PART VI.

VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS.

SUCCULENT VEGETABLES.

The term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the word means that class which distinguishes it from animal food. In a narrower sense, however, the term vegetable is used to denote a certain class of food which is of a succulent or juicy nature. While cereals and fruits are vegetables in the broadest sense of the word they are not in the narrow and common meaning. The term “vegetable” in this section therefore refers to those substances commonly known as vegetables upon the market and which are characterized by their high water content. On account of this abundance of liquid or juice the term succulent is applied to them. The common vegetables which are included in this class consist of lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower, beets, radishes, turnips, cabbage, green Indian corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, yams, etc. These vegetables contain in a fresh state from 70 to 95 percent of water. Many of them can be kept for a length of time without deterioration, especially the potato and beet, and for a short time cabbage, radishes, etc., if kept cool and moist. Other kinds of vegetables are not easily preserved for any length of lime except in cold storage, such as lettuce, peas, beans, tomatoes, etc. If the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value, as will be seen by the analysis which follows. They have, however, an important part in the ration because of their palatability and the effect which they have upon the general activity of the alimentary canal. For instance, there is very little nourishment obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is 95 percent water,--yet its palatability, its condimental character, and its general salutary effect upon digestion is such as to make it worth while to pay even a high price in proportion to its nutriment. For this reason, as well as for their nutritive value, the use of succulent vegetables is to be very highly commended.

In general, as has been said, these vegetables are eaten in a fresh state or after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage or otherwise. The potato, for instance, can be kept by properly covering it in the earth or in bins through the winter. Cabbages are also kept in the same way and many other vegetables without apparent deterioration. These vegetables are often desiccated, and in this way can be kept for a much longer period. Unfortunately no method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely the palatability of the vegetable, although its nutrient properties, which are perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects, are preserved to a certain extent by desiccation.

We may, however, leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh vegetables. Certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become desiccated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans, but then they are removed from the category of succulent vegetables. Green Indian corn is also often dried, but in this process its palatability is to a certain extent impaired even when it is prepared for cooking in such a way as to restore practically all of the water which has been lost. Succulent vegetables are eaten either in a raw state or after cooking. For instance radishes and vegetables of this class are rarely cooked. On the other hand, potatoes, peas, and beans are always cooked and practically never eaten raw. Green Indian corn is also universally cooked before eating. There are other vegetables which are sometimes eaten raw and sometimes cooked, as, for instance, the turnip, while on the other hand the beet, which is very sweet and naturally would be considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state, is always cooked before it is consumed.

=Artichoke.=--This vegetable, while not very extensively grown in the United States, is cultivated to a very extensive degree in Europe. The tubers of the artichoke (_Cynara Scolymus_) are essentially a carbohydrate food, growing underground, and thus belong, in a measure, to the same class as the potato, the yam, and the beet. The carbohydrates which are present in artichokes do not contain very much starch. In this respect they differ from the potato and the yam. When the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose. On the other hand, when the carbohydrates of artichokes are converted into sugar they form chiefly levulose. The principal part of the carbohydrate is known as inulin or levulin. The artichoke can be easily kept over a long period of time, and may remain without much detriment in the ground, where the winters are not severe, from autumn until spring. After harvesting it may be kept for some time without any very great loss in its food value.

In the following table are given the data showing the composition of the artichoke, harvested in the autumn and also in the spring:

Spring: Water, 79.03 percent Inulin or levulin, 17.76 „ Protein, 1.27 „ Ether extract, .18 „ Ash, .99 „

Fall: Water, 79.70 percent Inulin or levulin, 16.93 „ Protein, 1.48 „ Ether extract, .14 „ Ash, 1.08 „

(Behrend, J. für Landwirtschaft, vol. 52, p. 134, 1904.)

The above data show that the artichoke, like the potato, is a food product poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material. In so far as known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as digestible and nutritious as those of other tubers.

=Asparagus.=--Asparagus (_Asparagus officinalis_ L.)--French, asperge; German, spargel; Italian, sparagio; Spanish, esparrago--is a highly prized vegetable and is a native of Europe. The edible asparagus is the young, fresh, undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of growth. They are highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad. There is a number of varieties of asparagus, among which may be mentioned the Giant Dutch asparagus, the common green asparagus, white German asparagus, etc. These are different in kind only, since they all belong to the same botanical species and the variations are produced chiefly by different methods of cultivation.

_Composition._--

Water, 93.96 percent Ash, .67 „ Protein, 1.83 „ Fiber, .74 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 2.55 „ Fat, .25 „

Asparagus is composed chiefly of water, which amounts, in round numbers, to 94 percent of its entire weight. Its edible portion is rich in protein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables. It is somewhat richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip. Its food value, as will be seen, is largely of a condimental character.

=The Bean.=--The bean belongs to the family Fabaceæ. It is a native of America and has been cultivated from the earliest times. There are many different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this country. They grow over the whole range of the United States. There are early and late maturing varieties. Beans are used for food both in the fresh state, while the pods are tender and can be eaten with the immature beans, and also in the dry state, in which condition they are a staple article of food. There are many different varieties of beans which, while not always botanically identical, are sufficiently so to warrant the use of the common name. Two general classes, however, may be distinguished, namely, those that grow in small clusters or bunches and those that grow upon vines or tendrils which have to be supported. In regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are subjected there may be mentioned field beans, which are cultivated over a large area, and garden beans, which are cultivated in small gardens for the green markets.

_Kidney Bean._--The kidney bean, or French bean, is a special botanical variety (_Phaseolus vulgaris_ L.). It is what is known in French as haricot; in German as Bohne; Dutch, Boon; Italian, faginolo; Spanish, habichuela. This variety of bean is commonly called a French bean and is a native of South America. It does not seem to have been known before the discovery of the American continent and hence is not thought to have grown wild in any other part of the world. The kidney bean is not very well suited to very high northern latitudes, since it is particularly sensitive to the cold, even if the temperature is not low enough to produce frost. The kidney bean is cultivated over large areas and is also a garden crop. There are early and late varieties, so that the season for the kidney bean is a long one. The pods of this bean are distinguished by being long and slender, and it is particularly valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for canning. This is true, especially, of that variety which has a tender pod.

There is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough, and this, of course, is not so well suited for eating green, although when very young, even the tough-podded bean can be used. There are a great many different varieties of kidney beans known, one of which is called the “dwarf kidney bean” on account of its growing only on low bushes and needing no support for the vines. In this variety the pods hang in thick clusters, the lower ends often touching the ground.

_Butter Beans._--There is another large class of beans known as butter beans. This variety is also known as Geneva, or plainpalais, or wax bean.

_Lima Beans._--The Lima bean is also a different botanical species known as _Phaseolus lunatus_ L. It is nearly related to the kidney bean, being also a native of South America. The vine is a very long one, often reaching more than 10 feet if a proper support be offered it. The common Lima bean is one which matures rather late in the season, but it is most highly valued for its product, which is eaten shelled. There are smaller varieties of this bean known as the dwarf Lima or small Lima.

The total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated is, perhaps, more than 100, but they belong in general to the large classes specified.

