PART VIII.

FUNGI AS FOODS.

=Mushrooms.=--Certain fungi growing wild or in cultivated soils and having an expanded top on a hooded stem are known as mushrooms. The common form of mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_ L.) grows wild over a large portion of the United States. It is especially abundant in the autumn, growing sometimes during the night after a warm rain, over large areas. When properly cooked it forms a delicious food and condimental substance, highly prized by connoisseurs and others. Belonging to the family of mushrooms, however, are many poisonous varieties which, when eaten inadvertently, often cause serious illness and sometimes death. For this reason mushrooms sold in the open market should be carefully inspected by experts authorized to see that the poisonous varieties are excluded. It not only requires a good botanist, but also one skilled in the practical differentiation of the different varieties by physical appearance rather than by botanical analysis, to properly separate the poisonous from the edible varieties.

_Historical._--Mushrooms have been, since historical times, extensively used as human food. In a book written five centuries before the Christian era, Athenée, in his “Banquet of Learned Men,” speaks of the poisoning of a mother and her three children by mushrooms. Hippocrates speaks of a girl who had been poisoned by mushrooms and who was cured by the administration of hot honey and by a hot bath. Theophrastes and Nicandre also speak of mushrooms and the poisoning that occurs therefrom. Both Cicero and Horace make reference to mushrooms. Horace advises that Epicureans should confine themselves to the mushrooms that grow upon meadows and refuse to eat all others on account of the danger from poisoning. Ovid also makes frequent allusions to mushrooms and speaks of the influence of warm rains upon their growth. Tacitus refers to the use of mushrooms for food, and Suétonius, in his “History of the Twelve Cæsars,” relates that the Emperor Claudius was poisoned by a dish of mushrooms. It is, therefore, evident that from the earliest times mushrooms were extensively used and the poisonous properties of some of the varieties understood.

_Production of Mushrooms._--As has already been mentioned, mushrooms grow wild over a large area of the United States. They are also cultivated very extensively, though not so extensively here as in European countries. The best place for growing cultivated mushrooms is one where the light is excluded or diffused and where the temperature remains reasonably constant. Cellars, caves, and the artificial caverns made by quarrying are peculiarly well suited for the growth of different varieties of fungi, such as mushrooms.

The art of growing mushrooms is not easily acquired. The directions given by the best authorities may be rigidly followed and failure ensue. The skill of the grower appears to be born, not made, and those who have acquired the art succeed where theoretical knowledge fails. For cultural purposes, the _Agaricus campestris_ is most universally employed.

_Soil._--The soil best suited for the growth of mushrooms is one rich in decayed or decaying vegetable matter. Mushrooms are often found growing in localities where a log or stump has decayed or where the inorganic matter from the manure of cattle or horses has been distributed on the soil. Artificial beds for the growth of mushrooms are made up largely of organic manurial substances.

_Spores._--Mushrooms are grown from spores. The mushroom produces a brown powdery material which consists of almost innumerable simple cells of ovate shape to which the term “spore” has been applied. A spore is not in the strict sense of the word a seed, but simply a cell which by proliferation produces the new fungus. Generally growers do not use these spores directly in seeding mushroom beds. Each complete spore, however, is, under favorable conditions, capable of proliferation or germination, producing a thread-like growth of a spider-web character which penetrates through the soil, prepared and manured, upon which a spore is germinated. This spider-web-like growth, in the common language of mushroom growers, is called the spawn, more properly called the mycelium of the mushroom. When the conditions are favorable, there are formed on the threads of this mycelium small nodules, which are the earlier stages of the complete fungus itself. From the beginning of this growth until the final production of the mushroom two or three days or even a week may elapse. The earlier periods of this growth take place under ordinary circumstances, but the advent of a warm rain or other extremely favorable conditions causes the budding mushroom to grow at an enormously rapid rate. The mushroom may not be said to have a root, stem, and leaf, as is the case with an ordinary green plant, but is practically a single organism, assuming different shapes which are represented by the different varieties and species of growth.

_Differing Varieties of Edible Mushrooms._--There is a very large variety of edible mushrooms differing in form, size, and shape from the _Agaricus campestris_. In the Washington markets there are four principal kinds of mushrooms which are found growing wild in the vicinity of the city. These comprise the common mushroom--_Agaricus campestris_, the horse mushroom--_Agaricus arvensis_, shaggy mushroom--_Coprinus comatus_, and the puff-ball--_Lycoperdon cyathiforme_.

_Conditions of Growth._--The proper shed or cellars having been selected, the first thing to do is to see that the temperature is favorable to the growth of the fungi. Temperatures above 60 degrees F., or below 50 degrees F., are not favorable to the growth. The best temperatures are from 55 to 58 degrees. The locality where the mushrooms are grown should be kept very damp and the air highly saturated with aqueous vapor. The reason that mushrooms grow best in covered places, such as has been mentioned, is due to the particularly favorable influence which the even temperature mentioned and a practically saturated atmosphere have upon the growth. In localities where the changes of temperature are not very severe, mushrooms grow very well in the open. In the county of Kent, England, I have seen mushrooms growing in the open garden, where, by covering with straw, they flourish during the greater part of the year. In the winter time the temperature may be kept quite even by the covering to make abundant crops, while in the months of August, September, and October they grow in the open in great abundance.

_Preparation of Seed Bed._--The seed bed for the growth of mushrooms, as has already been indicated, is made principally of well decayed stable or stall manure. The manure must be well fermented, thoroughly disintegrated, and exposed for a sufficient length of time to be in the proper condition. Mushrooms cannot be obtained until the heat attending the fermentation of manure has entirely disappeared.

Directions for growing mushrooms cannot be given here, but those who are intending to enter the business should consult the best authorities and begin in a small way until they acquire the necessary skill before commercial success can be obtained.

