

Fungi, 207–222, 305

_Galium_, 338, 389

_G. sphenophylloides_, 341

_Gallionella_, 153

Gardiner, Stanley, 184

Gardner, Starkie, 58, 240, 273

Geikie, Sir A., 39

Geinitz, H. B., 408

Geological evolution, 53

Geological history, 22–53

Germar, E. F., 297, 409

Geysers, 92, 126

_Ginkgo_, 58, 210, 390

_G. biloba_, 15

_Girvanella_, 124–126, 160

Globigerine ooze, 118

_Glœocapsa_, 122, 130

_Glœotheca_, 122

_Gloioconis_, 130

_Glossopteris Browniana_, 182

_Glossopteris_ Flora, 291, 294

_Gomphonema_, 153

_Gomphosphaeria_, 181

Gondwana system, 46–47, 84, 288, 292, 411

Gondwana Land, 294

_Goniada maculata_, 143, 144

_Goniolina_, 176, 177

Göppert, H. R., 1, 9, 146, 283, 284, 300, 301, 304, 386, 387

Göppert and Berendt, 235

Göppert and Menge, 206

Gottsche, 236

_Gottschea_, 237

Gramineae, 273

Grand’Croix, 80, 137

Grand’Eury, C., 101, 261, 262, 289, 316, 332, 336, 343, 371, 375, 381

Gray, Asa, 16

Greensand rocks, 50, 145

_Grevillea_, 99

_Gryllotalpa vulgaris_, 146

Guillemard, F. H. H., 90

Gümbel, C. W., 171, 176, 188

_Gymnostomum_, 241

_Gyroporella_, 174, 175, 176

_G. bellerophontis_, 175

_Hakea_, 99

Half-relief fossils, 77

_Halimeda_, 164, 185, 202

_H. gracilis_, 164

_H. Saportae_, 164

_Haplographites cateniger_, 217, 220

_Haploporella fasciculata_, 177

Hartig, R., 212

Harvey, W. H., 164

Hauck, F., 187, 188

Heer, O., 6, 40, 51, 68, 132, 155, 276, 280, 286, 290, 366

Heim, A., 28

_Helophyton_, 342

Henson, 118

Hepaticae, 230–236

Herzer, H., 211

Heterospory, 355, 356, 357, 406

Hick, T., 304, 306, 330

Hicks, H., 199, 200, 203

_Hippurites_, 332, 371

_H. gigantea_, 267

_H. longifolia_, 335

Holmes, W. H., 79

Homotaxis, 31

Hooker, Sir J., 10, 16, 63, 90, 139, 151, 203, 204

_Hookeria pennata_, 231

_Hostinella_, 200

Hughes, T. McKenny, 31

Humboldt, A. von, 14

Hutton, W., 87

_Huttonia_, 360, 363

Huxley, T. H., 31

_Hydatica_, 344

Hydrozoa, 187, 190

_Hyella_, 127

_Hyphochytrium infestans_, 217

Ice-Age, 17, 53

Igneous rocks, 26, 27, 35

Incrustation, 79

Incrusting springs, 68

India, 84, 287–289, 292–294, 411

Infranodal canals, 285, 324, 327, 375

Inversion of strata, 29, 30

Italy, 286, 287, 291

James, J. F., 210

_Jungermannia_, 230, 236

Jurassic system, 48–50, 55, 226, 257, 269, 282, 283, 290, 291

_Kaulfussia æsculifolia_, 97, 98

Keeling Island, 65

Keeping, W., 147

Kellaways rock, 49

Kent, S., 184

Kerguelen Land, 16

Kerosene shale, 179–182

Keuper series, 47, 48, 130

Kickx, J. J., 411

Kidston, R., 44, 82, 148, 263, 264, 334, 374, 375, 385, 386, 406, 408, 409

Kieselguhr, 150

Kiltorkan beds, 39

Kimeridge clay, 49, 78, 158, 159

Kjellman, F. R., 187

Koechlin-Schlumberger, J., 269

Kolguev Island, 211

Kölliker, A., 127

König, C., 269

_Knorria_, 101, 102, 366

Knowlton, F. H., 8, 225

Krakatoa, 58, 131

Kuntze, O., 92

Laggan Bay, Arran, 88

Lake, P., 200

Lamarck, de, 161, 175

_Laminaria_, 140, 141, 194, 202

Lamouroux, J., 161

Lapworth, C., 37, 147

Laurentian rocks, 36

Lavas, Tertiary, 58

Leasowe, 58, 59

Leckenby, J., 233, 234

Lehmann, 336

Leithakalk, 169, 187

_Leocarpus_, 206

_Lepidodendron_, 10, 57, 72, 75, 81, 82, 89, 101, 107, 216, 217, 218, 237

_L. Veltheimianum_, 101

_Lepidostrobus_, 3

_Leptothrix_, 126

Lesquereux, L., 6, 210, 240

_Lessonia_, 140, 141, 191, 193, 202

Lettenkohle, 48, 268

Lhwyd, E., 4, 112, 341

Lias, 48, 49, 61, 120, 154, 229, 240, 278

Limestone, 25

_Limulus_, 145

Lindley, T., 99, 105

Lindley, T. and Hutton, W., 10, 267, 276, 298, 330, 332, 343, 366, 369, 371, 375

Linnaeus, 113, 225

_Lithophyllum_, 183–187

_Lithothamnion_, 183–189

_L. crassum_, 185

_L. fasciculatum_, 185

_L. mamillosum_, 155, 188

_L. suganum_, 186, 188

_Lithoxylon_, 112, 386

Llandeilo flags, 37

London clay, 153

Lough Neagh, 80

Ludlow rocks, 38, 203

Ludwig, R., 212, 241

Lulworth Cove, 56

_Lunularia_, 231

Lycopodiaceae, 390, 412, 413

_Lycopodites_, 232, 237

_L. Meeki_, 240

_Lycopodium phlegmaria_, 237

Lyell, Sir C., 52, 60, 64, 65, 74, 227, 324

_Lyginodendron_, 19, 20, 88, 103, 221

Lyme Regis, 61

McClelland, 412

McCoy, F., 284, 288

McMurtrie, J., 335

_Macrocystis_, 191, 194

_Macrostachya_, 350, 360, 362, 363, 364, 371, 381

Magnesian limestone, 46

Mahr, 410

Mantell, G., 62, 145

Marattiaceae, 98

_Marchantia_, 230–235

_M. oolithus_, 232

Marchantiales, 233–236

_Marchantites_, 233–236

_M. erectus_, 233

_M. Sezannensis_, 235

_M. Zeilleri_, 234

Marcou, J., 46

Marsh, O. C., 79

_Marsilia_, 342, 390

Martin, W., 297

Massalongo, E. G., 6

_Medusa_, 144

Meek, F. B., 235

_Melobesia_, 184

Melobesieae, 184

_Memecylon_, 214

Meschinelli, 210

Mesomycetes, 208, 211

Metamorphism, 30

Michelin, H., 163, 167

_Micrococci_, 138

_Micrococcus_, 135, 136

_M. Guignardi_, 136

_M. Zeilleri_, 134

Migula, W., 222

Millstone grit, 40, 42, 43, 376

Miocene rocks, 52, 187, 241

Mississippi, rafts, 64, 65

Mniaceae, 239

Möbius, K. A., 166, 167

Monocotyledons, 99, 240, 273, 291, 366

Mougeot, A., 300

Mountain limestone, 40, 43

_Mucor_, 213, 221

_M. combrensis_, 213

Mull, leaf-beds in, 58

Munier-Chalmas, E., 161, 163, 167, 168, 171, 172, 176

Murchison, Sir R., 37, 38, 42

Murray, G., 119–121, 125, 158, 159, 170, 204, 240

Murray, J., 118, 120

Murray, Dr, 87

Muschelkalk series, 47

Musci, 236–241

_Muscites_, 238, 239, 241

_M. ferrugineus_, 241

_M. polytrichaceus_, 239

Mycelium, 207

Mycomycetes, 208, 211

_Myeloxylon_, 19, 86

_Myriophylloides Williamsonis_, 342

_Myriophyllum_, 344

Myxomycetes, 205, 206, 220

_M. Mangini_, 205, 206

_Najadita_, 240

Nansen, 151

Nathorst, A. G., 60, 77, 78, 144, 145, 148, 232, 366

_Navicula_, 153

_Nematophycus_, 192–204

_N. crassus_, 198, 201, 202

_N. Dechianus_, 201

_N. Hicksi_, 199, 201

_N. laxus_, 201

_N. Logani_, 194–197, 199, 201, 202

_N. Ortoni_, 200, 201

_N. Storriei_, 193, 198–201

_N. tenuis_, 201

_Nesea_, 161

Neumayr, M., 49

Neu Paka, 369

_Neuropteris Scheuchzeri_, 45

New South Wales, 179, 181, 182, 288

Newberry, J. S., 146

Nicholson, H. A., 338

Nicholson, H. A. and Etheridge, J., 123, 124, 190

Nicol, W., 8

_Nipa fruticans_, 63

Nitelleæ, 222, 223, 225

Nodules, calcareous, 85, 86, 108

Nomenclature, 110–115

_Nostoc_, 123, 132

Nostocaceae, 122, 123

Nuclei, fossil, 87, 88, 331

Nullipores, 171, 184, 185

_Odontocaulis Keepingi_, 147

Old Red Sandstone, 39, 204

_Oldhamia_, 146

_O. antiqua_, 145

_O. radiata_, 145, 146

_Olenellus_, 37

Oligocene, 52, 188, 209, 211, 234

_Olpidium_, 216

_Oncylogonatum carbonarium_, 269

_Onychiopsis Mantelli_, 112

_Onychium_, 112

_Oochytrium Lepidodendri_, 216, 217

Oolite, 49, 72, 269, 271, 276, 286

Oolitic structure, 123–126

_Ophioglossum_, 390

d’Orbigny, A. D., 175

Ordovician, 37, 38, 189, 338

Oscillariaceae, 122

_Osmunda_, 87

_Osmundites Dowkeri_, 212

_Ostracoblabe_, 129

_O. implexa_, 129

_Ovulites_, 161–164, 173

_O. elongata_, 163

_O. margaritula_, 162, 163, 174

Oxford clay, 49