_Average Composition of Green, String, and Lima Beans._--

Lima beans: Water, 68.46 percent Ash, 1.69 „ Protein, 7.15 „ Crude fiber, 1.71 „ Carbohydrates, 20.30 „ Fat, .69 „

String beans: Water, 87.23 percent Ash, .76 „ Protein, 2.20 „ Crude fiber, 1.92 „ Carbohydrates, 7.52 „ Fat, .37 „

The above data are for green _Lima_ beans with the pod removed and for _string_ beans including the pod. The latter, it is seen, are composed largely of water, containing less than 13 percent of dry matter. Of the dry matter almost 20 percent is protein. The soluble carbohydrates, including the starch and sugar, are the most important of the ingredients of the dry substance in so far as actual weight is concerned. In the Lima bean the protein is more than three times as great as in the string bean, and the starch and sugar almost three times as much. As a nutrient, therefore, the Lima beans are far more valuable than the string beans. These data may be taken as representative of all varieties of green beans, hulled and unhulled, the Lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being the type of beans including the pod.

_Composition of the Dry Bean._--

Water, 15.86 percent. Ash, 3.53 „ Protein, 20.57 „ Fiber, 3.86 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 55.49 „ Fat, .69 „

The analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in protein than the cereals.

=Beets.=--All the varieties of edible beets belong to the common species _Beta vulgaris_ L. French, betterave; German, Salat-Rübe; Dutch, Betwortel; Italian, barbabietola; Spanish, remolacha.

The most important of these beets, economically, is the variety which has been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar. By long years of selection and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet, which is not more than from four to six percent, has been brought up to an average of about 14 percent, often reaching much larger quantities. The sugar beet itself, in its earlier stages, makes an excellent vegetable for the table, being particularly sweet and palatable. Its tannin content, however, is very high, and before cooking, especially, it has quite a bitter taste, at times. This disappears in the young beets when they are cooked. The sugar beet has a perfectly white flesh, inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultivation to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar with as little trouble as possible. On the other hand the garden beet is usually highly colored, the red beet being especially prized. The number of varieties of beets in cultivation is very great. Among the most important may be mentioned the long blood-red beet, which is the common garden beet, the rough-skinned red beet, the pear-shaped beet, the turnip-shaped beet, all of which are of the red color. There is also cultivated for eating purposes a beet with yellow flesh, though it is not by any means so common as the red garden beet.

_Composition of the Beet._--The following data represents the average composition of the red beet used as a vegetable:

Water, 88.47 percent Ash, 1.04 „ Protein, 1.53 „ Fiber, .88 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 7.94 „ Fat, .14 „

The above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than 12 percent of solid matter and a little more than 88 percent of water. It is rather poor in protein, though it is not a vegetable which can be classed as being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents. Its chief food value, however, is in the sugar which it contains, which is more than 7 percent. It is quite deficient in fat.

=Brussels Sprouts.=--Brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high reputation on the table. The French name is chou de Bruxelles; German, Brüsseler Sprossen-Kohl; Italian, cavolo a germoglio; Spanish, bretones de Bruselas. The composition of Brussels sprouts is practically the same as that of cabbage.

=Cabbage.=--The botanical name of the cabbage is _Brassica oleracea_ L. and it belongs to the family Brassicaceæ. It is a plant which is indigenous to both Europe and Asia, and still grows wild in some parts of the European continent. It is eaten both raw, in the form of salad, slaw, etc., and cooked in various methods. It is also subjected to a fermentation, producing the highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut. Its French name is chou cabus; German, Kopfkohl; Italian, cavolo cappuccio; Spanish, col repollo.

The cabbage is a plant which, as it approaches maturity, has its leaves folded upon each other in a solid mass, producing the head. These leaves naturally become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender. The external, free leaves are not prized as a food. The varieties of the cabbage are almost legion and are produced by different methods of cultivation.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.52 percent Ash, 1.40 „ Protein, 2.39 „ Fiber, 1.47 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 3.85 „ Fat, .37 „

The above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water, amounting to as much as 91 percent of its weight. Its principal food constituents are starch, sugar, and digestible fiber. Its most valuable food constituent is most probably the protein, of which it contains a large proportionate quantity. In all its forms cabbage is a wholesome, if not very nutritious, dish.

=Carrot.=--The botanical name of the carrot is _Daucus carota_ L. French, carotte; German, Mohre; Italian, carota; Spanish, zanahoria.

This plant is indigenous to Europe. The carrot is naturally a biennial plant, though it is often produced in a single season, and especial efforts are made to produce quick-growing carrots. This vegetable is much more common in Europe than in the United States, and when grown here at all it is used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food. There is a large number of varieties of carrots, but practically all belong to the same botanical species. The flesh is often of a yellow tint, though blood-red carrots are grown and highly prized.

_Composition._--

Water, 88.59 percent Ash, 1.02 „ Protein, 1.14 „ Fiber, 1.27 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 7.56 „ Fat, .42 „

It is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactly the composition of the garden beet. Its principal food value is in the sugar and other carbohydrates which it contains. It also has a notable proportion of protein and has almost 12 percent of solid matter.

=Cauliflower.=--Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion of which is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster. It is more tender and delicate in its structure than the common cabbage. The French name is choufleur; German, Blumenkohl; Italian, cavolfiore; Spanish, coliflor.

It is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce. It is a dish which is much more common in Europe than in this country, where it is not appreciated as it should be. There is a large number of varieties produced, chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and the effect of environment in which they are grown.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.82 percent Ash, .81 „ Protein, 1.62 „ Fiber, 1.02 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 4.94 „ Fat, .79 „

The cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition, having, however, a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and a much larger proportion of fat. Its dietetic value, however, is not notably different from that of the cabbage.

=Celery.=--One of the most important vegetables upon the table in this country is celery. The botanical name of celery is _Apium graveolens_ L. The French name is celeri; German, Sellerie; Italian, sedano; Spanish, apio.

Celery is indigenous to Europe. It is eaten in its young state, and is most valued when the stalks are bleached. This is accomplished by hilling up the earth around them or protecting them from the light by boards or otherwise. Kept in the dark in this way the green color fades and the stalks becomes more crisp and brittle. There is a number of varieties of celery, and these are chiefly due to the different methods of cultivation. Celery is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a common constituent of soup. Celery seeds are supposed to have not only a condimental but a medicinal value.

=Chicory.=--The botanical name of chicory is _Cichorium intybus_ L. In French it is called chicorée sauvage; German, wilde or bittere Chichorie; Italian, cicoria selvatica; Spanish, achicoria amarga o agreste.

The wild chicory is used chiefly, even in its cultivated state, for salad purposes, the roots not being of any value on account of their smallness. The chicory, however, develops under cultivation a large root like the carrot or turnip, and this variety of chicory is used chiefly on account of the roots, which, when they are roasted properly, are highly prized as a substitute for coffee. The common wild chicory has been used from time immemorial as a salad. The leaves have rather a bitter taste and are more highly prized for salad purposes when mixed with lettuce or other leaves which have a less pronounced flavor. The variety of chicory of which the roots are used as a substitute for coffee is known as “Brunswick chicory,” or Magdeburg large-rooted chicory.