_Growth of Mushrooms in France._--Perhaps in no country has the cultivation of mushrooms been carried to such a large extent as in France. The principal industries in France are confined to those regions where artificial caves have been made by the quarrying of building stone. The most extensive caverns of this kind exist in the neighborhood of Paris, near Bordeaux, and particularly in the neighborhood of Sceaux. These artificial caverns are often miles in extent and furnish exceptionally favorable opportunities for the growth of mushrooms. The soils or manures on which they are grown must be carried into these caverns, and experience has shown that mushrooms do not continue to grow well in the same locality, and, therefore, the place of growth must be moved from time to time to different parts of the caves. The galleries of these abandoned quarries are sometimes of enormous extent and are from 30 to 150 feet below the surface. They are generally from seven to ten feet high, but occasionally so low that a man cannot stand upright in them. In general they are wide enough for two rows of beds with a foot way 18 inches wide in the center. Where a mushroom bed has been well prepared and properly seeded, it produces about six pounds of mushrooms per square yard. These mushrooms bring, in the market, an average of about 15 cents per pound. It is stated by some authorities that the reason the bed ceases to bear after a time and has to be abandoned or moved is not because of the exhaustion of the food but is due to the ravages of an insect or fly which produces a worm which is fatal to the growth of the fungus. At any rate, it is customary to abandon the beds after they have been bearing for six or eight months and to return to them after a year, when they are found to again be productive.

It is not expected that the general consumer will become an expert in the selection of mushrooms. Where mushrooms are exposed in a public market, it is the duty of the municipal officers in charge of food products to see to it that poisonous varieties are not exposed for sale. It will be of value, however, to the reader to have some idea of the general shape of some of the more common edible and poisonous varieties. It is generally supposed that mushrooms, toadstools, and puff-balls are entirely distinct species and that only the mushroom, so-called, is edible. On the contrary, there are many edible toadstools and many edible puff-balls, and all three classes of fungi belong to the same general family.

_Food Value of Mushrooms._--The nutritive value of mushrooms is not exceptionally high, although there is a popular opinion to the contrary. Frequently it has been stated that the mushroom in the vegetable world holds a similar position to beefsteak among meats, being particularly rich in digestible protein. The analytical data which have been collected from numerous sources on the composition of mushrooms do not bear out this popular impression, but, on the contrary, show that the mushroom is a food product consisting very largely of water and of only very small quantities of protein, fat, and carbohydrates.

The composition of some of the common mushrooms is shown in the following table (Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 79, Mushrooms as Food):

---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+---- | | | | NON- | | | | | | | | ALBU-| ALBU-| | | | | | | TOTAL|MINOID|MINOID| | | CARBO-| | | |NITRO-|NITRO-|NITRO-| PRO-| | HY- | | |WATER.| GEN. | GEN. | GEN. |TEIN.|FAT.|DRATES.|FIBER.|ASH. ---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+---- Common | | | | | | | | | mushroom,|91.30 | 0.60 | 0.36 | 0.24 | 3.75|0.20| 3.50 | 0.80 |0.50 Shaggy | | | | | | | | | Coprinus,|92.19 | .45 | .15 | .30 | 2.81| .26| 1.40 | .57 | .98 Inky | | | | | | | | | Coprinus,|92.31 | .36 | .. | .. | 2.25| .24| .... | .72 |1.29 Common | | | | | | | | | Morel, |89.54 | .49 | .37 | .12 | 3.06| .50| 1.60 | .91 |1.08 ---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----

These data may be compared with the composition of the beefsteak:

Water, 62.5 percent Protein, 19.5 „ Fat, 17.0 „ Ash, 1.0 „

From the above data it is seen that the mushroom does not contain anything like the amount of protein found in beefsteak. It has one-third more water, one-sixth as much protein, and only one-fortieth as much fat. Beefsteak contains no carbohydrates except less than one percent of glycogen, while the amount of carbohydrates in the mushroom varies from 1.5 to 3.5 percent. It is evident that the mushroom is principally valuable as a condimental substance and not as a food product.

_Distinction between Poisonous and Edible Varieties._--It has already been stated that only the expert is able to distinguish between the poisonous varieties of mushrooms and those that are edible. Even the skilled botanist, as well as the expert, may sometimes make mistakes in this matter. Hence the only perfectly sure method of protection against the poisonous varieties is the eating of only those which are cultivated and which are known to be free of poisonous properties. On the other hand, the wild variety, by many connoisseurs, is much more highly valued as being more delicate and palatable. It should also be remembered that the cultivation of mushrooms is not very widely extended, and if the supply of the wild variety should be excluded there would be a great diminution of the quantity which is accessible to the consumer. This would be an especial hardship in the United States, where mushrooms grow wild over such wide areas and so abundantly and where the cultivation of them as compared with some other countries is somewhat restricted. There are some general characteristics by means of which a distinction can be made between the edible and the poisonous varieties.

The following rules are given for the rejection of the probably poisonous mushroom by George Francis Atkinson (“Studies of American Fungi--1900”): “In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution should be employed by those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of determination of the species, or those who have not an intimate acquaintance with certain forms. Rarely should the beginner be encouraged to eat them upon his own determination. It is best at first to consult someone who knows or to send first specimens away for determination, though in many cases a careful comparison of the plant with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable a novice to recognize it. In taking up a species for the first time it would be well to experiment cautiously.”

_No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible._--“There is no test like the ‘silver-spoon test’ which will enable one to tell the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the presence of the so-called ‘death-cup’ a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, for _Amanita cæsarea_ has this cup. For the beginner, however, there are certain general rules, which, if carefully followed, will enable him to avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time necessarily excluding many edible ones.

“1st.--Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are infested with larvæ.

“2d.--Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and species. Buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the ground, and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely not belong to any of the very poisonous kinds.

“3d.--Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at the base of the stem and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially if the gills are white. _Amanita cæsarea_, however, has a sac-like envelope at the base of the stem and yellow gills as well as a yellow cap, and is edible. _Amanita rubescens_ has remnants of a scaly envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the cap, and the flesh, where wounded, becomes reddish. It is edible.

“4th.--Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish. Several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste, are edible.

“5th.--Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps.

“6th.--Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the taste of which is bitter. _Strobilomyces strobilaceus_ (Scop.) Berk. changes color when cut, and is edible.