_Pachytheca_, 202–204

_Palaeachyla_, 127, 129

_Palaeomyces_, 221

_P. gracilis_, 218

_Palaeoperone endophytica_, 215

_Palaeostachya_, 350, 357–360, 362, 364, 371, 381

_P. arborescens_, 363, 364

_P. pedunculata_, 357, 358, 362, 363

_P. vera_, 358, 359, 362

_Paleohepatica Rostafinski_, 234

_Pandanus_, 99

_Paracalamostachys_, 361

Paris basin, 161, 167, 171, 176

Parkinson, J., 1, 78

Parsons, J., 4

Peat, 26, 75, 228, 236

_Pellia_, 230, 231

Penarth, 48

Penhallow, D. P., 193, 194, 197, 201, 202, 210

_Penicillus_, 159, 161, 163, 164, 202

_P. pyramidalis_, 162

Peridiniaceae, 117

Peridiniales, 117, 118

_Peridinium_, 117, 118

_P. divergens_, 118

_P. pyrophorum_, 118

Permian system, 45, 47, 130, 182, 209, 256, 282, 283, 298, 300, 391, 408, 413

Permo-Carboniferous, 46, 213, 222, 256, 284, 289, 292, 293

_Peronosporites_, 218

_P. antiquarius_, 214, 217, 219

Petrifaction, 79–90, 92

Petrified wood, 79–90

Petrifying springs, 68

Pettycur, 88, 390, 397

Petzholdt, A., 298, 299

Phaeophyceae, 150, 191–202

Philippi, R. A., 185

Phillips, J., 275, 276

Phloeoterma, 254

_Phycodes_, 149

Phycomycetes, 218

_Phycopsis_, 192

_Phyllotheca_, 254–256, 276, 277, 281–289, 292, 293, 337

_P. australis_, 284, 287–289

_P. Brongniarti_, 286, 287

_P. carnosa_, 291

_P. deliquescens_, 283

_P. indica_, 284, 287–289

_P. Rallii_, 283

_P. sibirica_, 290

_Phymatoderma_, 120, 146, 154

_Phytolithus_, 297, 335, 373

_P. sulcatus_, 374

_Pila_, 180–182

_P. bibractensis_, 181

_P. scotica_, 181

_Pinnularia_, 344, 381

Pith-casts, of _Calamites_, 365–380

_Plagiochila_, 232

Plankton, 117, 118, 152

Plauenscher Grund, 298

Pleurococcaceae, 181

Pliocene rocks, 52, 53

Plot, R., 4

_Poacites_, 366

_Podocarpus cupressina_, 231, 232

Podostemaceae, 231

Pollen-grains, 182

_Polydonia frondosa_, 144

Polygonaceæ, 96

_Polygonum equisetiforme_, 96, 97

_Polyporus_, 208, 211, 212

_P. vaporarius_, 217, 221

_Polytrichum_, 236, 239

_Polytrypa_, 172

_Polyzoa_, 142, 231

Portland, Dirt-beds, 49, 56, 57

_Pothocites_, 385

_P. Grantoni_, 386

Potonié, R., 209, 259, 286, 337, 403

Precambrian rocks, 36

Presl, R., 5

Priority, rule of, 113

_Protannularia_, 338

Proteaceæ, 98

Protonema, 230

_Prototaxites_, 192, 193

_Psilotum_, 412

Pteridophyta, 242–414

Pteropods, 156

_Puccinia_, 213

Purbeck, 49, 56, 57, 227

_Pyrula_, 158

_Pyxidicula_, 154

Quekett, J., 127

_Rachiopteris_, 86

Radiolaria, 42, 118

Radstock, 335, 375

_Reboulia_, 231

Reefs, 184, 185

Reid, Clement, 60

Reinsch, 106

_Reinschia_, 180–182

Renault, B., 108, 130, 134, 136, 138, 178, 206, 213, 216, 217, 218, 221, 222, 309, 320, 328, 339, 340, 342, 348, 349, 362–364, 369, 375, 384, 390, 392, 399, 406

Renault, B. and Bertrand, C. E., 135, 137, 178, 180, 181

Renault, B. and Zeiller, R., 240, 266, 371

_Restio tetraphylla_, 95

Reuss, A. E., 169

Rhabdoliths, 120

Rhabdospheres, 118, 121

_Rhacophyllum_, 142

Rhaetic series, 48, 155, 278, 279

_Rhizodendron oppoliense_, 84

_Rhizogonium_, 239

Rhodophyceae, 127, 183, 190

_Richea dracophylla_, 99

Richmond, Virginia, 152

Rill-marks, 144

_Rivularia_, 126

Rivulariaceae, 129

Rock-building, 23

Rodway, J., 64

Roots, _Calamites_, 342–349

Rosanoff, 187

Rose, C. B., 127, 128

_Rosellinia congregata_, 209

_Rosellinites_, 209

_R. Beyschlagii_, 209

Rosenvinge, L. K., 187

Ross, Sir J., 139

Rothliegendes strata, 46

Rothpletz, A., 120, 147, 148, 154, 160, 175, 177, 192, 387

_Rotularia_, 390

_R. marsileaefolia_, 407

Rotuma Island, 184

Royle, J. F., 411

_Rubeola mineralis_, 341

Rufford, P., 114, 280

Rules for nomenclature, 111–115

Russia, 282

_Saccamina_, 151

Saccardo, P. A., 210

St. Étienne, 137, 390, 399

Salt Lake, 122, 123

_Salvinia_, 355, 390

Sandberger, F., 173

Sanderson, 8

Sandstone, 24

Saporta, Marquis de, 6, 106, 114, 176, 234, 235

_Saprolegnia_, 215

Sardinia, 177

_Sargassum_, 191

Saxony, 79

Scale-insects, 210

Schenk, A., 9, 279

Scheuchzer, J. T., 4, 296, 338, 389

Schimper, W. P., 9, 269, 271, 276, 322, 351, 362, 386, 411

Schimper and Mougeot, 291, 293

Schizomycetes, 121, 132–138

_Schizoneura_, 254–256, 276, 284, 285, 291–294

_S. gondwanensis_, 292, 293

_S. paradoxa_, 292, 293

Schizophyceae, 121–132

Schizophyta, 121–138

_Schizopteris dichotoma_, 232

_S. trichomanoides_, 232

_Schizothrix_, 125

Schlotheim, E. F. von, 5, 297, 332, 389

Schlüter, C., 176

Schmalhausen, J., 282, 283, 286, 289, 290

Schoenlein, J. L. and Schenk, A., 269

Schröter, J., 206

Schulze, C. F., 296

Schulze, F., 87

Schütt, F., 118, 119, 121, 154

Schweinfurth, G., 92

Schwendener, S., 414

Sclerotia, 207

_Sclerotites Salisburiae_, 210

Scott, D. H., 301, 390, 405, 412, 413

Sea sawdust, 122

Secondary thickening, 300

Sections, geological, 27–29

Sedgwick, A., 36, 37, 42

Seeds, fossil, 91

_Selaginella_, 231, 232, 237, 355

_S. Oregana_, 231, 232, 240

_S. rupestris_, 232

_Selaginellites_, 232, 236

_Sequoia_, 16

Sézanne, 70, 235

Shales, 24

Sharpe, S., 69, 227

Shell-boring organisms, 183

Shells, 24

Sheppey fruits, 4

Shrubsole, W. H. and Kitton, F., 153

Siberia, 290

_Sigillaria_, 3, 6, 10, 75, 108

Silurian system, 38, 171, 173, 176, 204

Siphoneae, 125, 156, 157–177, 193

_Siphonema_, 160

Skiddaw slate, 338

Skye, Island of, 151

_Smilax_, 99

Smith, William, 43, 48

Smith, Worthington, 217, 218

Solenhofen plants, 78

_Solenopora_, 189, 190

_S. compacta_, 189

Sollas, W. J., 146

Solms-Laubach, Graf zu, 77, 92, 149, 166–168, 175, 177, 187, 193, 194, 200, 204, 277, 282, 286, 360, 362, 399, 405

Solomon Islands, 65

Sorby, H. C., 120

Spencer, J., 342

_Sphaeriaceae_, 209, 220

_Sphaerites_, 209

_Sphaerocodium_, 160

_S. Bornemanni_, 160, 186

_Sphaerospermum_, 87

Sphagnales, 236

_Sphagnum_, 236, 241

_Sphenophyllales_, 389–414

_Sphenophyllites_, 390

_S. emarginatus_, 407

_Sphenophyllostachys_, 400, 402

_S. Dawsoni_, 402, 403, 405

_S. Römeri_, 405, 413

_Sphenophyllum_, 100, 350, 387–414

_S. antiquum_, 413

_S. cuneifolium_, 401, 402, 405, 408, 413

_S. emarginatum_, 391, 407, 408

_S. furcatum_, 386

_S. insigne_, 394, 396, 397, 400, 413

_S. myriophyllum_, 409

_S. oblongifolium_, 413

_S. osnabrugense_, 407

_S. plurifoliatum_, 394, 396–398, 400

_S. speciosum_, 411

_S. tenerrimum_, 409, 413

_S. Thoni_, 391, 410, 413

_S. trichomatosum_, 398, 408, 409

_S. truncatum_, 407

_Sphenopteris_, 77, 112

_S. Mantelli_, 112

_Sphenothallus angustifolia_, 148

_Spiridens_, 237

_S. longifolius_, 237

_Spirophyton_, 144

Sprengel, A., 7

Sprudelstein, 123

_Stachannularia_, 340, 361

Starch-grains, in fossil cells, 213

Stefani, K. de, 155, 156

Steinhauer, H., 5, 297, 373

_Stenopora crinita_, 215

Stenzel, G., 9, 298

_Stephanopyxis_, 154

Sternberg, Graf C. von, 5, 104, 257, 297, 332, 336, 363, 371, 389

_Sternbergia_, 104

Sterzel, J. T., 341, 378, 408

_Stigmaria_ and Stigmarian appendages, 3, 10, 57, 71, 72, 73, 106, 111, 123, 218, 305, 311, 348, 404