_Composition of the Root._--

Water, 79.20 percent Ash, 1.11 „ Sugars, .60 „ Inulin, 14.00 „ Fiber, 1.29 „ Protein and undetermined, 3.50 „

Starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but inulin takes its place. In this respect chicory resembles the artichoke in its composition.

_Roasted Chicory._--When chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or as a substance added to coffee it is roasted, and its composition is thus materially changed, as is represented by the following data:

Moisture, 13.3 percent Ash, 5.9 „ Sugar, 12.4 „ Inulin, 4.3 „ Fiber, 6.9 „ Caramel and undetermined, 57.2 „

From the data of the above analysis the inulin does not appear to have been very largely converted into levulose by roasting, but rather into the insoluble carbohydrate matter. Whether or not, therefore, the inulin exists in the large proportion given in the analysis of the fresh chicory is a matter of some doubt.

=Cranberry.=--The cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds of the northern part of the United States, especially in New England, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. It is a red, hard berry, not at all pleasant to the taste in its fresh state, very acid, but greatly valued during the autumn and winter months when stewed with sugar and served as a sauce, especially with turkey. Its chief use, in fact, is to eat with turkey or chicken. The cranberry is a fruit which contains naturally a small quantity of benzoic acid.

_Composition._--

Water, 86.10 percent Solids, 13.90 „ Soluble solids, 8.43 „ Acidity, 1.98 „

(Measured as grams of sulfuric acid per 100 grams of material.)

=Cress.=--The botanical name of cress is _Lepidium sativum_ L. French, cresson alenois; German, Garten-Kresse; Italian, agretto; Spanish, mastuerzo.

It is a plant which is indigenous to Persia. It grows in this country in moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country. The real water cress belongs to a different species, its botanical name being _Rorippa nasturtium_. It grows only in water, in which it differs from the preceding variety. It is highly prized as an aromatic flavoring material and for table use. There are very many varieties in cultivation.

=Cucumbers.=--The botanical name of cucumber is _Cucumis sativus_ L. French, concombre; German, Gurke; Italian, cetriulo; Spanish, cohombro.

The cucumber is indigenous to East India, but is now cultivated in all countries. It is a plant which develops vines which often run to great distances. The cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state, and the very young cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles, though all sizes are used for that purpose, from the very smallest to the giant variety. The number of varieties cultivated is extremely great. The variety known as the gherkin is highly prized for pickling.

_Composition of the Cucumber._--

Water, 95.99 percent Ash, .46 „ Protein, .81 „ Fiber, .69 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 1.83 „ Fat, .22 „

The above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid water, there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor and consistence.

=Egg Plant.=--Another vegetable which is highly prized for the table is the egg plant, _Solanum melongena_ L. French, aubergine; German, Eierpflanze; Italian, petronciano; Spanish, berengena.

The egg plant is indigenous to India. Its name is derived from the shape of some of its varieties, though many of them have ceased to resemble the egg in appearance. There is a large number of varieties, but the one which is known as the white egg plant looks more like an egg both in shape and color than most of the others.

_Composition._--

Water, 92.93 percent Ash, .50 „ Protein, 1.15 „ Fiber, .77 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 4.34 „ Fat, .31 „

The egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little more than 7 percent of solid matter, and this is chiefly sugar, starch, and other digestible carbohydrates.

=Garlic.=--The botanical name of garlic is _Allium sativum_ L. French, ail ordinaire; German, Gewöhnlicher Knoblauch; Italian, aglio; Spanish, ajo vulgar.

This highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern Europe. It is a perennial plant, and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly underground. This part is used for spicing food. It is eaten in large quantities by the Latin nations of southern Europe, and is employed throughout the world as a seasoning or flavoring for many dishes. When eaten in excess it makes the breath extremely disagreeable, as can be witnessed by all who have traveled in the Latin countries of Europe and even among the South Germans. Garlic is not eaten to any extent by our native citizens, but is used by our first-class cooks extensively as a seasoning. A little of it is known to go a great way. Its composition is very much like that of the onion. A wild garlic grows in the United States over wide areas. It is often eaten by cows, and it imparts to the milk a very disagreeable flavor and smell.

=Gourds.=--Gourds themselves are not very much used for edible purposes, but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin and squash belong to the important vegetable foods in the United States. The most important member of this family is the pumpkin, _Cucurbita pepo_ L., which grows often to an enormous size and has a beautiful yellow color. The French name for the pumpkin is potirons; German, Melonen oder Centner Kurbiss; Italian, zucca; Spanish, calabaza totanera.

The pumpkin of California, especially, is noted for its gigantic proportions. The pumpkin is used very extensively in New England, as well as other parts of the country, for making pies, and is also used as a sauce. The pumpkin is not eaten raw. As a cattle food it is highly prized in all parts of the country, and when fed to milch cows it imparts to the butter, even in the winter, a delicate amber tint.

_Composition of the Flesh of the Pumpkin._--

Water, 93.39 percent Ash, .67 „ Protein, .91 „ Fiber, .98 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 3.93 „ Fat, .12 „

It is seen that the flesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food, the chief ingredient of the solid matter being sugar. Its value, therefore, as a food is more condimental than nutritive.

=Horse-radish.=--The botanical name of horse-radish is _Cochlearia armoracia_ L. French, raifort sauvage; German, Meerettig; Italian, rafano; Spanish, taramago.

The horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental vegetable substances in common use in the United States. It is particularly used with oysters and other foods of similar character and as a sauce or spice in a salad. It is indigenous to Europe, but is now cultivated everywhere. There are many varieties, but they are all characterized by a sharp, pungent taste and odor.

_Adulteration of Horse-radish._--Other vegetable substances, as, for instance, the more highly spiced aromatic turnips, are often substituted for horse-radish.

=Jerusalem Artichoke.=--This is a plant of the aster family (_Helianthus tuberosus_ L.) producing a heavy ovoid head the fleshy parts of which, including the base to which they are attached, are highly valued as food, being usually eaten with a sauce. This plant is more largely cultivated in France and other European countries than in the United States.

=Kale.=--Kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different botanically from the common cabbage. This form of cabbage does not make a firm head, but grows only with free leaves. It is especially adapted for use in much the same manner as the common substance known by the housewife as greens. It is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold climates. There are a great many varieties of kale, and the composition is practically that of the cabbage.

=Leek.=--The leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic. Its botanical name is _Allium porrum_ L. French, poireau; German, Lauch; Italian, porro; Spanish, puerro.

The leek is thought to be indigenous to Switzerland, though this is not quite certain. It is closely related to the garlic and onion and is valued for the same purposes, namely, its highly aromatic condimental character.

=Lettuce.=--Among the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the lettuce. Its botanical name is _Lactuca sativa_ L. French, laitue cultivée; German, Lattich; Italian, lattuga; Spanish, lechuga.

Lettuce is thought to be indigenous to India or Central Asia. It has been cultivated, however, for so long that its origin is a matter of doubt. There is a legion of varieties of lettuce, but they all have essentially the same characteristics and have little food value. Lettuce is now found practically throughout the whole year in all civilized countries, being grown under glass in winter so as to furnish a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year. It is used chiefly as salad, and among the varieties which are most highly prized for this purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as Romaine. The Romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the shape of the leaves, which are much longer and narrower than those of ordinary lettuce. The Romaine lettuce is more highly prized by most connoisseurs as being more tender and brittle than the first variety.