“7th.--Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores.

“In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the range of species rather than attempt the first season to eat a large number of different kinds. All puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside, though some are better than others. All coral-like or club fungi are edible.”

_Popular Distinction between Toadstools and Mushrooms._--There is a general opinion that the toadstool is poisonous and the mushroom is not. There is, however, no scientific distinction between the two kinds of fungi, popularly known as toadstools and mushrooms. The distinction is purely an arbitrary one. The small toadstools are often as delicious and as harmless as the small mushroom. The small mushroom, on the other hand, may be as deadly and as undesirable as the worst specimen of toadstool. There is danger especially to two classes of people in the discrimination between the poisonous and edible varieties of mushrooms and toadstools. The first class is composed of those who are practically unaware of the existence of poisonous varieties and the second class of persons are those who claim to be able to tell an edible mushroom from a certain number of tests or claims which they regard as infallible. Both of these classes of persons are apt to be deceived or injured by dangerous varieties.

The following popular signs of distinguishing between the poisonous and non-poisonous varieties are pronounced worthless by Gibson (“Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms and How to Distinguish Them”):

“FAVORABLE SIGNS.

1. Pleasant taste and odor.

2. Peeling of the skin of the cap from rim to center.

3. Pink gills, turning brown in older specimens.

4. The stem easily pulled out of the cap and inserted in it like a parasol handle.

5. Solid stems.

6. Must be gathered in the morning.

7. ‘Any fungus having a pleasant taste and odor, being found similarly agreeable after being plainly broiled without the least seasoning is perfectly safe.’

“UNFAVORABLE SIGNS.

8. Boiling with a ‘silver spoon,’ the staining of the silver indicating danger.

9. Change of color in the fraction of the fresh mushroom.

10. Slimy or sticky on the top.

11. Having the stems at their sides.

12. Growing in clusters.

13. Found in dark, damp places.

14. Growing on wood, decayed logs, or stumps.

15. Growing on or near manure.

16. Having bright colors.

17. Containing milky juice.

18. Having the gill plates of even length.

19. Melting into black fluid.

20. Biting the tongue or having a bitter or nauseating taste.

21. Changing color by immersion in salt-water, or upon being dusted with salt.

“These present but a selection of the more prevalent notions. Taken _in toto_, they would prove entirely safe, as they would practically exclude every species of toadstool or mushroom that grows. But as a rule the village oracle bases his infallibility upon two or three of the above ‘rules,’ and inasmuch as the entire list absolutely _omits_ the _only_ one test by which danger is to be avoided, it is a seven days’ wonder that the grewsome toadstool epitaph is not more frequent.”

The following tests are regarded as favorable by Gibson:

1. Avoid every mushroom having a cup or suggestion of such, at base; the distinctly fatal poisons are thus excluded.

2. Exclude those having an unpleasant odor, a peppery, bitter, or other unpalatable flavor, or tough consistency.

3. Exclude those infested with worms or in advanced age or decay.

4. In testing others which will pass the above probation let the specimen be kept by itself, not in contact with or enclosed in the same basket with other species.

Begin by a mere nibble, the size of a pea, and gentle mastication, being careful to swallow no saliva, and finally expelling all from the mouth. If no noticeable results follow, the next trial, with the interval of a day, with the same quantity may permit of a swallow of a little of the juice, the fragments of the fungus expelled as before. No unpleasantness following for twenty-four hours, the third trial may permit of a similar entire fragment being swallowed, all of these experiments to be made on an empty stomach. If this introduction of the actual substance of the fungus into the stomach is succeeded by no disturbance in twenty-four hours, a larger piece, the size of a hazelnut, may be attempted, and thus the amount gradually increased day by day until the demonstration of edibility, or at least harmlessness, is complete and the species thus admitted into the “safe” list. By following this method with the utmost caution the experimenter can at best suffer but a slight temporary indisposition as the result of his hardihood, in the event of a noxious species having been encountered, and will at least thus have the satisfaction of discovery of an enemy if not a friend.

It may be said that any mushroom, _omitting the Amanita_, which is pleasant to the taste and otherwise agreeable as to odor and texture when raw, is probably harmless and may safely be thus ventured on with a view of establishing its edibility. A prominent author on our edible mushrooms (McIlvaine) applies this rule to all the Agarics with confidence. “This rule may be established,” he says: “All Agarics--excepting the Amanitæ--mild to the taste when raw, if they commend themselves in other ways, are edible.” This claim is borne out in his experience, with the result that he now numbers over one hundred species among his habitual edible list out of the three hundred which he has actually found by personal test to be edible or harmless. “So numerous are toadstools,” he continues, “and so well does a study of them define their habits and habitats, that the writer _never fails upon any day from April to December to find ample supply of healthy, nutritious, delicate toadstools for himself and family_.”

“In gathering mushrooms one should be supplied with a sharp knife. The mushrooms should be carefully cut off an inch or so below the cap, or at least sufficiently far above the ground to escape all signs of dirt on the stems. They should then be laid gills upward in their receptacle, and it is well to have a special basket, arranged with one or two removable bottoms or horizontal partitions, which are kept in place by upright props within, thus relieving the lower layers of mushrooms from the weight of those above them. Such a basket is almost indispensable.

“Before preparing mushrooms for the table, the specimens should be carefully scrutinized for a class of fungus specialists which we have not taken into account, and which have probably anticipated us. The mushroom is proverbial for its rapid development, but nature has not allowed it thus to escape the usual penalties of lush vegetation, as witness this swarming, squirming host, minute grubs, which occasionally honey-comb or hollow its entire substance ere it has reached its prime; indeed, in many cases, even before it has fully expanded or even protruded above ground.