_Stigmatocanna Volkmanniana_, 386

Stokes, C., 80

Stolley, E., 172

Stoneworts, 222–228

Storrie, J., 198, 203, 204

Strata, table of, 31, 32, 33

Stratigraphical Geology, 26

Strickland, H. E., 111, 203

_Stromatopora compacta_, 189

Stur, D., 310, 343, 369, 370, 375, 376, 378, 384, 385, 386, 387, 409

_Stylocalamites_, 367, 374–376

Submerged forests, 59, 60

Suckow, G. A., 296, 297, 302

Surface-soils, 55–60

Swanage, 227

_Sycidium_, 173

_S. melo_, 155, 173

_Synedra_, 153

Tchikatcheff, P. de, 283

_Teleutospora Milloti_, 213

Tenison-Woods, J. E., 279, 291

Teredo, 61, 62

Tertiary Period, 51–53

Thallophyta, 116–228

Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., 87

Thomas, K., 71

van Tieghem, 136

_Tmesipteris_, 390

Torbanehill, 179, 182

Torbanite, 178, 179

Toula paper-coal, 68, 133

_Trametes radiciperda_, 215

Transition series, 40, 44, 413

Travertine, 69, 70, 234, 235

Treub, M., 131

Triassic system, 47, 48, 77, 78, 80, 146, 155, 160, 171, 174, 175, 256, 267, 268, 292–294

_Trichomanes Goebelianum_, 242

_Trigonocarpon_, 91

_Triploporella_, 177

_Tristichia hypnoides_, 231, 232

_Trizygia_, 411, 412

_T. speciosa_, 411

Tuedian series, 43

Tulip tree, 16

Turner, D., 191

_Tylodendron_, 104

_Udotea_, 171, 185, 202

Unconformity, 27

Underclay, 43

Unger, F., 187, 298, 299, 301

_Uteria_, 177

Vaillant, S., 225

Vascular Cryptogams, 242–414

_Vaucheria_, 157, 178

Venation, 99

_Vermiporella_, 172, 176

_Vexillum_, 149

Vinci, Leonardo da, 2

Vogelsang, H., 137

Volcanic rocks, 34, 51, 88, 89, 90

Volkmann, G. A., 296

_Volkmannia_, 350, 360, 361, 362

_V. Binneyi_, 351

_V. Dawsoni_, 401

_V. Ludwigi_, 351

Wallace, A. R., 245

Ward, L., 1

Wealden, 50, 55, 112, 114, 234, 257, 279, 280

Weed, W. H., 126

Weiss, C. E., 290, 343, 344, 351, 357, 358, 360–364, 367, 369, 370, 371, 375, 377, 388, 401, 408

Wenlock series, 38, 124, 200, 203

Wethered, E., 124

Willdenow, K. L., 231

Wille, N., 170

Williamson, W. C., 9, 10, 71, 94, 100, 103, 132, 154, 218, 220, 231, 273, 276, 301, 304, 315, 322, 324–326, 342, 346, 355, 358, 390, 392, 397, 401, 403

Williamson, W. C. and Scott, D. H., 88, 307, 312, 319, 320, 342, 346, 349, 355, 358, 390, 392, 396, 397, 405, 406

Witham, H., 7, 8

_Withamia_, 115

Wood-boring insects, 107

Woodward, J., 3, 10, 34, 71, 296

_Woronina_, 216

Wünsch, 89

Yellowstone Park, 79, 92, 126, 150

Yoredale rocks, 40, 43

Yorkshire coast, 55

Young, G. and Bird, J., 269

Zechstein series, 46

Zeiller, R., 76, 100, 133, 146, 232, 261, 264, 265, 282, 283, 289, 367, 375, 378, 390, 401, 403, 405, 406, 408, 409, 410, 411

Zigno, A. de, 6, 271, 276, 287

_Zonatrichia calcivora_, 130

_Zonatrichites_, 129, 130

_Zygosporites_, 214, 220, 221

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Ward (84).

[2] Göppert (36).

[3] Parkinson (11), vol. I.

[4] For an account of the early views on fossils, _v._ Lyell (67), Vol. I. _Vide_ also Leonardo da Vinci (83).

[5] Woodward, J. (1695), Preface.

[6] Woodward, J. (1728), p. 59.

[7] Mendes da Costa (1758), p. 232.

[8] Scheuchzer (1723), p. 7, Pl. I. fig. 1.

[9] Parsons (1757), p. 402.

[10] Plot (1705), p. 125, Pl. VI. fig. 2.

[11] _Ibid._ Pl. VI. fig. 2.

[12] Lhwyd (1760).

[13] Artis (25).

[14] Steinhauer (18).

[15] Schlotheim (04).

[16] Sternberg (20).

[17] Brongniart (28) (28²) (49).

[18] Brongniart (39).

[19] Heer (55) (68) (76).

[20] Lesquereux (66) (70) (80) etc.

[21] Zigno (56).

[22] Massalongo (51).

[23] Saporta (72) (73).

[24] Ettingshausen (79). Also numerous papers on fossil plants from Austria and other countries.

[25] Sprengel (28).

[26] Witham (33).

[27] _ibid._, p. 3.

[28] Witham (33), p. 5.

[29] Nicol (34). See note by Prof. Jameson on p. 157 of the paper quoted, to the effect that he has long known of this method of preparing sections.

[30] Limpricht (90) in Rabenhorst, vol. IV. p. 73.

[31] Knowlton (89).

[32] Corda (45).

[33] Binney (68), Introductory remarks.

[34] Williamson (71), etc.

[35] Solms-Laubach (95), p. 442.

[36] Lindley and Hutton (31).

[37] Woodward (1729), Pt. ii. p. 106.

[38] Humboldt (48), vol. I. p. 274.

[39] _Vide_ Hooker, J. D. (81), for references to other writers on this subject; also Darwin (82), ch. XII.

[40] Darwin (87), vol. III. p. 247.

[41] Brongniart (49), p. 94.

[42] Grand’Eury (77), Potonié (96), Kidston (94), &c.

[43] Ward (92), Knowlton (94), Grand’Eury (90), p. 155.

[44] Old Persian writer, quoted by E. G. Browne in _A Year among the Persians_, p. 220, London, 1893.

[45] W. R. W. Stephens, _Life of Freeman_, p. 132, London, 1895.

[46] Rothpletz (94).

[47] Heim (78).

[48] Geikie (93), p. 706.

[49] Hughes (79), p. 248.

[50] Whitney and Wadsworth (84).

[51] Murchison (72), p. 5.

[52] Kayser and Lake (95), p. 88.

[53] Kidston (94).

[54] Geikie (93), p. 825.

[55] Woodward, H. B. (87), p. 197.

[56] Hinde and Fox (95), p. 662.

[57] Kidston (94).

[58] _Vide_ Zeiller (92) for a list of species of Coal-Measure plants found in the pieces of shale included in the core brought up by the borer.

[59] Jukes-Browne (86), p. 252.

[60] Kayser and Lake (95), p. 196.

[61] Neumayr (83).

[62] Woodward, H. B. (87), p. 255.

[63] Kayser and Lake (95), p. 326.

[64] Huxley (93), p. 27.

[65] Discussed at greater length in vol. II.

[66] Woodward, H. B. (95), Figs. 124 and 133 from photographs by Mr Strahan.

[67] Buckland (37) Pl. LVII.

[68] Young, Glen, and Kidston (88).

[69] Gardner (87), p. 279.

[70] Treub (88).

[71] Morton (91), p. 228.

[72] Lyell (45), vol. I. p. 180.

[73] Mantell (44), vol. I. p. 168.

[74] Forbes, H. O. (85), p. 254.

[75] Hooker, J. D. (91), p. 477.

[76] Hooker, J. D. (91), p. 1. There are several good specimens of the black pyritised nipadite fruits in the British Museum and other collections.

[77] Rodway (95), p. 106.

[78] Bates (63), p. 139.

[79] Bates (63), p. 239.

[80] Lyell (67) vol. II. p. 361.

[81] Lyell (67) vol. I. p. 445.

[82] Darwin (90) p. 443.

[83] Challenger (85), Narrative, vol. I. Pt. ii. p. 679.

[84] Bates (63) p. 389.

[85] Challenger (85), Narrative, vol. I. p. 459.

[86] Zeiller (82) and Renault (95).

[87] Heer (76).

[88] Schimper and Mougeot (44).

[89] Sharpe, S. (68) p. 563.

[90] There are still more perfect casts from Sézanne in Prof. Munier-Chalmas’ Geological collection in the Sorbonne. The best examples have not yet been figured.

[91] Saporta (68).

[92] Darwin (90) p. 432.

[93] For figures of fossil plants in amber, _vide_ Göppert and Berendt (45), Conwentz (90), Conwentz (96) &c.

[94] Thomas (48).

[95] Adamson (88).

[96] Williamson (87) Pl. XV. p. 45. A very fine specimen, similar to that in the Manchester Museum, has recently been added to the School of Mines Museum in Berlin; Potonié (90).

[97] The British Museum collection contains a specimen of _Stigmaria_ preserved in the same manner as the example shown in fig. 12.

[98] Lyell (45) vol. I. p. 60.

[99] Lyell (45) vol. I. p. 147.

[100] Warming (96) p. 170.

[101] Bornemann (56), Schenk (67), Zeiller (82).

[102] Solms-Laubach (95²).

[103] Nathorst (86) p. 9. See also Delgado (86).

[104] Parkinson (11) vol. I. p. 431.

[105] The British Museum collection contains many good examples of the Solenhofen plants.

[106] There is a splendid silicified tree stem from Tasmania of Tertiary age several feet in height in the National Museum.

[107] Darwin (90) p. 317.

[108] Holmes (80) p. 126, fig. 1.

[109] Marsh (71).

[110] Conwentz (78).

[111] A large piece from one of these South African trees is in the Fossil-plant Gallery of the British Museum.

[112] Barton (1751) p. 58.

[113] Gardner (84) p. 314.

[114] Stokes (40) p. 207.

[115] Witham (81), Christison (76).

[116] Cole (94), figs. 1 and 3.

[117] Harker (95) p. 233, fig. 56.

[118] I am indebted to Dr Renault of Paris for showing to me several preparations illustrating this method of petrifaction.

[119] Cash and Hick (78).

[120] Stur (85).

[121] Thiselton-Dyer (72) Pl. VI.

[122] Carruthers (70).

[123] Schultze (55).

[124] I am indebted to Prof. Lebour of the Durham College of Science for the loan of this letter.