_Composition._--

Water, 93.68 percent Ash, 1.61 „ Protein, 1.41 „ Fiber, .74 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 2.18 „ Fat, .38 „

The data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable. Its chief food constituents are protein and sugar. Its real value as a food is not shown by chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate, aromatic flavor which is not revealed by the crucible.

=Melons.=--There are two kinds of melons eaten in the United States,--the first the watermelon, and the second the cantaloupe or muskmelon. In Europe the principal melon which is used is one having deep yellow flesh resembling the color of a pumpkin and known as the French melon. The botanical name is _Cucumis melo_ L. French, melon; German, Melone; Italian, popone; Spanish, melon.

The French melon is indigenous to Asia, but only the cultivated varieties are known now. The flesh is very sweet and is, as has already been said, usually of a deep yellow color, though there are many different varieties.

=Cantaloupe.=--This is a general name given to the melons of the French type or varieties thereof growing in the United States. It is supposed to have had its origin in Italy, though its history is so old as not to be certain. The cantaloupe is of various sizes and shapes and various degrees of sweetness. In the United States the variety grown at Rocky Ford, Colorado, is noted for its sweetness and general palatability. For this reason many melons not grown at Rocky Ford are improperly sold under that name. There are a great many varieties of cantaloupes. Generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is green instead of yellow. The cantaloupe is often called muskmelon.

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF MUSKMELONS.

FROM RIND OF MELON. --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+-------- SERIES | | NITRO- | | |REDUCING NO. |BRIX.| GEN. | ASH. |SUCROSE.| SUGAR. --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+-------- | |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent. 495, | 11.5| .106 | 1.23 | 3.99 | 3.97 554, | 8.4| .018 | 0.66 | 2.47 | 3.62 587, | 5.0| .053 | 0.47 | 2.25 | 2.84 613, | 10.3| .156 | 0.93 | 2.77 | 3.64 | ----| ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- Average,| 8.8| .083 | 0.82 | 2.87 | 3.52 --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+-------- JUICE OF EDIBLE PORTION OF MELON. --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+-------- SERIES | | NITRO- | | |REDUCING NO. |BRIX.| GEN. | ASH. |SUCROSE.| SUGAR. --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+-------- | |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent. 495, | 12.9| .130 | 1.20 | 6.60 | 2.88 554, | 8.2| .069 | 0.87 | 4.96 | 2.47 587, | 5.8| .043 | 0.50 | 2.26 | 2.57 623, | 11.5| .134 | 0.95 | 5.19 | 2.25 | ----| ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- Average,| 9.6| .094 | 0.88 | 4.75 | 2.54 --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------

=Watermelons.=--This is an entirely different variety from the French melon or cantaloupe. Its botanical name is _Citrullus citrullus_ L. French, melon d’eau; German, Wasser-Melone; Italian, cocomero, Spanish, sandia.

The watermelon is said to be indigenous to Africa. It is grown extensively in the United States, especially in the southern part. It is a field crop of considerable importance, especially in the state of Georgia. The watermelon grows best on a sandy soil, though it requires it to be well fertilized. The vines, when they reach their full growth, cover the entire field. The melons often grow to a very large size,--specimens weighing from 50 to 60 pounds being not unusual. The average size, however, is much less than that. The Georgia melon is somewhat oval in shape, reaching generally from a foot to eighteen inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter. The flesh is generally red and the seeds usually black. The watermelon is in the market from early summer until the late autumn. It bears shipping quite well, and is sent usually in box cars without crating, and, if kept at a low temperature, will remain palatable for many days or even weeks. The fresh ripe melon, however, is far superior in quality to any that are harvested partly green and kept for a long time. About forty or fifty varieties of watermelons grow in the United States.

_Composition of Melons._--The following data show the composition of the flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon:

Muskmelon: Water, 89.50 percent Ash, .60 „ Protein, .60 „ Fiber, .92 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 8.20 „ Fat, .18 „

Watermelon: Water, 91.87 percent Ash, .33 „ Protein, .40 „ Fiber, .55 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 6.65 „ Fat, .20 „

The above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains more nutrient matter than that of the watermelon, the difference being chiefly in the content of water and carbohydrates.

=Okra.=--The French name for okra is gombo; Italian, ibisco; Spanish, gombo.

Okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the United States and especially valued for use in soup making. For this purpose the young seed-vessels are employed. The seed pods of the okra are long, tapering, and rigid by reason of quite sharp angles. The okra is often known as gombo or gumbo.

_Composition._--

Water, 87.41 percent Ash, .74 „ Protein, 1.99 „ Fiber, 3.42 „ Starch, sugar, etc., 6.04 „ Fat, .40 „

=Onion.=--The botanical name of the onion is _Allium cepa_ L. The French name is ognon; German, Zwiebel; Italian, cipolla; Spanish, cebolla.

The onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout the whole world. It is supposed to have been indigenous to Asia, but its exact origin is not known with certainty. Both the pulp and the part of the stem immediately attached thereto are edible. In fact in very young plants the whole plant is edible. Its highly aromatic character and flavor rather than its nutritive qualities give it its chief value. The onion is eaten both raw and in various cooked forms. Cooking the onion, especially boiling, expels a large part of its most pungent character, so that the cooked onion does not manifest itself so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw onion. The onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried, especially with beefsteak. The variety of onions cultivated is legion, but they are due rather to different methods of cultivation, etc., than to botanical character.

_Composition._--

Water, 87.55 percent Ash, .57 „ Protein, 1.40 „ Fiber, .69 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 9.53 „ Fat, .26 „

The onion, it is seen, is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and allied bodies.

=Parsnips.=--The botanical name of the parsnip is _Pastinaca sativa_ L. French, panais; German, Pastinake; Italian, pastinaca; Spanish, chirivia.

The parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also its properties. The root is usually long and straight and gradually tapering. It, however, often has other shapes, as is the case with the carrot and beet.

_Composition._--

Water, 80.34 percent Ash, 1.03 „ Protein, 1.35 „ Fiber, .53 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 16.09 „ Fat, .66 „

The above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients than most of the roots grown, except in sugar and starch content. The large quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value. These carbohydrates are not by any means all sugar and starch, but include a very considerable proportion of cellulose which is more or less digestible.

=Peas.=--The botanical name of the pea plant is _Pisum sativum_ L. French pois; German, Erbse; Italian, pisello; Spanish, guisante.

The pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean, and, perhaps, is almost as extensively cultivated. The pea, however, is not usually eaten in the pod. It is probably indigenous to Central Europe, but has been so long cultivated that an exact history of its original distribution is not known. There are many different varieties of the pea, but the one most highly prized is a small and very sweet pea. The larger variety does not have the palatability and other highly prized edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety. The pea is found in the markets of the United States throughout the whole year, being grown under cover in the winter time. It becomes an abundant crop from early in the spring until very late in the autumn. Immense quantities of peas are preserved by canning, and in this condition they retain their edible properties almost without impairment throughout the entire winter. The pea is valued as a food in many forms.