“Like the carrion flies, the bees, and wasps, which in early times were believed to be of spontaneous origin--flies being generated from putrefaction, bees from dead bulls, and the martial wasps from defunct “war-horses”--these fungus swarms, which so speedily reduce a fair specimen of a mushroom to a melting loathsome mass, were also supposed to be the natural progeny of the ‘poisonous toadstool.’ But science has solved the riddle of their mysterious omnipresence among the fungi, each particular swarm of grubs being the witness of a former visit of a maternal parent insect, which has sought the budding fungus in its haunts often before it has fully revealed itself to human gaze, and implanted within its substance her hundred or more eggs. To the uneducated eye these larvæ all appear similar, but the specialist in entomology readily distinguishes between them as the young of this or that species of fly, gnat, or beetle.

“As an illustration of the assiduity with which the history of these tiny scavenger insects has been followed by science, I may mention that in the gnat group alone over seven hundred species have been discovered and scientifically described, many of them requiring a powerful magnifier to reveal their identities.

“Specimens of infected or decaying mushrooms preserved within a tightly closed box--and, we would suggest, duly quarantined--will at length reveal the imago forms of the voracious larvæ; generally a swarm of tiny gnats or flies, with an occasional sprinkling of small glossy black beetles, or perhaps a beautiful indigo-blue insect half an inch in length of most nervous habit, and possessed of a long and very active tail. This insect is an example of the curious group of rove-beetles--staphylinus--a family of insect scavengers, many of whose species depend upon the fungi for subsistence.

“Even the large woody growth known as ‘punk’ or ‘touchwood,’ so frequently seen upon decaying trunks, is not spared. A huge specimen in my keeping was literally reduced to dust by a single species of beetle.

“Considering the prevalence of these fungus hosts, it is well in all mushrooms to take the precaution of making a vertical section through stem and cap, excluding such specimens as are conspicuously monopolized, and not being too critical of the rest, for the over-fastidious gourmet will often thus have little to show for his morning walk. I have gathered a hundred specimens of fungi in one stroll, perhaps not a quarter of which, upon careful scrutiny, though fair of exterior would be fit for the table. The fungus hunter _par excellence_ has usually been there before us and left his mark--a mere fine brown streak or tunnel, perhaps winding through the pulp or stem, where his minute fungoid identity is even yet secreted. But we bigger fungus eaters gradually learn to accept him--if not too outrageously promiscuous--as a natural part and parcel of our Hachis aux Champignons, or our simple mushrooms on toast, even as we wink at the similar lively accessories which sophisticate our delectable raisins, prunes, and figs, to say nothing of prime old Rochefort” (pages 33-34).

E. Faupin, the author of the work “Les Champignons Comestibles et Vénéneux,” gives some valuable hints respecting the confusion of edible and poisonous varieties of mushrooms. He also says that the so-called rules which are often formulated to distinguish the good mushrooms from the bad are nearly all misleading. If they are applicable in a few particular cases they surely are not in all, and consequently ought to be judged as of no value. For instance, it has been commonly said that the mushrooms whose flesh changes color when exposed are poisonous. This is true for certain kinds but it is not true for others. There are, indeed, some mushrooms whose flesh undergoes an alteration when it is exposed and which are, nevertheless, of most excellent quality. As an example of this, the variety known as “delicious lactaire” may be cited. On the contrary there are other kinds whose flesh remains white on exposure and which are decidedly poisonous, as for example _Amanita citrina_ Pers. It is also said that a mushroom whose stem is surrounded by a ring is to be considered edible. This indication is altogether deceptive. Some of the most poisonous varieties have well formed rings. It is also misleading to credit the action of the juice of the mushroom in coloring a piece of silver. It is said that those mushrooms whose juice blackens silver are poisonous, while those which do not are harmless. This perhaps is the most dangerous of all the rules to go by, as some of the most poisonous varieties would be admitted on this test. It is also misleading to suppose, as is commonly the case, that mushrooms which are attacked by insects, larvæ, etc., can be eaten without danger. Likewise misleading is the general opinion that mushrooms whose odor is agreeable or which have no appreciable odor are not poisonous. It is high time to eradicate these misleading notions and to let the people know with certainty that aside from the botanical character there does not exist any particular sign nor any particular means of affirming that a given mushroom is edible or poisonous. Science alone, therefore, has the sole power of teaching to distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous varieties. For many years attempts have been made to popularize the science which will give to the people the desired information, but in spite of these efforts the number of cases of poisoning does not seem to diminish, and why? The response is evident. It is because the efforts which have been made by mycologists have not yet been appreciated by the mass of people, and because it has not yet been possible to point out to the public at large the poisonous species. The number of species of poisonous mushrooms which are capable of causing death is happily not very great. The _Amanitas_ and the _Volvarias_ are almost exclusively the poisonous species. Let it be understood, therefore, by the people that there do exist mushrooms which are capable of killing. If the people desire to place themselves out of danger let them begin by learning these varieties. Their number is very limited, as there are only five or six species at most. When they are well known it will be very easy to distinguish them and to recognize all others as edible. Following is a list of the most poisonous mushrooms known, and all that are likely at any time to produce death:

Amanita phalloides Fr. Amanita citrina Pers. Amanita verna Bull. Amanita virosa Fr. Volvaria gloiocephala, var. speciosa (Fr.). Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers. Amanita pantherina DC. Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr. Lactarius rufus Fr. Lactarius zonarius (Bull.) Fr. Lactarius pyrogalus (Bull.) Fr. Russula emetica Fr. Russula queletii Fr. Russula fœtens (Pers.) Fr. Boletus felleus Bull. Boletus satanus Lenz. Boletus erythropus Cke. Boletus luridus Schaeff. Entoloma lividum Bull.

_The Most Poisonous of Mushrooms._--The most poisonous of the common mushrooms is known as _Amanita verna_ Bull. So active is its poison that this variety has become known as the “deadly Amanita.”