[125] Seward (97).

[126] Williamson and Scott (96) Pl. XXIV. fig. 16.

[127] Bryce (72) p. 126, fig. 23.

[128] An erroneous interpretation of the Arran stems is given in Lyell’s _Elements of Geology_: Lyell (78) p. 547.

[129] Guillemard (86) p. 322.

[130] Heer (55).

[131] Göppert (36), etc.

[132] Hirschwald (73).

[133] Kuntze (80) p. 8.

[134] Schweinfurth (82).

[135] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 29.

[136] Göppert (57). Some of the large silicified trees mentioned by Göppert may be seen in the Breslau Botanic gardens.

[137] An example referred to by Carruthers (71) p. 444.

[138] Williamson (71) p. 507.

[139] Dealt with more fully in vol. II.

[140] Bentham (70).

[141] See also Bunbury (83) p. 309.

[142] Seward (96) p. 208.

[143] Darwin (90) p. 416.

[144] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 9.

[145] Balfour (72) p. 5.

[146] Grand’Eury (77) Pt. i., p. 3.

[147] 1 Renault and Zeiller (88) Pl. LX. fig. 1.

[148] Williamson (73) p. 393, Pl. XXVII. Described in detail in vol. II. See also Solms-Laubach (91) p. 7, fig. 1.

[149] A good example is figured by Newberry (88) Pl. XXV. as a decorticated coniferous stem of Triassic age.

[150] Potonié (87).

[151] Lindley and Hutton (31) vol. III. p. 4. See also Schenk (88) p. 202.

[152] Saporta (79) (77). _Eopteris_ is included among the ferns in Schimper and Schenk’s volume of Zittel’s _Handbuch der Palaeontologie_ (p. 115), and in some other modern works.

[153] Reinsch (81).

[154] Williamson has drawn attention to the occurrence of such borings and coprolites in Coal-Measure plant tissues. _E.g._ Williamson (80) Pl. 20, figs. 65 and 66.

[155] Renault (96) p. 437.

[156] Slide No. 1923 in the Williamson collection.

[157] Crépin (81).

[158] Rules for Zoological Nomenclature, drawn up by the late H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S., London, 1878.

[159] Lhwyd (1699).

[160] Knowlton (96) p. 82.

[161] Thiselton-Dyer (95) p. 846.

[162] Saporta (75) p. 193.

[163] Seward (95) p. 173.

[164] Ward (96) p. 874.

[165] Challenger (85) p. 934.

[166] Ehrenberg (36) p. 117, Pl. I. figs. 1 and 4, and Ehrenberg (54) Pl. XXXVII. fig. vii.

[167] Schütt (96) p. 22.

[168] Bütschli (83–87) p. 1028.

[169] Challenger Reports (85) p. 939.

[170] Challenger Reports (91) p. 257.

[171] Hensen (92), Schütt (93) p. 44.

[172] Murray, G., and Blackman, V. H. (97).

[173] Dixon and Joly (97).

[174] Sorby (79) p. 78.

[175] Rothpletz (96), p. 909, Pl. XXIII. fig. 4.

[176] Challenger (85) _passim_. Schütt (93).

[177] Phillips W. (93).

[178] Kippis (78) p. 115.

[179] Darwin (90) p. 13.

[180] Rothpletz (92).

[181] Walther (88).

[182] Cohn (62).

[183] Murray, G. (95²).

[184] Thiselton-Dyer (91) p. 226.

[185] Nicholson and Etheridge (80) p. 28, Pl. IX. fig. 24.

[186] Wethered (93) p. 237.

[187] For figures of the sheaths of Cyanophyceous algae, see Murray (95²), Pl. XIX. fig. 5. Gomont (88) and (92); _etc._

[188] Brown (94) p. 203.

[189] For references to the papers of Wethered and others, see Seward (94), p. 24.

[190] E. G. Bornemann (87), Pl. II.

[191] Moseley, H. N. (75), p. 321.

[192] Weed (87–88), _vide_ also Tilden (97).

[193] Bornet and Flahault (89²) Pl. XI.

[194] Batters (92).

[195] Quekett (54), fig. 78.

[196] Kölliker (59) and (59²); good figures in the latter paper.

[197] Rose (55), Pl. I.

[198] For other references _vide_ Bornet and Flahault (89²).

[199] Duncan (76) and (76²).

[200] Similar borings are figured by Kölliker (59²), Pl. XVI. 14, in a scale of _Beryx ornatus_ from the Chalk.

[201] Bornet and Flahault (89²).

[202] E. G. Wedl (59). Good figures are given in this paper.

[203] Bornemann (86), p. 126, Pls. V. and VI.

[204] Renault (96¹) p. 446.

[205] Treub (88).

[206] Williamson (88).

[207] Heer (55) vol. I. p. 21, Pl. IV. fig. 2.

[208] de Bary (87) p. 9. A good account of the Schizomycetes has lately been written by Migula in Engler and Prantl’s _Pflanzenfamilien_, Leipzig, 1896.

[209] 1 µ = 0·001 millimetres.

[210] James (98²), translation of a paper by M. Ferry in the _Revue Mycologique_, 1893.

[211] Zeiller (82).

[212] Renault (95¹), (96¹) p. 478, (96²) p. 106. (Several figures of the cuticles are given in these publications.)

[213] Renault (96¹) p. 492.

[214] Renault (95²), (96¹), (96²).

[215] Renault and Bertrand (94). See also Renault (95²) p. 3, (96¹) p. 449, Pl. LXXXIX. (96²) p. 94, and (96³) p. 280, fig. 3.

[216] Renault (95²) p. 17, fig. 9, (96¹) p. 460, fig. 102, and (96³) p. 292, fig. 10.

[217] Renault (96³) p. 297, fig. 14.

[218] Van Tieghem (77).

[219] Van Tieghem (79).

[220] Vogelsang (74). _Vide_ also Rutley (92).

[221] I am indebted to Prof. Kanthack for calling my attention to an interesting account of Bacilli in small stones found in gall-bladders; a manner of occurrence comparable to that of the fossil forms in petrified tissues. _Vide_ Naunyn (96) p. 51.

[222] Renault (96³) p. 277.

[223] Hooker, J. D. (44) p. 457. Pls. CLXVII. CLXVIII. and CLXXI. D.

[224] An American writer has recently discussed the literature and history of _Fucoides_; he gives a list of 85 species. It is very doubtful if such work as this is worth the labour. (James [93].)

[225] Wille (97) p. 136, also Murray, G. (95) p. 121.

[226] Linnarsson (69) Pl. XI. fig. 3. There are many good specimens of this fossil in the Geological Survey Museum, Stockholm.

[227] Nathorst (81²), and (96).

[228] Nathorst (81) p. 14.

[229] Mantell (33) p. 166. _Vide_ also Morris (54) p. 6.

[230] Bateson (88).

[231] Nathorst (81), (86) &c. Dawson (88) p. 26 _et seq._ Dawson (90) Delgado (86) Williamson (85) Hughes (84) Zeiller (84) Saporta (81) (82) (84) (86) Fuchs (95) Rothpletz (96).

[232] Kinahan (58).

[233] Sollas (86).

[234] Barrois (88). References to other records of this genus may be found in Barrois’ paper.

[235] Zeiller (84). _Phymatoderma_ is probably a horny sponge (_vide_ p. 154).

[236] Newberry (88) p. 82, Pl. XXI. There are some large specimens of this supposed alga in the National Museum, Washington; they are undoubtedly of the nature of rill-marks.

[237] _Vide_ Williamson (85).

[238] Dawson (90) p. 615.

[239] Salter (78) p. 99.

[240] Lapworth (81) p. 176, Pl. VII. fig. 7.

[241] Rothpletz (96).

[242] A term applied to a certain facies of Eocene and Oligocene rocks in Central Europe.

[243] Hall (47) Pl. LXVIII. 1 and 2, p. 261.

[244] Nathorst (83) p. 453.

[245] Seward (94²) p. 4.

[246] Kidston (83) Pl. XXXII. fig. 2. Specimens of this form may be seen in the British Museum collection.

[247] _Cf._ Matthew, G. F. (89). Hall called attention in 1852 to the prevalent habit of describing ‘algae’ from the older strata, without any evidence for a vegetable origin. (Hall [52] p. 18.)

[248] Credner (87) p. 431.

[249] Saporta (84) p. 45, Pl. VII.

[250] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 51.

[251] A monograph on the Diatomaceae has recently been written by Schütt for Engler and Prantl’s systematic work. See also Murray, G. (97) and Pfitzer (71).

[252] Darwin (90) p. 5.

[253] Weed (87).

[254] Wilson (87).

[255] Ehrenberg (54).

[256] Noll (95) p. 248.

[257] Hooker, J. D. (44) vol. I. p. 503.

[258] Murray, J. and Renard (91) p. 208.

[259] Nansen, Daily Chronicle, Nov. 2, 1896.

[260] Schütt (93) p. 10.

[261] Ehrenberg (36) p. 77.

[262] Cayeux (92), (97).

[263] Shrubsole and Kitton (81).

[264] I am indebted to Mr Murton Holmes for specimens of these London Clay Diatoms.

[265] Rothpletz (96) p. 910, fig. 3, Pl. XXIII. fig. 203.

[266] Schütt (96) p. 62.

[267] Castracane (76).

[268] Heer (76) p. 66, Pl. XXIII. and (53) p. 117, Pl. VI.

[269] Stefani (82) p. 103.

[270] The Chlorophyceae have recently been exhaustively dealt with by Wille (97) in Engler and Prantl’s _Pflanzenfamilien_.

[271] _Vide_ p. 142.

[272] Murray G. (95) p. 123.

[273] Göppert (60) p. 439. Pl. XXXIV. fig. 8.

[274] Zeiller (84).

[275] Murray G. (92) p. 11; also (95) p. 127.

[276] Damon (88) Pl. XIX. fig. 12.

[277] _Vide_ also Rothpletz (96) p. 894.

[278] Ellis (1755) Pl. XXXIII. α p. 86.

[279] Fuchs (96) Pl. VIII. fig. 3.

[280] Murray G. (95) Pl. III. figs. 1 and 2.

[281] Rothpletz (90), and (91) Pls. XV. and XVI.

[282] Bornemann (87) p. 17, Pl. II. pp. 1–4.