_Composition._--

STARCH, SUGAR, WATER. ASH. PROTEIN. FIBER. ETC. FAT. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Green pea, 79.93 .78 3.87 1.63 13.30 .49 Dry pea, 12.62 3.11 27.04 3.90 51.75 1.58

The above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food, especially the dry pea. Even in the green pea nearly four percent of its weight is protein.

A comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows that the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean.

=Potatoes.=--One of the most important vegetables as well as food products in general is that class of products to which the term potato is given. The term strictly should apply only to that class known as white or Irish potato (_Solanum tuberosum_ L.). The potato, as indicated by the name, belongs to a family of plants which is considered poisonous, but in the cultivated variety the poisonous principle has been practically eliminated. The potato belongs, essentially, to the starchy group of foods. If we assume, which is very nearly correct, that the average content of water in different varieties of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible purposes is 80 percent, it is found that at least three-fourths of the remaining solid dry matter is starch. The potato contains a trace of sugar and notable quantities of other carbohydrates than starch and sugar, namely, fiber. It also contains a very small proportion of nitrogen and mineral matter.

The potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates. It flourishes particularly well in the northern part of Europe, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in the northern portion of the United States. The northern part of Maine, especially, is noted for the production of potatoes of high edible qualities. It grows very well also in the southern part of the United States. The potato may be produced from seed, but that method of propagation has long since ceased to be practiced for agricultural purposes. The potatoes of commerce are produced from the eyes of the tubers. The best results in the growth of potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into which the roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily to make place for the growing tuber. Hard, clay soils are unsuited to the growth of this vegetable. The planting is accomplished in the early spring after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the usual depth, often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil to the proper tilth. The cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes are planted in rows to a depth of two or three inches, where they may sprout and even reach the surface at a temperature which at times may fall below the frost point on the surface of the soil. The leaf of the potato, when it has once appeared above the surface of the soil, is very susceptible to the action of frost. If killed at an early stage it may grow again without replanting. The potato is a crop which the farmer may plant early in the spring. There are other varieties which are planted later, even in the middle of summer, and produce good results. The planting season may continue over a period of two or three months. During the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil the surface is kept in good tilth, the weeds and grass prevented from growing, and the soil gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with the hoe or plow in the form of ridges. This heaping up of the soil tends to promote the development of the tubers, affording them a loose and more abundant bedding and a greater supply of plant food.

The greatest enemies to which the potato crop is obnoxious are found in the various forms of the potato bug (_Doryphora decemlineata_), which feed upon their leaves. To prevent the ravages of these insects it becomes necessary to dust over the leaves of the growing plants some powerful insecticide which will destroy the life of the insects feeding upon them. The active ingredient of these insecticides is usually arsenic. Fortunately the growing tuber does not absorb, so far as known, even traces of arsenic, or at least not more than the merest trace, which may be used for insecticidal purposes. It is quite impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such treatment. The alternative is a constant inspection of the growing plant and the removal and killing of the bugs as they appear, but this is only practicable over very small areas as its general application would increase the cost of the product beyond the reach of the average consumer.

_Yield._--Potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the United States. The statistics for the year ended December 31, 1905, show that the total area devoted to potatoes in the United States is 2,996,757 acres. The largest area in any one State is found in New York, namely, 428,986 acres, and the smallest area, aside from Arizona, not reported, is found in New Mexico, namely, 1,470 acres. The yield of potatoes for the year is given as 260,741,294 bushels. The largest total yield was in New York, the average yield per acre for the country being 87 bushels. The largest yield per acre is reported from Maine, namely, 175 bushels, and the smallest from Louisiana and Texas, namely, 64 bushels per acre. The average price per bushel for the whole country at the farm is 61.7 cents, making the total value of the crop $160,821,080. The highest price per bushel was obtained in Florida, namely, $1.20, and the lowest price per bushel in Nebraska, namely, 37 cents. The weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the average amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United States is 20 percent, the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of potatoes is 12 pounds, which would yield approximately 6 pounds or 3.6 quarts of alcohol.

_Composition.--Starch content:_ The quantity of starch in American grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20 percent. Probably 18 percent might be stated as the general average of the best grades of potatoes. In this connection it must be remembered that at the present time potatoes are grown in the United States chiefly for table use. Generally, only the imperfect or injured samples are used for stock feeding or for starch making, and this condition will probably continue as long as good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table use than can be obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes.

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially the larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified (polarized) light under certain conditions of observation a black cross is developed upon the granule. It is not difficult for an expert microscopist to distinguish potato from other forms of starch by its appearance, which is well shown in Figs. 39 and 40. Many of the granules are quite large, and most of them are ovoid in shape.

The quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that of cereal foods; in round numbers it may be said to be 2.5 percent. The potato contains very little material which is capable of fermentation aside from starch and sugars.

_Sugar content:_ Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a fresh state, it contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is lost whenever the potato is used for starch-making purposes, but is utilized when it is used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol. The percentage of sugar of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above 1 percent. The average quantity is probably not far from 0.35 percent, including sugar, reducing sugar, and dextrin, all of which are soluble in water. In the treatment of potatoes for starch making therefore it may be estimated that 0.35 percent of fermentable matter is lost in the wash water.

One German author, Saare, claims to have found much larger quantities of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned. The minimum quantity found by this author is 0.4 percent, and the maximum 3.4 percent, giving a mean of 1.9 percent. Ten varieties of potatoes used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of these data. It appears that some varieties have a greater tendency to produce sugar than others. The German variety known as “Daber” contains the smallest quantities of sugar, while the variety known as “Juno” contains the largest quantities. The percentages of sugar, as reported by Saare, however, are larger than those reported by other observers, and probably are larger than are usually found.

_Average composition:_ Frazier, of the Cornell station, has collected analyses of a large number of different varieties of potatoes, and finds them to have the following average composition:

Water, 75.00 percent Starch, 19.87 „ Sugars and dextrin, .77 „ Fat, .08 „ Cellulose, .33 „ Ash, 1.00 „

The following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from different localities:

_Analysis of Maine potatoes:_ The Bureau of Chemistry a few years ago made an investigation in connection with the experiment station in Maine of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for table purposes and for starch making. Some of the best varieties grown in different parts of the state were subjected to analysis, and the following results show them to be of quite uniform composition:

ANALYSES OF MAINE POTATOES.[29]

---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+-------- | | | |PROTEIN | | VARIETY. | WATER. | STARCH.| FIBER. |(NITROGEN| ASH. |SPECIFIC | | | |× 6.25). | |GRAVITY. ---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+-------- |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.| Percent.|Percent.| Hebron, | 79.72 | 16.94 | 0.90 | 2.12 | 0.76 | 1.0604 Do. | 78.13 | 18.59 | .72 | 2.06 | .78 | 1.0795 White Elephant,| 76.81 | 19.96 | .84 | 2.19 | .99 | 1.0867 Do. | 76.92 | 20.38 | .90 | 2.31 | .87 | 1.0742 Do. | 78.74 | 15.96 | .64 | 2.25 | .92 | 1.0803 Do. | 75.21 | 19.31 | .61 | 2.12 | .83 | 1.1058 Do. | 75.88 | 18.81 | .56 | 2.25 | .96 | 1.0921 Do. | 77.44 | 18.12 | .63 | 2.06 | .88 | 1.0906 Do. | 75.56 | 18.14 | .56 | 1.81 | 1.04 | 1.1129 Do. | 78.13 | 18.62 | .63 | 1.75 | .98 | 1.0881 Delaware, | 76.02 | 19.20 | .61 | 2.06 | 1.01 | 1.0852 Do. | 76.93 | 18.63 | .61 | 2.19 | .94 | 1.0904 Do. | 75.72 | 18.63 | .55 | 2.31 | .95 | 1.0745 Do. | 77.64 | 16.26 | .61 | 2.56 | .91 | 1.1120 Carmen, | 76.87 | 18.03 | .66 | 2.06 | .90 | 1.0967 Do. | 76.57 | 17.07 | .59 | 2.38 | .76 | 1.0804 +--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+-------- Average, | 77.02 | 18.29 | .66 | 2.16 | .91 | 1.0881 ---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

[29] Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 57, p. 147.