=Types of Edible Mushrooms.=--While it is quite impossible for a manual of this kind to give any directions by which a person, not an expert, may make certain distinctions between the edible and poisonous varieties of mushrooms, it is thought advisable to give a fair technical illustration of the two classes. The common mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, is shown in the accompanying Fig. 61,--three-fourths its natural size. The second specimen from the left is young and is in a state of development known as a button. The figure at the extreme left is a larger specimen, showing the slightly checked surface that sometimes occurs in this species. In fresh specimens the surface is white, but various shades of light brown, either checked or plain, are often found. The specimen at the right shows the gills on the lower surface of the cap. These gills in a newly expanded mushroom, fresh from the field, are of a beautiful delicate pale pink color, often with a touch of salmon. In the older samples the gills turn to a light brown and finally almost to a black color. This discoloration is chiefly due to the development of almost innumerable spores from which new plants are propagated. If the stem of a common mushroom be broken off and the cap be laid gills downward on a piece of white paper, the spores will drop off and after a few hours will appear as a brown dust. The usual diameter of full-grown specimens of this variety of mushroom is from 1¹⁄₂ to 3 inches, though many smaller and many larger samples are found.

This variety of mushroom is the principal one which is exposed upon the markets of Washington. They are especially abundant in the autumn after copious rains often succeeding the usual period of drought in that region. October is the banner month for this variety of mushroom. The mycelium from which the autumn mushroom grows is formed in the spring, and after the dry period of summer the little spheroid granules formed upon the mycelium are capable of absorbing the moisture of the warm autumnal rains and rapidly expand to the full-grown mushroom. After all the conditions of growth are fulfilled it usually requires only a single night for a button to push through the surface of the soil and expand its cap. Mushrooms are particularly obnoxious to the ravages of insects, and it is always advisable that they should be gathered and eaten immediately after they are formed. The insect larvæ attack the mature mushroom, travelling up through the stem into the cap, and decomposition rapidly follows.

It is easy to determine whether a mushroom is wormy or not by breaking off the stem close to the cap and observing if there are little holes through which the larvæ have passed upward into the cap. The common mushroom occurs most frequently on lawns and in pastures, and especially in neglected fields where weeds have been succeeded by a scant covering of grass. Sometimes during the spring and summer, as well as in the autumn, the common mushroom is found upon the market. These mushrooms usually are produced upon the garbage dumping grounds near the city. The garbage and refuse from the city furnish the manurial conditions required for a speedy development of the mushroom from the mycelium.

_The Horse Mushroom_ (_Agaricus arvensis_ Schaeff.).--This variety of mushroom is also one which grows in great abundance in the neighborhood of Washington and in other latitudes affording a similar environment. This specimen is in many respects like _Agaricus campestris_ but the surface of the cap is somewhat darker colored. The ring on the stem is also wider and thicker than in _campestris_. This variety also grows larger than _campestris_, and the diameter of the cap is commonly from three to six inches. The figure is only about one-half the natural size. The horse mushroom is frequently confounded with the common mushroom, and there is practically no difference in their edible qualities. It grows preferably in gardens rather than fields, and especially in gardens which have been heavily fertilized. It also frequently appears in old beds composed of decayed stable manure which has been used for forcing beds for early vegetables.

_Shaggy Mushroom_ (_Coprinus comatus_ Fr.).--The accompanying Fig. 63 represents a group of three specimens of this variety of mushroom growing from a single base. The largest one is already showing signs of liquefaction and decomposition and a part of the cap has already disappeared. One of the peculiarities of this species is that beginning with the edge of the cap the whole mushroom dissolves sometimes within a day, when it is full grown, into an inky-black fluid. A portion of this inky fluid has run partly down the white stem of the largest mushroom. The cap of this mushroom, except when it begins to liquefy, resembles somewhat the form of a partially closed umbrella. In the early stages of growth the cap, gills, and stem are white, except the apex of the cap, which is generally dark-colored. The surface of the cap is covered with delicate lacerated scales, the characteristic from which the name _comatus_ or shaggy is derived. The juice from the fresh sample is colorless as water. When it first begins to turn it is wine-colored, and until the juice is very deeply discolored the sample is still edible. After the juice has turned completely black it is considered too old to be eaten. This species of mushroom grows best in shady places, in a soil well supplied with humus. The season in which this variety of mushroom is most abundant is late in the autumn or early in the winter, when the nights are cold but the ground is not yet frozen. The liquefaction and decay of this mushroom come on so quickly that it is not usually infested with larvæ which do not have time to develop before the mushroom is reduced to a shapeless mass. The most common organism found is the myriapod, a thousand-legged worm, which often finds its way between the gills and stem. This cavity should always be examined for worms of this kind when the mushroom is being prepared for the table.

_Fairy Ring Mushroom_ (_Marasmius oreades_ Fr.).--This variety is one which is interesting both on account of its edible properties and by reason of the circular areas in which it often grows. This illustration is about three-fourths of the natural size. The tendency of this variety to grow in the annual form designated is beautifully shown in the accompanying figure, from a photograph taken on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture. The ring in question is seven feet in diameter and the photograph was taken early in November. The stem in this variety has no ring,--the gills are few and widely separated and the cap as it becomes fully expanded has a peculiar knob-like projection in the center. This gives a characteristic appearance to this variety of mushroom. The cap and stem are colored a pinkish-buff, and the gills have a lighter shade of the same color varying in early growth toward a cream tint. The spores are white and can be observed by placing the cap, as already indicated, on a dark-colored paper, preferably black glazed paper. The fairy ring mushroom is one of the commonest species which grows on the lawns in Washington and vicinity. As many as twenty of these fairy rings have been found on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in one season. In the earlier days, when superstition was more rife than at present, these rings were supposed to mark the places of the dances of the fairies. Another fanciful cause assigned for the production of the rings was that it was due to the effect of lightning striking the ground and burning the grass in a circle, and thus favoring the growth of fungi. Investigations, however, show that the fairy ring is due to a peculiar way in which the mycelium is produced, which begins at a central point, growing uniformly in all directions a few inches each year. After a while the central portion, being older, begins to die, and thus a small circular band is formed which each year increases in size, growing regularly on the outside and dying as regularly on the inside. The fairy rings are not always complete circles,--they are sometimes broken and often are crescent-shaped. This variety of mushroom is quite permanent, does not tend to decay as rapidly as some, and resists better than most varieties the attacks of insects. They, however, are very small as compared with the other common varieties.