[283] Lamouroux (21) Pl. XXV. fig. 5, p. 23.

[284] Munier-Chalmas (79).

[285] For references to genera of calcareous algae previously referred to Foraminifera, _vide_ Sherborn (93).

[286] Lamarck (16) p. 193.

[287] Defrance (26) Pl. XLVIII. fig. 2, and Pl. L. fig. 6.

[288] Carpenter (62) p. 179, Pl. XII. figs. 9 and 10.

[289] Michelin (40–47) Pl. XLVI. fig. 24.

[290] Munier-Chalmas (79).

[291] Lamouroux (21) Pl. XXV. fig. 6, p. 23.

[292] Harvey (58) Vol. I. Pl. XXII. fig. 3.

[293] Fuchs (94).

[294] Lamouroux gives a figure of _Acetabularia_, and includes this genus with several other algae in the animal kingdom (Lamouroux [21] p. 19), Pl. LXIX.).

[295] Solms-Laubach (95³).

[296] D’Archiac (43) p. 386, Pl. XXV. fig. 8.

[297] Solms-Laubach _loc. cit._ p. 33, Pl. III.

[298] D’Archiac (43) p. 386, Pl. XXV. fig. 8.

[299] Michelin (40) p. 176, Pl. XLVI. fig. 14.

[300] Carpenter (62) p. 137, Pl. XI. figs. 27–82.

[301] Solms-Laubach _loc. cit._ p. 32.

[302] _Ibid._ p. 34, Pl. III. fig. 13.

[303] Andrussow (87).

[304] Solms-Laubach (95³) p. 11.

[305] Carpenter (62) Pl. XI. fig. 32.

[306] Reuss (61) p. 8, figs. 5–8.

[307] Ellis (1755) Pl. XXV. C.

[308] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 38 gives a detailed description with two figures of a recent species of _Cymopolia_.

[309] Murray G. (95).

[310] Wille (97).

[311] Munier-Chalmas (77).

[312] Cramer (87) (90).

[313] Solms-Laubach (91) (93) (95³).

[314] Church (95).

[315] Gümbel (71).

[316] Benecke (76).

[317] Defrance (26) p. 453.

[318] Munier-Chalmas (77) p. 815.

[319] Munier-Chalmas _ibid._

[320] Defrance (26) Pl. XLVIII. fig. 1.

[321] Stolley (93).

[322] Deecke (83).

[323] Benecke (76) Pl. XXIII.

[324] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 42.

[325] Rothpletz (94) p. 24.

[326] Lamarck (16) p. 188.

[327] Carpenter (62) Pl. X.

[328] Gümbel (71). _Vide_ also Solms-Laubach (91) p. 39.

[329] Stolley (93).

[330] Schlüter (79).

[331] Saporta (91) Pl. XXXII. &c.

[332] Solms-Laubach (93), Pl. IX. figs. 1, 8.

[333] Cramer (90).

[334] Rothpletz (92²) p. 235.

[335] Steinmann (80).

[336] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 40. fig. 3. _Vide_ also Deecke (83) Pl. I. fig. 12.

[337] Brongniart (28) p. 211.

[338] Bornemann (91) p. 485. Pls. 42 and 43.

[339] Seward (95²) p. 367.

[340] Report of the Trial (62).

[341] Bertrand and Renault (92) p. 29.

[342] Bertrand (93), Bertrand and Renault (92) (94), Bertrand (96), Renault (96). Additional references may be found in these memoirs.

[343] Batters (92). _Vide_ also Schmitz (97) p. 315.

[344] Hauck (85) in Rabenhorst’s _Kryptogamen Flora_, vol. II.

[345] Kent (93) p. 140.

[346] Agassiz (88) vol. I. p. 82.

[347] Walther (85).

[348] _Ibid._ (88) p. 478.

[349] Philippi (37) p. 387.

[350] Rosanoff(66) Pl. VI. fig. 10.

[351] Rothpletz (91) Pl. XVII. fig. 4.

[352] Früh (90) fig. 12.

[353] Kjellman (83).

[354] Holmes and Batters (90) p. 102.

[355] Hauck (85). Rosanoff (66). Rosenvinge (93) p. 779. Kjellman (83) p. 88. Solms-Laubach (81).

[356] Unger (58).

[357] A microscopic section of the Vienna Leithakalk is figured in Nicholson and Lydekker’s _Manual of Palæontology_ (89) vol. II. p. 1497.

[358] Gümbel (71) Pl. II. fig. 7, p. 41.

[359] Hauck (85) p. 272.

[360] Rothpletz (91) Pl. XVII. fig. 4.

[361] _Vide_ Walther (88) p. 499; also Jukes-Browne and Harrison (91) _passim_. I am indebted to Mr G. F. Franks, who has studied the Barbadian reefs, for the opportunity of examining sections of West-Indian coral-rock.

[362] Brown A. (94).

[363] Brown A. (94) p. 147.

[364] _ibid._ p. 200.

[365] _e.g._ Saporta (82) p. 12.

[366] Turner (11) vol. II. p. 51.

[367] Rothpletz (96).

[368] Penhallow (96) p. 45.

[369] Dawson (59).

[370] _Vide_ ‘Academy’ 1870, p. 16.

[371] Carruthers (72).

[372] Penhallow (89).

[373] Barber (92).

[374] Solms-Laubach (95²).

[375] Penhallow (96).

[376] _loc. cit._ p. 83.

[377] Dawson (59), also (71) p. 17.

[378] Penhallow (89) and (96) p. 46.

[379] Barber (92) p. 336.

[380] Penhallow (89) and (93).

[381] Dawson (81) p. 302.

[382] Barber (92).

[383] Hicks (81) p. 490.

[384] Lake (95) p. 22.

[385] Solms-Laubach (95²).

[386] A similar method of fossilisation has been noted by Rothpletz in the case of the Lower Devonian alga _Hostinella_. [Rothpletz (96) p. 896.]

[387] Penhallow (96) p. 47.

[388] Carruthers (72) p. 162 regards this species as identical with _N. Logani_.

[389] Seward (95³).

[390] Strickland and Hooker (53).

[391] Hicks (81) p. 484.

[392] Dawson (82) p. 104.

[393] Barber (89) and (90).

[394] Murray G. (95³).

[395] Hooker J. D. (89).

[396] _loc. cit._

[397] Solms-Laubach (95²) p. 81.

[398] Seward (94²) p. 4.

[399] An excellent monograph on the Mycetozoa has lately been issued by the Trustees of the British Museum under the authorship of Mr A. Lister (94). _Vide_ also Schröter (89) in Engler and Prantl’s _Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien_.

[400] Renault (96) p. 422, figs. 75 and 76.

[401] Schröter (89) p. 32, fig. 18 B.

[402] Cash and Hick (78²) Pl. VI. fig. 3.

[403] Göppert and Menge (83) Pl. XIII. fig. 106.

[404] Harper (95).

[405] _e.g._ Ludwig (57) Pl. XVI. fig. 1.

[406] Potonié (93) p. 27, Pl. I. fig. 8.

[407] References are given by Potonié to illustrations by Zeiller (92²) Pl. XV. fig. 6, Grand’ Eury (77) Pl. XXXIII. fig. 7, and others in which possible fungi are represented.

[408] Engelhardt (87).

[409] For figures of the Coccineae, see Comstock (88), Maskell (87), Judeich and Nitsche (95) &c.

[410] Massalongo (59) Pl. I. fig. 1, p. 87.

[411] Meschinelli (92).

[412] James, J. F. (93²).

[413] Lesquereux (87).

[414] Herzer (93).

[415] Conwentz (90) Pl. XII. fig. 5.

[416] Feilden, H. W. (96); Seward (96²) p. 62, appendix to Feilden’s paper. I am indebted to Dr Bonney for an opportunity of examining the plant remains from the Feilden collection.

[417] Hartig (78).

[418] Conwentz (80) Pl. V. fig. 17.

[419] Carruthers (70) Pl. XXV. fig. 3.

[420] Renault (96) p. 427, fig. 80, _d_.

[421] _ibid._ p. 427, fig. 80, _a–c_.

[422] p. 127.

[423] Etheridge (92) Pl. VII.

[424] Hartig (78) and (94), Göppert and Menge (83).

[425] Renault (96) p. 425, fig. 78.

[426] Fischer in Rabenhorst, vol. i. (92) p. 144.

[427] Carruthers (76) p. 22, fig. 1.

[428] Smith, W. O. (77) p. 499.

[429] Williamson (81) Pl. XLVIII. p. 301.

[430] Renault (96) p. 439, figs. 88 and 89.

[431] Cash and Hick (78²).

[432] Cash and Hick, Pl. VI. fig. 3.

[433] Felix (94) p. 276, Pl. XIX. fig. 1.

[434] _ibid._ p. 274, Pl. XIX. figs. 5 and 6.

[435] Williamson (78) and (80).

[436] Conwentz (90) p. 119, Pl. XI. pp. 2, 3, Pl. XV. fig. 8.

[437] Migula (90) in Rabenhorst’s _Kryptogamen Flora_, vol. V.

[438] Vaillant (1719) p. 17.

[439] Migula (90) p. 53.

[440] Knowlton (89²).

[441] Meek (73) p. 219.

[442] Saporta (73) p. 214, Pl. IX. figs. 8–11.

[443] Seward (94²) p. 13, fig. 1.

[444] Woodward, H. B. (95) pp, 234, 261, _etc._

[445] Forbes, E. (56) p. 160, Pl. VII.

[446] _Vide_ p. 69, fig. 10.

[447] Lyell (29).

[448] Skertchly (77) p. 60.

[449] Schiffner and Müller in Engler and Prantl (95), Campbell (95), Dixon and Jameson (96) are among the best of modern writers on the Bryophyta.

[450] Hooker, J. D. (91) p. 513.

[451] Schiffner (95) p. 140.

[452] Hooker, W. J. (20) Pl. CLXIII.

[453] Bennett and Brown (38), Pl. V.

[454] Bennett and Brown (38) p. 35.

[455] Nathorst (90) Pl. II. fig. 3.

[456] Lindenberg (39) Pl. IX. fig. 1.

[457] Zeiller (92²) Pl. I. figs. 7 and 8.

[458] Fliche and Bleicher (81).