_Analysis of Vermont potatoes:_ Analyses made in Vermont and published in the report of the Vermont Experiment Station for 1901 show an average content of starch considerably less than that above given, namely:

Water, 79.41 percent Starch, 14.51 „ Sugars and dextrins, 1.44 „ Cellulose, .36 „ Protein, 2.28 „ Ether extract, .06 „ Ash, 1.26 „ Undetermined, .68 „

_Composition of Potatoes used in France for Industrial Purposes._--The following is regarded in France as an average composition of the potato suitable for industrial purposes:[30]

Water, 71.00 percent Starch, 18.00 „ Sugar, etc., 1.06 „ Cellulose, 1.65 „ Protein, 2.12 „ Fat, .11 „ Ash, 1.60 „

[30] “Encyclopédie Agricole,” E. Saillard.

The total fermentable matter, as seen above, is a little over 19 percent, not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented. As a portion of the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol, it is observed that the average percentage of fermented matter in the French potato used for industrial purposes is not far from 20 percent.

The following varieties show a variation in starch content of 6.8 percent, the minimum being 15.9 and the maximum 22.7 percent:

Red starchy, 22.7 percent of starch Shaw, 20.5 „ „ Institute of Beauvais, 17.7 „ „ Kernours, 17.9 „ „ White Elephant, 16.0 „ „ British Red, 16.0 „ „ Giant Blue, 15.9 „ „

_Analysis of Potatoes from German Sources._--_Average composition and starch content:_ The content of starch in potatoes examined in the laboratory of the Association of German Spirit Manufacturers during the year 1905 varied from 12.1 to 25.1 percent. Eleven percent of the total number examined contained between 12 and 14 percent of starch, 20 percent between 14 and 16 percent of starch, 13 percent between 16 and 18 percent of starch, 24 percent between 18 and 20 percent, 24 percent also between 20 and 22 percent, and 8 percent between 22 and 25.1 percent.

These data show that 56 percent of the total number of samples examined contained between 18 and 25 percent of starch. It is evident, therefore, that the general average content of starch in the potatoes used in the German distilleries is not far from 18 to 20 percent.

The mean composition of potatoes as given by three German authorities, namely, König, Lintner, and Wolff, is as follows:

AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF POTATOES BY THREE GERMAN AUTHORITIES.

KÖNIG. LINTNER. WOLFF. CONSTITUENT. Percent. Percent. Percent. Water, 75.48 76.0 75.0 Protein, 1.95 2.1 2.1 Fat, .15 .2 .2 Starch and sugar, 20.69 19.7 20.7 Crude cellulose, .75 .8 1.1 Ash, .98 1.2 .9

The above data show the average content of fermentable matter in German potatoes, as determined by three of their leading authorities, to be about 20 percent. The potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in Germany are not of the variety raised for edible purposes. In a large number of experiment stations in Germany systematic efforts have been made for many years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect to its edible qualities. These potatoes are coarser in structure and less palatable than those grown for the table. The object of the cultivation of this class of potatoes is to produce as much starch and other fermentable matters per acre as possible. It is evident that our own experiment stations should undertake work of a similar character if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manufacture of industrial alcohol. There is no doubt of the fact that success equal to that attained by the German experimenters will attend any systematic efforts of this kind in our country. Not only will larger crops per acre of potatoes be grown, but these potatoes will contain larger quantities of starch and other fermentable substances. If the crop of potatoes is to remain at the present average, namely, less than 100 bushels per acre, profitable returns for alcohol making can not be expected, either by the farmer or by the manufacturer. A much larger quantity must be grown and, if possible, at less expense, in order that encouraging profits may be realized.

Maercker, one of the most celebrated of German authors, states that in certain instances the potato in Germany reaches a very high starch content. Some varieties, in exceptional instances, have shown as high as 29.4 percent, 28.1 percent, and 27.3 percent, respectively. In warm, dry seasons potatoes often are found containing from 25 to 27 percent of starch. According to Maercker, the sugar content, including all forms of sugar, varies greatly. Perfectly ripe potatoes contain generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage. When potatoes are stored under unfavorable conditions, large quantities of sugar may be developed, amounting to as high as 5 percent altogether. In general, it may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 0.4 percent to 3.4 percent, according to conditions.

While potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not generally used as food, yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as those grown especially for table purposes.

_Ash analyses:_ The mineral matters which the potato extracts from the soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chiefly of phosphate of potash. The mean average composition of the ash of the potato is shown in the following table:[31]

Potash (K₂O), 60.37 percent Soda (Na₂O), 2.62 „ Lime (CaO), 2.57 „ Magnesia (MgO), 4.69 „ Iron oxid (Fe₂O₃), 1.18 „ Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅), 17.33 „ Sulfuric acid (SO₃), 6.49 „ Silicic acid (SiO₂), 2.13 „ Chlorin, 3.11 „

[31] Maercker, “Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation,” p. 99.

This analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash, deprived of its unburned carbon, and freed of sand and carbon dioxid.

_Effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content:_ Experience in Germany has shown not only that liberal fertilization with nitrogen is favorable to the production of a large crop of potatoes, but also that this is accomplished without decreasing the percentage of starch therein. The following table shows the increase in yield, percentage of starch, and amount of starch obtained by nitrogen fertilization, the results being expressed in hectares[32] and kilograms:

EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF POTATOES.