_Puff-balls._--A typical mushroom known as the puff-ball is the variety known as _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_ Bosc. The puff-ball is so plain in its form that a description of its appearance is difficult. Usually the outside is colored brown and the covering is more or less irregularly checked, the white color of the interior showing between the darker, elevated areas. When still quite young the flesh is solid, of a milk-white color, and apparently quite dry. After two or three days it becomes soft, has a yellowish tint, develops a watery and later an amber-colored juice as it continues its development through to the later stages. If the mushroom remains ungathered, the interior dries up into a fine brown powder which is projected into the air when pressed by the finger. It is often blown away by the wind. When the fungus reaches this stage of decay it is very commonly known as “the devil’s snuff-box.” Finally the spores and other dust-like bodies are blown away, and there is left only a dry and leathery framework. In the latter stages the puff-ball is not regarded as edible, not because of its being poisonous, but on account of its dry and leathery consistency. In the neighborhood of Washington puff-balls are found commonly in the autumn on lawns and in gardens, and especially on vacant lots where the soil has remained uncultivated and been closely grazed by cattle. The puff-ball also tends to grow in a fairy ring form, and in the circular area in which it grows the grass is likely to be darker in color, showing the existence of a richer soil. It is only while the interior of the puff-ball is still solid and white, with something like the texture of cheese, that it has its highest edible properties.

_Cepe_ (_Boletus edulis_ Bull.).--This variety of mushroom is one of the most highly esteemed, especially in the south of France. It is large and has a very large, half-pear shaped stem. The flesh of this variety of mushroom is white and quite firm in the young mushroom, but becomes softer with age and assumes on the outside a wine tint. It grows, especially in the late summer and through the autumn, wild in the forest. In the extreme south of France it sometimes appears as early as April. (“Nouvel Atlas de Champignons,” Paul Dumée, page 45.) (“The Mushroom Book,” by Nina L. Marshall, page 109.) The cap is usually from four to six inches in diameter and is a gray, brownish-red or tawny-brown in color.

_The Fly Amanita_ (_Amanita muscaria_ (L.) Fr.).--This is one of the very poisonous varieties of mushrooms. In the illustration the fully matured mushroom is shown at one-half its natural size. This is the most common poisonous mushroom which grows in the District of Columbia and other nearby localities. The points especially to be noticed are the bulbous enlargement at the base of the stem, breaking into thick scales above, the very broad drooping ring near the top of the stem, and the corky particles loosely attached to the smooth, glossy upper surface of the cap. The stem, gills, and the spores are white, the corky particles commonly of a buff color, but sometimes varying almost to white. The glossy upper surface of the cap, beneath the corky particles, varies from a brilliant red to orange-yellow, buff, and even white. Commonly in the vicinity of Washington the coloration is orange in the center, shading to yellow toward the margin. Brilliant red ones are rarely seen in this locality, but white ones are not infrequent, especially late in the season. This was the variety of mushroom that lately caused the death of a well known man in Washington. This poisonous variety is one of the largest, handsomest, and most dangerous of mushrooms, and is one whose poisonous character has been most fully studied. It is abundant in the vicinity of Washington in the fall, growing chiefly in the pine woods and, especially, in the localities which have been frequented by hogs. The chief active poisonous principle of the _fly amanita_ is an alkaloid called muscarine, but other poisonous substances whose exact nature has not yet been discovered also occur in the plant.

When this variety of mushroom is reduced to a paste and exposed where it can be eaten by flies the latter are readily poisoned, and hence the common name of “_fly amanita_.”

=Symptoms of Mushroom Poisoning.=--The symptoms of poisoning from the _fly amanita_, as deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In some instances they begin only after several hours, but usually in from one-half to one or two hours. Vomiting and diarrhea almost always occur, with a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine, and various cerebral phenomena, beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence in one’s ability to make ordinary movements, and derangement of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked weakening of the heart’s action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death at last ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of the heart’s action.

=Treatment for Poisoning.=--The treatment for poisoning by _Amanita muscaria_ consists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the _Amanita_ from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect of the muscarine on the heart. The action of this organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection, by a physician, of atropin, in doses of from one one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest emetics, such as tartarized antimony or apomorphin, should be used, though in case of profound stupor even these may not produce the desired action. Freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of a one percent alkaline solution of permanganate of potash may then be administered in order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb the poison, or in case of the latter, to decompose it. This should be followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine.

Experiments on animals poisoned by the _fly amanita_ and with pure muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the use of atropin. Its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost perfect physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant.

The presence of phallin in _Amanita muscaria_ is possible and its effects should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines. (Circular 13, Div. of Botany.)

=Removal of the Poisonous Principle.=--In some parts of Europe the _fly amanita_ is soaked in vinegar and then is eaten with impunity. Some of the colored people in Washington and vicinity are acquainted with this method of treatment, and the practice of soaking these fungi in vinegar and then eating them is not unknown, though the majority of colored women in the markets who deal in mushrooms look upon this species with unrestrained horror.

The poisonous variety is denatured as follows: The stem is well scraped, and the gills are removed from the cap and the upper surface peeled off. The mushrooms prepared in this way are boiled in salt and water and afterward steeped in vinegar. They are finally washed in clear water and then cooked in the ordinary manner and eaten without any injurious results. It is not recommended, however, that a mushroom which contains so much deadly poison should be eaten at all, even after a preparation of this kind. Any carelessness in the preparation or any failure to carry out the process completely would result fatally.

=Canned Mushrooms.=--The canning of mushrooms is an industry of large magnitude, especially in France. The young, unexpanded mushrooms in the form of buttons are those which are usually subjected to the canning process. Mushrooms are brought to the factory where they are cleaned and scraped, the stem cut to a proper length, thoroughly washed in several washings of clean water, and taken to a sulfuring furnace where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur for some time. The purpose of this treatment is to bleach the mushroom and make it as white as possible. Decayed or deformed buttons are not included in the cans of highest quality. The prepared mushrooms are then placed in cans, usually of tin, and preserved by subjecting them to a temperature at or above boiling water until thoroughly sterilized.