[459] Brongniart (49) p. 12.

[460] Seward (94²) p. 17.

[461] Leckenby (64) Pl. XI. fig. 3.

[462] Seward _loc. cit._ p. 18, Pl. I. fig. 3.

[463] Raciborski (94) p. 10, Pl. VII. figs. 1–3.

[464] Brongniart (49) p. 12.

[465] Saporta (68) p. 308, Pl. I. figs. 1–8. _Vide_ also Watelet (66) p. 40, Pl. XI. fig. 6.

[466] Göppert and Berendt (45) Pl. VI. and (53).

[467] Gottsche (86).

[468] Schimper (65) Pl. III.

[469] Greville (47) Pl. XII.

[470] Brown, R. (11) Pl. XXIII.

[471] Hooker, W. J. (20) Pl. CLXII.

[472] Limpricht (90) p. 67.

[473] Brongniart (28²) p. 93.

[474] Renault and Zeiller (88) p. 84, Pl. XLI. figs. 2–4.

[475] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 186.

[476] Lesquereux (79) Pl. LXII. fig. 1.

[477] Heer (65) p. 89.

[478] Buckman (50) 1.

[479] Gardner (86) p. 203.

[480] Ludwig (59) p. 165, Pl. LXIII. fig. 9.

[481] Schimper and Schenk (90) p. 75.

[482] _e.g._ the Fern _Trichomanes Goebelianum_ Gies. Giesenhagen (92) p. 157.

[483] Scott (96) a text-book for elementary students; a full account is given of _Equisetum_ and other genera of primary importance. Vines (95) Part iii. Campbell (95), Luerssen (89) in Rabenhorst’s _Kryptogamen-Flora_, vol. III., Van Tieghem (91), de Bary (84), Baker (87).

[484] Wallace (86) p. 117.

[485] Baker (87) p. 4. Hooker, W. J. (61) Pl. LXXIV. _Vide_ also Milde (67) for figures of _Equisetum_.

[486] Seeman (65).

[487] Duval-Jouve (64) Pl. I. fig. 5.

[488] Milde (67) Pl. XIX. fig. 8.

[489] _ibid._ Pl. XXXI. fig. 3.

[490] Cormack (93) p. 71.

[491] Williamson and Scott (94) p. 877. These authors, in referring to Cormack’s description of the secondary nodal wood of _E. maximum_, express doubts as to the existence of such secondary growth in _all_ species of the genus.

[492] Pfitzer (67).

[493] Strasburger (91) p. 443.

[494] Strasburger (91) p. 435.

[495] Bower (94) p. 495.

[496] Sternberg (38) p. 43.

[497] Scott (97). This genus will be described in Volume II.

[498] Potonié (93) Pl. XXV. fig. 1_a_.

[499] _ibid._ p. 179. _Vide_ also Potonié (92).

[500] Zeiller (92²) p. 56, Pl. XII. Other similar leaf-sheaths have been figured by Germar (44) Pl. X., Schimper (74) Pl. XVII. and others.

[501] Grand’Eury (90) p. 223, Pl. XV. fig. 16.

[502] Renault (93) Pl. XLII. figs. 6 and 7.

[503] Kidston (92).

[504] Zeiller (95).

[505] Potonié (93) p. 179, Pl. XXV. figs. 2–4.

[506] Renault and Zeiller (88) p. 396, Pl. LVII. fig. 7.

[507] Lindley and Hutton (31) Pl. CXIV.

[508] Schoenlein and Schenk (65) Pl. V. fig. 1.

[509] Schimper and Mougeot (44) p. 58, Pl. XXIX.

[510] Jäger (27).

[511] Schimper (74) Pls. IX–XI.

[512] Schimper and Koechlin-Schlumberger (62).

[513] Schoenlein and Schenk (65) Pls. I–IV.

[514] Brongniart (28) p. 115, Pl. XIII.

[515] Young and Bird (22) p. 185, Pl. III. fig. 3.

[516] König, in Murchison (29) p. 293, Pl. XXXII.

[517] Murchison (29) p. 368.

[518] Bunbury (51) p. 189.

[519] Schimper (69) p. 267.

[520] Zigno (56) Pl. III. fig. 1, p. 45.

[521] Gardner (86) Pl. IX. fig. 3.

[522] Williamson (83) p. 4.

[523] Williamson and Scott (94) p. 889, Pl. LXXIX. fig. 19.

[524] Phillips J. (29) Pl. X. fig. 13.

[525] Lindley and Hutton (31) Pl. CLXXXVI.

[526] Bunbury (51) p. 189.

[527] Zigno (56) Pl. III. fig. 3, p. 46.

[528] Heer (77) p. 43, Pl. IV.

[529] Schimper (69) p. 284. _Vide_ also Nathorst (80) p. 54.

[530] Andrae (53) Pl. VI. figs. 1–5.

[531] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 180.

[532] _cf._ p. 283.

[533] There is a similar specimen in the Oxford Museum.

[534] Since this was written I have found a specimen of _Equisetites lateralis_ in the Woodwardian Museum, in which a diaphragm like that in fig. 64, C, occurs in the centre of a flattened leaf-sheath similar to that of fig. 64, B.

[535] Buckman (50) p. 414.

[536] Schenk (67).

[537] Tenison-Woods (83), Pl. VI. figs. 5 and 6. Specimen no. V. 3358 in the British Museum.

[538] Dunker (46) p. 2, Pl. V. fig. 7.

[539] Seward (94²) p. 30.

[540] Seward (94²) p. 33.

[541] Heer (55) vol. III. p. 158, Pl. CXLV.

[542] Heer (77) p. 99, Pl. XXII.

[543] _Vide_ Saporta (73) p. 227.

[544] The distribution will be dealt with in Volume II.

[545] Brongniart (28) p. 151.

[546] Schmalhausen (79) p. 12, Pl. I. figs. 1–3.

[547] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 181.

[548] Zeiller (96).

[549] Zeiller (96²).

[550] _ibid._ (96).

[551] Letter, July 30, 1897.

[552] On this character of Annularian leaves, _vide_ p. 337.

[553] Göppert (45) p. 379, Pl. XXV. figs. 1, 2.

[554] Schmalhausen (79) p. 12.

[555] McCoy (47) Pl. XI. fig. 7.

[556] Bunbury (61) Pl. XI. fig. 1.

[557] Seward (97²) p. 324, Pl. XXIV. fig. 1.

[558] Feistmantel (81) Pl. IX. A. fig. 7, &c.

[559] _ibid._ (90) Pl. XIV. fig. 5.

[560] Bunbury (61) Pl. XI. fig. 1.

[561] Solms-Laubach (91) p. 181, fig. 17.

[562] Heer (82) p. 9.

[563] Potonié (96²) p. 115, fig. 3.

[564] Zigno (56) Pl. VII. p. 59.

[565] Bunbury (61).

[566] Feistmantel (81), Pl. XII. A.

[567] Brongniart (28) p. 152.

[568] Bunbury (61).

[569] Grand’Eury (90) p. 221.

[570] Etheridge (95).

[571] Weiss (76) p. 88.

[572] Heer (77) p. 43, Pl. IV. (78) p. 4, Pl. I.

[573] Tenison-Woods (83) Pl. IX. fig. 2.

[574] Brongniart (28) p. 128.

[575] Schimper and Mougeot (44) p. 48, Pls. XXIV–XXVI.

[576] Feistmantel (81) p. 59, Pls. I. A–X. A.

[577] _ante_, p. 284.

[578] Schimper and Mougeot (44) p. 50, Pls. XXIV–XXVI.

[579] Seward (97²).

[580] Scheuchzer (1723), p. 19, Pl. IV. fig. 1.

[581] Volkmann (1720), p. 110, Pl. XIII. fig. 7.

[582] Woodward, J. (1728), Pt. II. p. 10.

[583] Schulze, C. F. (1755), Pl. II. fig. 1.

[584] Suckow (1784), p. 363.

[585] Steinhauer (18), Pls. V. and VI.

[586] Martin (09), Pls. VIII. XXV. and XXVI.

[587] Artie (25).

[588] Brongniart (22), p. 218.

[589] Brongniart (28), p. 34.

[590] Lindley and Hutton (31).

[591] Cotta (50). I am indebted to Prof. Stenzel of Breslau for calling my attention to the fact that Cotta’s work appeared in 1832, but in 1850 the same work was sold with a new title-page bearing this date.

[592] Unger (40).

[593] Petzholdt (41).

[594] Unger (44).

[595] Brongniart (49), p. 49.

[596] E.g. _Isoetes_, _Botrychium_, &c.

[597] Mougeot (52).

[598] Göppert (64), p. 183.

[599] ἄρθρον, joint; πίτυς, Pine-tree.

[600] The original specimens described by Göppert are in the rich palaeobotanical Collection of the Breslau Museum.

[601] Williamson (71³), p. 174.

[602] _vide_ Solms-Laubach (96).

[603] Letter, November 1897.

[604] _Vide_ p. 310.

[605] Hick (94), Pl. IX. fig. 1.

[606] On this point _vide_ Williamson and Scott (94), p. 869.

[607] Williamson and Scott, _loc. cit._ p. 876.

[608] Renault (93), Pl. XLVII. fig. 4.

[609] Stur (87).

[610] The term _primary ray_ may be conveniently restricted to the truly primary interfascicular tissue, and the term _principal ray_ may be used for the outward extension of the primary rays by the cambium [Williamson and Scott (94), p. 878].

[611] Binney (68).

[612] Ettingshausen (55).

[613] The sections of fossil plants described by Binney were presented to the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge, by his son (Mr J. Binney).

[614] _Vide_ footnote, p. 311.

[615] Williamson (83²), Pl. XXXIII. fig. 19.

[616] Williamson (78), p. 323, Pl. XX. figs. 14 and 15.

[617] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 888.

[618] Hartig (94), pp. 149, 297, _etc._

[619] Renault (96), p. 91.

[620] Williamson and Scott, _loc. cit._ p. 893. _Vide_ specimens 133*–135* in the Williamson Collection.

[621] _E.g._ specimen 132*** in the Williamson Collection.