---------------+-------------------------+------------------------- | WITHOUT NITROGEN. | WITH NITROGEN. +-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------- | | Yield | Yield | | Yield | Yield | | of | of | | of | of | | tubers | starch | | tubers | starch VARIETY OF | | per | per | | per | per POTATO. |Starch.|hectare.|hectare.|Starch.|hectare.|hectare. ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------- | Per- | Kilo- | Kilo- | Per- | Kilo- | Kilo- | cent. | grams. | grams. | cent. | grams. | grams. ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------- Seed, | 18.01 | 20,900 | 3,780 | 18.17 | 24,870 | 4,507 Champion, | 21.33 | 19,510 | 4,152 | 21.48 | 24,470 | 5,233 Imperator, | 19.00 | 22,560 | 4,235 | 18.70 | 26,830 | 5,007 Magnum Bonum, | 18.41 | 19,170 | 3,522 | 18.07 | 22,510 | 4,057 Aurelie, | 19.47 | 18,950 | 3,653 | 19.75 | 23,550 | 4,609 Reichskanzler, | 22.78 | 14,300 | 3,236 | 22.61 | 17,250 | 3,875 Juno, | 19.33 | 17,590 | 3,422 | 19.92 | 20,900 | 4,199 Amaranth, | 22.47 | 16,180 | 3,619 | 22.84 | 18,310 | 4,188 Charlotte, | 19.42 | 17,041 | 3,305 | 19.67 | 20,774 | 4,081 Gelbfleischige | | | | | | Zwiebel, | 19.97 | 19,888 | 3,946 | 19.91 | 21,772 | 4,323 Dabersche, | 21.82 | 17,377 | 3,778 | 21.80 | 20,313 | 4,399 Weissfleischige| | | | | | Zwiebel, | 20.51 | 16,877 | 3,442 | 20.58 | 19,501 | 3,936 Schneerose, | 18.84 | 19,653 | 3,724 | 18.66 | 22,343 | 4,186 Nassengrunder, | 19.08 | 19,701 | 3,725 | 22.12 | 21,889 | 4,813 Gelbe Rose, | 21.09 | 16,847 | 3,547 | 20.60 | 20,177 | 4,129 Hortensie, | 17.72 | 22,416 | 3,907 | 17.45 | 26,381 | 4,532 Richter’s Lange| | | | | | Weisse, | 19.37 | 22,134 | 4,267 | 19.19 | 24,490 | 4,664 Rosalie, | 18.27 | 19,866 | 3,557 | 18.25 | 22,186 | 4,003 Achilles, | 21.02 | 18,886 | 3,962 | 20.93 | 20,913 | 4,376 Alcohol, | 16.47 | 16,270 | 2,673 | 16.31 | 20,339 | 3,327 +-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+-------- Average, | 19.77 | 18,806 | 3,673 | 19.85 | 21,998 | 4,332 ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

[32] 1 hectare = 2.471 acres. 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds.

It is evident from the data given in the table that the liberal application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent, although the average percentage of starch present is increased very little. Converting the average data given in the foregoing table into their equivalents in pounds per acre, we have the following results: Without nitrogen--yield of tubers, 16,781 pounds per acre; yield of starch, 3,277 pounds per acre. With nitrogen--yield of tubers, 19,629 pounds per acre; yield of starch, 3,856 pounds per acre.

The following varieties of potatoes are considered in Germany the best for the manufacture of alcohol: Wohltman, Silesia, Agricultural Union, Athenena, Prince Bismarck, Richter’s Imperator, and Maercker. The latest consular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in Germany shows the following yields per acre and percentages of starch:

YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF POTATOES GROWN IN GERMANY FOR ALCOHOL PRODUCTION.

YIELD PER STARCH. VARIETIES. ACRE. Kilograms. Percent. Professor Wohltman, 3,420 16.3 Iduna, 2,845 16.4 Topaz, 3,260 17.3 Sas, 3,990 18.3 Leo, 4,120 17.0 Richter’s Imperator, 4,760 15.4 Silesia, 3,675 16.3 Professor Maercker, 4,280 14.5

_Use of the Potato._--In addition to its value as human food the potato has other economical relations. It is used in many countries almost exclusively in the production of starch for the laundry and for general domestic uses.

The potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the United States except in the state of Maine and perhaps in one or two other localities. The starch of the potato has a particular value for use in the textile industry in the sizing of cloth. Practically all of the potato starch which is produced in the United States is devoted to that purpose, and for this reason it brings a higher price than the ordinary starch made of Indian corn.

_Technique of the Production of Starch from Potatoes._--There is scarcely any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method than the manufacture of starch from potatoes. The process consists simply in the rasping or grinding of the potato to a fine pulp, which is afterward placed upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with water which detaches the starch granules from the pulp matter, carries them through the sieve, and thus separates them from the fibrous portion.

It will be interesting to the general reader, on account of the importance of this product, to give a brief description of the method employed and the results obtained.

_Potato Starch._--In this country potato starch is manufactured chiefly in Maine, Wisconsin, and Colorado. The factories are of a very primitive type, the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed usually by wrapping a wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so that the ragged edges of the hole are on the exterior surface as shown in Fig. 41. Water is added at the time of rasping, and the starch pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch grains are washed through the sieve, as indicated in Figs. 42 and 43. The separated starch and water go into settling tanks. Where the starch has settled into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln. Potato starch is highly prized as a sizing in the textile industry.

_Use of the Potato in the Manufacture of Spirits._--A much more important technical use of the potato is in the manufacture of distilled spirits. Distilled spirits made from the potato are not generally used for potable purposes but are devoted to industrial uses. In the United States, very little if any distilled spirits are made from the potato. In Europe, however, especially in Germany, the industry is one of great magnitude. Practically all of the industrial spirits used in Germany and in many parts of Europe are made from the potato. The process is a simple one. The pulp of the potato, or starch, separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other diastatic action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar. In some cases this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical means, namely, by heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated therefrom in a proper state of dilution, in contact with an acid at a high temperature and pressure. Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is usually employed for this purpose. The action of the acid converts the starch into fermentable sugar, namely, dextrose, a form of sugar differing in its quality and character from that produced by malt known as maltose. Both sugars, however, are fermentable to the same degree and produce, for equal quantities of sugar, the same quantity of alcohol. When the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate quantity of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the alcoholic fermentation of other saccharine products.

Special characters of yeast, however, are reserved for special purposes, since the variety of yeast determines to a certain extent the character of the secondary products which are formed during fermentation and thus determine the character, flavor, and aroma of the finished product. After the fermentation has been completed the residue is technically known as beer, and is subjected to distillation for the separation of the spirit.

A description of the process of distillation will be found in the second volume of this manual and is therefore omitted here.

=Radish.=--The botanical name of the radish is _Raphanus sativus_ L. The French name is radis; German, Radies; Italian, ravanello; Spanish, rabanito.

The radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in all the principal markets of the United States, being grown under cover during the cold weather. It is ready for market within a short time after sowing, so that crop after crop can be grown during the year on the same soil. It is most highly prized when it is young, as it tends to acquire a pungent and bitter taste as it approaches maturity. The two principal varieties grown, as respects the roots, is the one having a long, tapering root, and the other a short, spherical bulb. The latter are more prized for eating purposes. There are many varieties grown.

_Composition of Edible Portion._--

Water, 91.8 percent Protein, 1.3 „ Fat, 0.1 „ Sugar, and other carbohydrates, 5.8 „ Ash, 0.7 „

=Rhubarb.=--The botanical name for rhubarb is _Rheum_ L. The French name is rhubarbe; German, Rhabarber; Italian, rabarbaro; Spanish, ruibarbo.

Rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the United States and grows generally very early in the spring. It is a highly acid plant, and is used chiefly as a sauce and for making pies. It requires a very large addition of sugar to make it palatable. It has medicinal properties which give it additional value. There are many varieties grown. It is a plant that is ready for use very early in the spring, being available in the farmer’s garden almost before any other vegetable, and this makes it of still greater value.