=Canned Pieces and Stems of Mushrooms.=--The imperfect portions, the pieces which are cut away, and other fragments of the mushroom, resulting from the preparation of the product described above, are treated practically in the same manner for sterilizing purposes and are sold to the trade under various names, the most common of which is Champignons d’Hotel. They also frequently appear under the name of Champignon Choix and other deceptive labels.

=Adulteration of Mushrooms.=--There is no adulteration practiced of fresh mushrooms unless the occasional occurrence of poisonous varieties may be so considered. It is evident, however, that the introduction of poisonous varieties is the result of carelessness or mistake and not for any purpose. Nevertheless a most exacting supervision over the preparation of fresh mushrooms for the market should be required, and any failure to exercise this care may be considered as resulting in adulteration or depreciation of the character of the product.

In canned mushrooms the presence of sulfurous acid may be regarded as an adulterant, and such a substance, believed to be inimical to health, is not necessary in the preparation of the goods. It is quite certain that the public taste would soon adapt itself to an amber- or brown-colored product in canned mushrooms and value it as highly as the buttons which are white. Since the sole purpose of the use of sulfur is for bleaching, the end secured scarcely justifies the means. It is claimed, naturally, that the use of sulfur is also a safeguard in securing a better keeping of the product, but such an adjunct for keeping purposes is only necessary when the sterilization is not complete. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when mushrooms bleached with sulfurous acid shall no longer be found upon our market. The use of other preservatives than sulfurous acid has at times been practiced, but it is not believed that there are many cans of mushrooms offered upon the market which contain any chemical preservatives whatever save the sulfurous acid above noted. Since the canned mushrooms are valued principally as a condiment, the inclusion of imperfect or partially decayed or malformed buttons is extremely unusual. The buttons are separated into sizes of approximately the same magnitude, so that a can of the product is uniform in size as well as in quality. The customer may be reasonably certain that he is getting a good, young, carefully selected product, free from disease and from accidental impurities which might render the product unwholesome or unpalatable.

=Truffles.=--The truffle has been known almost, if not quite as long as the mushroom as an edible delicacy. The use of truffles in France became very common during the 14th century, but on account of their high price they remained for a long time a luxury and not a general article of commerce. It is only within the 19th century, after 1840, that their consumption became general. The truffle belongs to the botanical family Tuberaceæ.

The propagation of truffles is similar to that of mushrooms, by spores, which first give rise to a mycelium which by further condensation forms the body of the truffle. This mycelium furnishes the nutritients for the tubercle during a certain time of its early growth. In the cultivation of the truffle, artificially, it is necessary to make use of a forest or other similar artificial covering. If trees are planted especially for the development of truffles it requires six or eight years growth before the cultivation of truffles is successful. The truffle grows very readily in the shade of nut-bearing trees and in the shade of the oak. The mycelium does not produce truffles until after several years of vegetation. When it once begins to fructify and produce the truffle it continues to bear for many years. The truffle, like the mushroom, grows rapidly. At first, as has already been stated, it is nourished by the mycelium, but when this is exhausted it is nourished by absorbing the nutritious elements from the soil and air. When it reaches maturity and its spores are well formed the truffle acquires its maximum of aroma and palatability. After it has reached maturity it can remain a certain time in the soil without being changed. However, after a time it is rapidly decomposed and its tissues become the seat of various chemical reactions or it is devoured by insects.

_Cultivation of Truffles._--The truffle may only be grown in the midst of very favorable conditions of climate, altitude, mellowness of the soil, moisture, and proper shade. The planting of truffle trees serves as a _vehicle_ for the spores which are later to give birth to the mycelium which itself produces the truffle. The spores of the truffles usually reach the forests in which they are grown by natural means without being particularly planted. Sometimes, however, the spores are carried directly to the soil where the new crop is to be grown.

_Geographic Distribution._--The truffle, like the mushroom, is spread over all parts of the earth. In Europe it is especially abundant in France and Italy. The provinces in France where it grows in greatest abundance are Provence, Dauphiné, Languedoc, and Périgord.

_Principal Varieties._--The varieties of truffles are not so numerous as mushrooms, of which perhaps a thousand different varieties are known, but still they are sufficiently numerous. One of those frequently cultivated in France is known as truffles of Périgord (_Tuber melanosporum_ Vittad.). It grows best under the shade of a growing walnut or a young oak. The tubers of these plants, which are the part valuable for food, may weigh from 60 to 500 grams. Other botanical varieties which are much cultivated are _Tuber brumale_ Vittad., _Tuber æstivum_ Mich., _Tuber magnatum_ Vittad., and many others.

_Harvesting of Truffles._--The truffle comes into production from the sixth to the tenth year after planting the appropriate forest trees. It is easy to determine the year when the harvest should begin, since during the preceding year there is found in the soil some hypogæan mushrooms which may be considered as precursors of the truffles. Moreover, the soil under the tree becomes practically free of all vegetation. The truffle ripens from November to April, according to its variety. It is important that it should not be harvested except at the period of complete maturity. For harvesting purposes certain animals are made use of, such as the dog and hog. These animals have a delicate smell in these matters and only bring out of the soil the ripe truffles while they leave the others. Man is not able to make this nice distinction, and harvests all indiscriminately, from which there results great financial loss. In the harvesting of truffles the ground should be gone over about once in eight days in order that the tubercles may be secured during the whole winter at the proper time of maturity. When the truffles are developed the soil above them is hilled or cracked, especially after rains. These are the places which are selected for the harvesting when it is done by the hand of man.

_Harvesting by Means of Flies._--When the weather is warm and clear there is seen above the place where the tubers are lying, a multitude of flies,--these mark the place where the harvest should be made. The best time for this kind of a harvest is about nine o’clock in the morning. Good results are not obtainable from this sign except when the sun rises clear and becomes afterward warm. In order to find the flies the husbandman stoops down near the surface of the soil and looks horizontally over it. The colonies of flies are thus easily distinguished, and below each one of these colonies the truffles are found. This is also an ineffective method because only the overripened tubercles attract the flies while those in their very prime are not thus marked.