[622] _Vide_ Williamson (71), Pl. XXVIII. fig. 38; (71²), Pl. IV. fig. 15; (78), Pl. XXI. figs. 26–28. Williamson and Scott (94), Pl. LXXII. figs. 5 and 6. Renault (93), Pl. XLV. figs. 4–6, etc. Felix (96), Pl. IV. figs. 2 and 3.

[623] Strasburger (91), Pl. II. fig. 40.

[624] Williamson (78).

[625] Williamson (71), p. 507.

[626] Williamson (71²), Pl. I. fig. 1; (78), Pl. XXI. fig. 31.

[627] Lyell (55), p. 368.

[628] Williamson (96), p. 194.

[629] _Vide_ specimens 15–17, etc. in the Williamson Collection.

[630] The stem of fig. 83 is an example of _Arthrodendron_, but the appearance of the secondary xylem agrees with that in some forms of _Arthropitys_.

[631] For figures of this type of stem _vide_ Göppert (64); Cotta (50), Pl. XV. (specimens 13787 in the British Museum Collection); Mougeot (52), Pl. V.; Stur (87), pp. 27–31; Renault (93), Pls. XLIV. and XLV. etc.

[632] Williamson (71), (71²), (87), fig. 5.

[633] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 879

[634] _Vide_ Williamson (87²). In this paper Williamson compares the three subgenera of Calamite stems. Renault and Zeiller (88), Pl. LXXV. Renault (93), Pls. LVIII. and LIX.

[635] Renault (96), p. 125; (93), Pl. LIX. fig. 2.

[636] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pls. CXIV., CXC. etc. Most of the specimens figured by these authors are in the Newcastle Natural History Museum. For notes on the type-specimens of Lindley and Hutton, _vide_ Howse (88) and Kidston (90²).

[637] Weiss (88), Stur (87), _etc._

[638] _Vide_, p. 367.

[639] _Ante_, p. 260.

[640] Hick (95).

[641] Brongniart (22), p. 235.

[642] Schlotheim (20).

[643] Brongniart (28), p. 159.

[644] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXC.

[645] Ettingshausen (55).

[646] Schimper (69), p. 323.

[647] Grand’Eury (90).

[648] Martin (09), Pl. XX. figs. 4 and 6.

[649] Schlotheim (20), p. 397.

[650] Sternberg (25), p. xxviii.

[651] Brongniart (28), p. 154.

[652] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXCI.

[653] Ettingshausen (55), p. 28.

[654] Schimper (69), Pls. XXII. and XXVI. fig. 1.

[655] For other lists and synonyms, _vide_ Zeiller (88), p. 368, and Kidston (86), p. 38 and (93), p. 316, also Potonié (93), p. 162.

[656] Sternberg (20).

[657] Brongniart (28), p. 155.

[658] Lehmann (1756), p. 127. _Vide_ also Volkmanns (1720), Pl. _XV._ p. 113.

[659] Potonié (93), pp. 169 _et seq._, Pl. XXIV.

[660] Dawson (71).

[661] Nicholson (69) Pl. XVIII. _B._ Nicholson’s specimens are in the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

[662] Schlotheim (20), p. 397.

[663] Sternberg (26), p. xxviii.

[664] Brongniart (28), p. 156.

[665] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXXIV.

[666] Binney (68), Pl. VI. fig. 3.

[667] Stur (87), Pl. XVI b, and Pls. IV b and XIII.

[668] Scheuchzer (1723), p. 63, Pl. XIII. fig. 3.

[669] Potonié (93), p. 166.

[670] _Vide_ pp. 351 _et seq._

[671] Renault (96), p. 66; (93), Pl. XXVIII.

[672] One of the finest specimens of _Annularia stellata_ is figured by Stur (87), Pl. XVI b; it is in the Leipzig Museum. VIDE also Schenk (83), Pl. XXXIX.; Germar (44), Pl. IX.; Renault and Zeiller (88), Pls. XLV. and XLVI. There are some well-preserved impressions of _A. stellata_ in the British Museum from Radstock, Newcastle and elsewhere.

[673] Zenker (33), Pl. V. pp. 6–9.

[674] Heer (65), fig. 6, p. 9, and other authors.

[675] Weiss (76), p. 27, Pl. III. fig. 2.

[676] Lhwyd (1699), Pl. V. fig. 202.

[677] Sterzel (82).

[678] _Vide_ Weiss (76), Pl. III. and Weiss (84), p. 178.

[679] Williamson (71), p. 487, Pls. XXV. and XXVI.

[680] _Ibid._ (78), p. 319, Pl. XIX.

[681] Cash and Hick (81), p. 400.

[682] Williamson (81), _vide_ also Spencer (81).

[683] Spencer (83), p. 459.

[684] Williamson (83), p. 459, Pls. XXVII.–XXX.

[685] Renault (85).

[686] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pls. LXXVIII. and LXXIX. (The specimens are figured in a reversed position.)

[687] Binney (68), p. 5, fig. 1.

[688] Grand’Eury (77), Pls. I. and II.; (87), Pls. XXVII., XXVIII.

[689] Weiss (84), Pls. II.–IV., VIII. and IX.

[690] Stur (87), Pls. III., VI., VII., _etc._; Zeiller (86), Pl. LIV.

[691] Weiss (76), (84).

[692] For references, _vide_ Kidston (86), p. 58.

[693] Artis (25), Pl. V.

[694] Williamson and Scott (95), p. 694.

[695] Williamson (83²), Pl. XXIX. fig. 7.

[696] Williamson and Scott (95), Pls. XV.–XVII.

[697] For figures _vide_ Williamson, _loc. cit._, Williamson and Scott, and Renault (85), (93).

[698] _E.g._ Schenk (90) in Zittel’s _Handbuch_, p. 237.

[699] Williamson and Scott, _loc. cit._ p. 689.

[700] de Bary (84), p. 474; van Tieghem (91), p. 720.

[701] Renault (96), pp. 118, 126; (93), Pl. LV.

[702] Carruthers (67), Pl. LXX.

[703] Sternberg (25), Pl. XLVIII. and LI.

[704] Brongniart (49), p. 51.

[705] Binney (68), p. 23, Pls. IV. and V.

[706] Schimper (69), p. 330.

[707] For figures and descriptions of this type of cone _vide_ Williamson (73), (80), (89); Hick (93), (94) and Williamson and Scott (94).

[708] Weiss (84), Pls. XXII.—XXIV.

[709] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 911, Pls. LXXXI. and LXXXII.

[710] _Vide_ Heinricher (82); Bower (94), p. 495; Campbell (95), pp. 396, 503.

[711] Williamson (81), Pl. LIV.

[712] An excellent figure illustrating the co-existence of heterospory and secondary thickening is given by Williamson and Scott, _loc. cit._, Pl. LXXXII. fig. 36.

[713] Weiss (76), p. 103.

[714] Williamson (71²).

[715] _Ibid._ (88²).

[716] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 900.

[717] Weiss (84), Pl. XXI. fig. 4.

[718] Williamson (74), Pl. V. fig. 32.

[719] Williamson (88²), Pl. IX. fig. 20.

[720] _E.g._ Renault (82), Pl. XIX. fig. 1; (96), Pl. XXIX. figs. 1 and 4.

[721] Williamson (88²), Pl. VIII. figs. 1 and 4.

[722] Renault (93), Pl. XXIX. fig. 7.

[723] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 325.

[724] Weiss (84) p. 161. Solms-Laubach, _loc. cit._ p. 326.

[725] _E.g._ _Volkmannia Ludwigi_ Carr., also _Volkmannia elongata_ Presl. [Solms (91), p. 332 and Weiss (76), p. 108].

[726] _E.g._ _Brukmannia Grand’Euryi_ Ren. [Renault (76)].

[727] Weiss (84), p. 190.

[728] Weiss (76), p. 1.

[729] Weiss (84), p. 161.

[730] Renault (82), p. 139; (76).

[731] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 330.

[732] Schenk (88), p. 132; (83), p. 232.

[733] Weiss (84), p. 161.

[734] _E.g._ _Volkmannia gracilis_ Sternb. [Renault (76), Pl. II.].

[735] Schimper (69), p. 332. _Vide_ also Renault and Zeiller (88), p. 420.

[736] Renault (82), p. 120, Pl. XIX.; (93), Pl. XXIX. figs. 8–14; (96), p. 77.

[737] Weiss (84), p. 98, Pl. XX. etc.

[738] Sterzel (82).

[739] Renault and Zeiller (88), Pl. XLVI. fig. 7.

[740] Kidston (86), p. 47; (93), p. 319. _Vide_ also Renault (93), Pl. XXVIII.

[741] Renault and Zeiller (88), Pl. XLV.

[742] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 339. Weiss (84), p. 159.

[743] Weiss (84), Pl. XX. fig. 6.

[744] Weiss (84), Pl. XX. fig. 7; Pl. XXI. fig. 4.

[745] _Ibid._ Pls. XIV. and XV. _Cf._ also Stur (87), Pls. VI. and VII b, and Lesquereux (84), Pl. XC. fig. 1.

[746] Grand’Eury (90), pp. 205, 208. Renault and Zeiller (88), Pl. LI.

[747] _Vide_ Unger (50), p. 63.

[748] Weiss, _loc. cit._

[749] Solms-Laubach (91), p. 328.

[750] Schenk (83), p. 234.

[751] Weiss (76), p. 88; (84), p. 162. Solms-Laubach, _loc. cit._ p. 334, fig. 47.

[752] Renault (96), p. 132.

[753] Zeiller (88), Pl. LIV. fig. 4.

[754] Stur (87), p. 17.

[755] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXLII B. The original specimen is in the University College Collection, London.

[756] Nathorst (94), p. 56, Pl. XV. figs. 1 and 2.

[757] Seward (88).

[758] Weiss (84), p. 54.

[759] Zeiller (88), p. 329.

[760] Weiss (76), p. 117; (84), p. 55.

[761] Weiss (84), p. 93, Pl. XI. fig. 1.

[762] _Vide_ Weiss (84), Pl. XXV. fig. 2; Pl. XVI _a_, etc.

[763] Weiss (76), Pl. XVII. fig. 1.

[764] Weiss (84), Pl. I.

[765] Grand’Eury (90), p. 208, and (77), Pl. V.

[766] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXC.

[767] Stur (87), Pl. V. fig. 1.

[768] Grand’Eury (77), Pl. IV.

[769] Stur (87), Pl. XVII.