_Harvesting with Hogs._--The utilization of hogs for harvesting purposes is by far the best and most economical method. It is employed especially in Périgord and Midi. The harvesting can be either in the morning or afternoon. The hogs which are used for harvesting should be previously well fed in order to prevent them from eating the truffles which they dig out of the ground. Each animal is led with a rope. As soon as the hog gets the scent of truffles it pounces upon them and rapidly uncovers them with its snout. When the weather is favorable a hog can easily smell a truffle at a distance of 150 feet. As soon as the animal has brought the truffle to the surface instead of allowing him to eat it he should be recompensed by giving him some suitable food such as maize. If this little attention is neglected the animal soon becomes discouraged and refuses to work any longer. Before leaving the spot the hog assures himself that no other truffles are contained in that neighborhood. When the hog becomes very tired he walks very slowly and with his mouth open. It is then necessary to give him a period of rest before continuing the harvest. If the search for truffles does not bring good results the animal becomes morose, indolent, and refuses to obey. Sometimes when the hog is hungry and wants to eat the truffles it is necessary to give him a smart blow on the snout with a stick. A special race of hogs is used in this harvesting whose parents have also possessed the skill, and thus it becomes hereditary. A good hog is able to engage in the harvesting from the age of two to 25 years but they do their best work at three or four years. A single animal may be able to harvest from six to 40 pounds of truffles per day, according to their abundance in the soil. This class of hogs have a very high value, and are often sold in the south of France for this sole purpose at from $30.00 to $70.00 per head.

_Harvesting with the Dog._--The dog is also employed in regions where truffles are produced, and especially in those regions where the yield is not so great and where the area to be gone over is very large. The dog is used especially in the Dauphiné, Champagne, Bourgogne, Provence, and Languedoc, and also in the neighborhood of Paris. These dogs are trained, as in the case of hogs, especially for this purpose and should be rewarded when a find is made, in the same manner as the hog. This recognition of their services should never be forgotten if animals of the greatest skill are to be secured. The dog, as is the case with the hog, locates the truffles by the scent and digs with his four paws until the truffles are laid bare,--the husbandman then draws them out of the soil with long forceps. The hog is preferable to the dog because it does the whole harvesting itself, whereas in the case of the dog the husbandman must finish the operation.

The yield of the truffle farm is naturally extremely valuable, varying with the relative abundance of growth and character of the soil itself. Sometimes the yield drops as low as five pounds per acre and sometimes rises as high as 70 pounds per acre. The average price of truffles is $2.00 per pound. The largest yield is found in the truffle farms from the tenth to the twentieth year.

_Properties of Truffles._--It is difficult to describe the properties of truffles. They are, when prepared for the table, black, rather firm in flesh, and have a distinct and most agreeable odor and taste. A good truffle is extremely firm and resists the ordinary pressure of the finger. If it is soft it shows that it is lacking in its best characteristic.

The size of the truffle has a marked influence upon its value because the small truffle loses a large part of its weight in the preparation for eating. Truffles of good size are those which weigh from 40 to 50 grams, those of first choice weighing from 60 to 100 grams. After the truffle passes 100 grams in weight the increased weight does not proportionately increase the value. The truffles which come from light soil are considered superior to those which come from rich soil. If the soil contains a large quantity of iron the truffles are usually of finer quality. All truffles are not black, though the best ones, like those of Périgord, are black. Others are gray or brown.

_Adulteration of Truffles._--Commerce in truffles is the subject of considerable fraud on account of the very high price of the genuine article. The principal adulterations are the mixture of the inferior or imperfect varieties with the choicest or best varieties. This adulteration is easily discovered by making a careful examination of the tubercles individually. Another fraud which is very much practiced is the introduction of soil into the cracks or crevices in order to increase their weight. This adulteration, of course, is easily discovered by anyone who prepares the truffles for the table. Another form of adulteration is the mingling with the ripe truffle of those which have not reached maturity. The unripe tubercles have very little flavor or taste and are thus easily distinguished from those which are mature. Also practiced is the pressing together with some kind of a glue of a number of smaller truffles in order to form a large mass, as if it were an entire truffle, and thus securing a larger price. This is also a fraud easily discovered. Still another form of sophistication is the production of artificial truffles made from potatoes and especially those which are partially spoiled which are colored in imitation of the truffle itself. Only those who are ignorant of the texture of the truffle can be deceived by this gross imitation. Another form of adulteration is the sale of the truffle coming from regions less esteemed for their products for those of other more esteemed regions as for instance, the sale of truffles from Sarladais or from Domme for those of Périgord.

_Preservation of the Truffle During Transit._--For the purpose of keeping truffles in good condition during transit they may be placed in moss, fine sand, or powdered chalk. They can be kept in this way for a few days during transit, but should not be long preserved in this manner. Truffles may also be preserved indefinitely by sterilization. It is necessary to do this whenever they are to be sent over long distances or kept for a long time. The methods of sterilizing are not different from those described for ordinary vegetables. Truffles are also preserved by desiccation, but in this case they lose something of their odor and taste and are not so highly esteemed. Finally the truffles are sometimes preserved by cooking them and preserving them in wine or olive oil. (Raymond Brunet, “Manuel Pratique de la Culture des Champignons et de la Truffe.”)

=Food Value of Fungi.=--While the mushroom and the truffle are the principal fungi used as food they are by no means the only kinds. Their value, as has already been indicated, is rather condimental than nutritive. Those, however, who have eaten fresh or well preserved mushrooms or truffles, cooked in the best style of the culinary art, are fully acquainted with their value. The fear of poisoning does much to restrict the use of the wild mushrooms. The fields and forests are full of many varieties of these fungi, especially in the autumn. Very few of the varieties are poisonous, but the conservative gourmand hesitates to consume the fruits of his own activity as a collector. In the hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains near Harper’s Ferry I have seen large areas of the forest almost covered with these growths in August and September, but the courage leading to their consumption was wanting.