[770] Renault (82), Pl. XVII. fig. 2.

[771] Renault and Zeiller (88), Pt. II. p. 434, Pls. LII. and LIII.

[772] Stur (87), p. 37, fig. 17. _Vide_ also Grand’Eury (90), p. 208.

[773] Stur, _loc. cit._

[774] Weiss (84), p. 61.

[775] _Vide_ Grand’Eury (77), Pl. V. fig. 5.

[776] Weiss, _loc. cit._ Pl. XXI. fig. 5.

[777] Stur (87), Pl. XI. fig. 1.

[778] Renault and Zeiller (88), Pt. II. Pl. LI. p. 423.

[779] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CXIV. and Pl. CXC. The original specimens are in the Natural History Museum, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

[780] _Ibid._ Pl. CXXX. and Feistmantel (75), Pl. I. fig. 8.

[781] Lesquereux (79), Pl. XIII. fig. 14.

[782] Salter (63), figs. 6 and 7. _Vide_ also Carruthers in Woodward, H. (72), p. 168.

[783] Grand’Eury (69); _vide_ also (77) and (90).

[784] Renault and Zeiller (88), Pt. II. Pls. LII. and CIII.

[785] _Ibid._ Pl. LI.

[786] Sternberg (21), Pl. XII.

[787] Weiss (84), p. 61.

[788] Ettingshausen (55), Pl. I. fig. 4.

[789] Ettingshausen, _loc. cit._

[790] Grand’Eury (69), p. 709.

[791] Feistmantel (75), Pl. I. fig. 8.

[792] Williamson (74), Pl. VII. fig. 45.

[793] Weiss (76), Pl. XVII. figs. 1 and 2.

[794] Weiss (84), Pl. XVI a. figs. 10 and 11.

[795] _Ibid._ Pl. XXV. fig. 2.

[796] Stur (87), Pl. II. etc.

[797] Zeiller (88), p. 363, Pl. LVII. fig. 1.

[798] Steinhauer (18), Pl. VI. fig. 1.

[799] Kidston (93), p. 311, Pl. II.

[800] Kidston (94), p. 248.

[801] Weiss (84), p. 119.

[802] Steinhauer (18), Pl. V. figs. 1 and 2.

[803] Artis (25), Pl. XXIV.

[804] Brongniart (28²), Pls. XV. and XVI.

[805] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. LXXIX.

[806] Kidston (93), p. 314; (86), p. 24.

[807] Zeiller (88), p. 333.

[808] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. LXXIX.

[809] Weiss (84), Pl. IV. fig. 1.

[810] Renault and Zeiller (88), p. 385.

[811] Grand’Eury (90), p. 214.

[812] Stur (87), p. 160, Pl. IX. fig. 2.

[813] Kidston (94), p. 249.

[814] Grand’Eury (89), p. 1087.

[815] Zeiller (88), p. 355.

[816] Weiss (84), p. 96.

[817] Sterzel (93), p. 66.

[818] Zeiller, _loc. cit._ p. 353.

[819] Sternberg (25), Pl. XLIX. fig. 5.

[820] Brongniart (28²), p. 128, Pl. XIX.

[821] Germar and Kaulfuss (31), p. 221, Pl. XLV. fig. 1.

[822] Lindley and Hutton (31), Pl. CCXVI.

[823] Grand’Eury (77), p. 293.

[824] Zeiller (80), Pl. CLXXIV. (expl. plates) fig. 3.

[825] Weiss (84), pp. 112, 113, 114.

[826] Zeiller (88), p. 353.

[827] Kidston (94), p. 249.

[828] Grand’Eury (90), p. 216 (expl. plates).

[829] Stur (87), p. 68.

[830] Stur (87), Pl. X.

[831] Artis (25), Pl. II.

[832] Weiss, _loc. cit._ Pls. V. VI. and X.

[833] Grand’Eury (77), (90).

[834] _Vide_ Stur (75), _etc._ for remarks on the course of the vascular strands.

[835] For good figures of the leaves _vide_ Stur (75), Rothpletz (80), Ettingshausen (66), Solms (96).

[836] Renault (96), p. 80; (93), Pls. XLII. and XLIII. Since the above was written an account of the internal structure of _Archaeocalamites_ has been published by Solms-Laubach (97); he describes the wood as being of the _Arthropitys_ type.

[837] Renault, _loc. cit._ Pl. XLII. figs. 6 and 7.

[838] Stur (75), p. 2, Pls. II.–V.

[839] An examination of the specimens in the Museum of the Austrian Geology Survey did not enable me to satisfactorily verify the features of the cone as described by Stur; the impressions are far from clear.

[840] Kidston (83²).

[841] _Vide_ Paterson (41); Lyell (67), vol. I. p. 149 _etc._

[842] Volkmann (1720), p. 93, Pl. VII. fig. 2.

[843] Schlotheim (20), p. 402, Pl. XXII. fig. 4.

[844] Sternberg (25).

[845] Brongniart (28²), p. 122, Pl. XXVI. figs. 1 and 2.

[846] Paterson (41), Pl. III.

[847] Göppert (52), Pls. _III._, _V._, _VI._, _VIII._, _XXXVIII._

[848] Ettingshausen (66), Pls. I.–IV.

[849] Feistmantel (73), Pl. XIV. fig. 5.

[850] Zeiller (80), p. 17.

[851] Binney (68), p. 7.

[852] Stur (75), p. 3.

[853] Kidston (86), p. 35.

[854] Schimper and Koechlin-Schlumberger (62), Pl. I. The original specimens of Schimper’s figures are in the Strassburg Museum.

[855] Feistmantel (73), p. 491, Pl. XXIV. figs. 3 and 4.

[856] _Vide_ specimens 20 A, 20 B, 24 in the Williamson Collection.

[857] Stur (75), p. 17.

[858] Rothpletz (80), p. 8.

[859] Weiss (84), p. 56.

[860] Scheuchzer (1723), p. 19, Pl. IV. fig. 1.

[861] Schlotheim (04), Pl. II. fig. 24, p. 57.

[862] Sternberg (25), p. 32.

[863] Brongniart (22), Pl. XIII. fig. 8, p. 234.

[864] _Ibid._ (28), p. 68.

[865] Dawson (66), p. 153, Pl. XII.

[866] For reference _vide_ an excellent monograph by Coemans and Kickx (64), also Potonié (94).

[867] _e.g._ Newberry (91).

[868] Renault (73), (76²), (96).

[869] Williamson (74), (78).

[870] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 919.

[871] Specimen 929 in the Williamson Cabinet is a longitudinal section of the French _Sphenophyllum_, as described by Renault (76²).

[872] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 926.

[873] Williamson (91), p. 18.

[874] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 920.

[875] Williamson (91), p. 12.

[876] _Ibid._ (74).

[877] Felix (86), Pl. VI. fig. 2.

[878] For figures _vide_ Renault (82), Pl. XVI. fig. 1, (76²) Pls. VII. and IX.

[879] Williamson (71²).

[880] Weiss (84), p. 200.

[881] Binney (71).

[882] Williamson (91²).

[883] Zeiller (93).

[884] Williamson (92).

[885] Potonié (94), fig. 1.

[886] For a more complete account of this strobilus _vide_ Zeiller (93), and Williamson (91²), _etc._

[887] Zeiller (93), p. 37.

[888] Williamson and Scott (94), p. 943.

[889] Scott (97), p. 24.

[890] Solms-Laubach (95⁴).

[891] _Ibid._ Pl. X. fig. 6.

[892] Kidston (90).

[893] I am indebted to my friend Mr Kidston for an opportunity of examining these specimens.

[894] _Vide_ Renault (77), (96), p. 158. Zeiller (93), p. 34. Williamson and Scott (94), p. 942.

[895] Brongniart (22), p. 234, Pl. II. fig. 8.

[896] Brongniart (28), p. 68.

[897] Bischoff (28), Pl. XIII. fig. 1.

[898] Römer, F. (62), p. 21, Pl. V. fig. 2.

[899] Sterzel (86), pp. 26, 27, etc.

[900] Kidston (93), p. 333.

[901] Zeiller (88), p. 414.

[902] _Ibid._ p. 411.

[903] Weiss (84), p. 201, Pl. XXI. fig. 12.

[904] Solms-Laubach (95⁴), p. 232.

[905] Geinitz (55), Pl. XX. fig. 7.

[906] Zeiller (88), Pl. LXIV. figs. 3–5, and (93), p. 24, Pl. II. fig. 4.

[907] Stur (75), p. 108.

[908] Stur (87), Pl. XV. and Kidston (90), p. 59, Pl. I.

[909] Zeiller (88), Pl. LXII. figs. 2–4.

[910] Stur (87); Williamson (74); Seward (89), _etc._

[911] Renault (82), p. 84, and Newberry (91).

[912] Kidston (90), p. 62.

[913] Stur (75), p. 114, Pl. VII.

[914] Zeiller (93), p. 32.

[915] Mahr (68), Pl. VIII.

[916] Zeiller (80), p. 34, Pl. CLXI. fig. 9.

[917] Coemans and Kickx (64); Zeiller (80), (88); Schimper (69).

[918] Royle (39), p. 431.

[919] For other figures of this plant, _vide_ Feistmantel (81), Pls. XI. A and XII. A.

[920] Zeiller (91).

[921] _Vide_ also Zeiller (92²), p. 75.

[922] Feistmantel (81), p. 69.

[923] Scott (97).

[924] Scott (96²), p. 15.

[925] Dawson (61), p. 10, fig. 7.

[926] Kidston (94), p. 250.

[927] Kidston (94), p. 250.

[928] Sterzel (93), p. 143.

[929] Zeiller (94), p. 172.

[930] De Bary (84), p. 499.

[931] Westermaier and Ambronn (81).

[932] Schwendener (74), p. 124. Haberlandt (96), p. 165.

Transcriber’s Notes:

- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - Text enclosed by equals is in bold (=bold=). - Text enclosed by tildes is in antiqua (~antiqua~). - Blank pages have been removed. - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. - Odd-numbered page headings are entered at approximate locations as sidenotes, except where repeated, or duplicated in headings. - Errata from Vol. II. applied. - Some headings and table of contents have been modified to be more consistent, including removal of section list under Chapter IX as sections II-IV are in other chapters.