_Composition of the Edible Stem._--

Water, 92.67 percent Ash, .94 „ Protein, .83 „ Fiber, 1.11 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 3.26 „ Fat, 1.19 „

The above data show that the rhubarb is practically valueless as food and is chiefly condimental. In regard to its nutrients the fat is in a larger proportion than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable.

=Squash.=--Another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized as a food product is the squash. It is used in the same manner as the pumpkin, and is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated animals.

_Composition of the Flesh of the Squash._--

Water, 88.09 percent Ash, 1.72 „ Protein, .92 „ Fiber, 1.04 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 8.05 „ Fat, .18 „

The above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance than the pumpkin. In other respects it is little different in its composition, being only a dryer form of pumpkin.

=Sweet Potato.=--The vegetable known as sweet potato is known botanically as _Convolvulus batatas_ L.

From the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the same botanical family as the potato itself. By reason, however, of its similar condition of growth and, to a certain extent, its chemical composition and uses, the term potato has, in this country at least, become to be universally applied to both, although the prefix “sweet” is quite commonly used with the sweet potato, whereas if any prefix is used with the potato, properly so-called, it is the word “white” or “Irish.” The sweet potato is grown extensively in the United States and in other respects, agriculturally, may be regarded as complemental to the potato.

While the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in mild climates, the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in the southern and warmer portions. In respect to the character of the soil the two vegetables are quite similar, both doing best in a sandy or loose soil, provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for the use of the growing plant. The sweet potato is a thickened root, and is propagated almost exclusively by means of shoots called “slips.”

_Planting and Cultivation._--There is a very distinct difference between the planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato. The former are rarely planted in the field where the crop is to mature. It is quite a universal custom to plant the sweet potato in beds where the young growth can be forced both by means of artificial heat and by a generous mulch of highly nutritious soil. The plants can then be set very early in the spring and by the time they are ready to be transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size. When ready for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same care as that required for the potato. The ridging of the rows, which in the case of potatoes takes place during cultivation, is accomplished in the case of sweet potatoes before planting. If the soil is moist and the temperature not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed and set on top of the apexes in the formed rows. The cultivation of the field during the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface in good tilth and prevent the growth of weeds, grass, etc. Care must be exercised in the cultivation not to draw the earth away from the ridges which have been formed, but to increase their size by drawing the earth more and more toward the apex of the ridge. The cultivation is continued until the growing vines practically cover the surface of the soil and thus form a natural mulch, which not only conserves the moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth of weeds and grass. The sweet potato, in respect of its flavor, is particularly sensitive to the influence of frost, also the leaves are more sensitive to frost than those of the potato. If a heavy frost is experienced before the tubers are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste to the potato and injure its edible qualities. For this reason, if it is not possible to harvest the potato before the advent of frost, it is advisable to cut the vines at the point where they emerge from the soil. When this has been done the injurious effects of the frost, above mentioned, are not experienced. In the southern portion of the country the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil during the greater part of the winter, and, if the vines are removed, it keeps in excellent condition.

_Yield and Composition of the Sweet Potato._--As has already been mentioned, there is a general resemblance, in so far as chemical and nutritive properties are concerned, between the sweet potato and the potato. The sweet potato is usually colored a yellowish tint, due to the distribution of more or less xanthophyll throughout its substance. The sweet potato also contains notable quantities of cane sugar, to which its name is due. It, however, contains large quantities of starch and fiber and small quantities of protein, resembling in this general manner the potato itself. The sweet potato has not been used in the United States for the making of alcohol. In the Azores great quantities of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose, and make an alcohol of fine quality, which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines. There are large areas in the United States, especially in the Southern States, where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance. The experiments at the South Carolina station show that as high as 11,000 pounds of sweet potatoes can be grown per acre. The percentage of starch is markedly greater than in the white or Irish potato. In all cases over 20 percent of starch was obtained in the South Carolina sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 24 percent. As high as 2,600 pounds of starch were produced per acre.

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities of sugar, sometimes as high as six percent being present, so that the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the minimum at 25 percent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and one-quarter of this is fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over one gallon of 95 percent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general way, that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield one gallon of industrial alcohol. The average yield of sweet potatoes, of course, is very much less than that given in the South Carolina reports, where heavy fertilization was practised. On plots to which no fertilizer was added the yield was about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre, yielding in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the 8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which, added to the starch, makes 2,250 pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will yield 1,125 pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 percent strength, or approximately 160 gallons per acre.

The yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded as exceptionally high. A safer calculation will be based upon the yield of 100 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre, a little above the average of the yield of the potato, or a total of 5,500 pounds per acre. One-quarter of this amount is fermentable matter--about 1,400 pounds--which would yield, approximately, 700 pounds of 95 percent alcohol, or 100 gallons of 95 percent alcohol per acre. In addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose, or common sugar, which the sweet potato contains, there is also an appreciable amount of non-crystallizable sugars. The total sugars in the sweet potato have not been overstated in the above estimate. In fact, the contrary, rather, is true, since the two sugars together probably average about six percent of the weight of the potato. If the average quantity of starch in the sweet potato is 20 percent, which is rather a low estimate, the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato is 26 percent instead of 25 percent, as estimated above.

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF THE SWEET POTATO OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES ON STORING.[33]

FIRST LOT (November 28).

-----------------+-----------------------------------+ | ORIGINAL. | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ NAME OF | | | Invert | | VARIETY. | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.| -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.| Georgia Buck | 75.35 | 13.13 | 0.77 | 4.31 | Bunch Yam | 72.37 | 15.12 | 1.09 | 4.45 | Do. | 67.99 | 19.58 | .56 | 4.49 | Horton Yam | 70.29 | 15.06 | 1.05 | 6.23 | Georgia Buck | 71.56 | 14.35 | .73 | 6.61 | Vineless Yam | 70.03 | 16.85 | .54 | 5.01 | Hanover Yam | 76.16 | 13.61 | 1.10 | 4.22 | Georgia Yam | 70.01 | 18.87 | 1.00 | 4.08 | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ Average | 71.72 | 15.82 | .86 | 4.93 | -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-----------------------------------+ | AIR-DRY. | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ NAME OF | | | Invert | | VARIETY. | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.| -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.| Georgia Buck | 6.79 | 49.65 | 2.93 | 16.31 | Bunch Yam | 6.67 | 51.06 | 3.67 | 15.04 | Do. | 7.24 | 56.70 | 1.61 | 13.02 | Horton Yam | 6.24 | 47.52 | 3.31 | 19.67 | Georgia Buck | 6.88 | 46.98 | 2.40 | 21.63 | Vineless Yam | 7.90 | 51.78 | 1.67 | 15.40 | Hanover Yam | 7.37 | 52.89 | 4.29 | 16.40 | Georgia Yam | 7.57 | 58.17 | 3.07 | 12.59 | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ Average | 7.08 | 51.84 | 2.87 | 16.26 | -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-------------------------- | WATER-FREE. +--------+--------+-------- NAME OF | | Invert | VARIETY. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose. -----------------+--------+--------+-------- |Percent.|Percent.|Percent. Georgia Buck | 53.27 | 3.14 | 17.50 Bunch Yam | 54.71 | 3.93 | 16.11 Do. | 61.18 | 1.74 | 14.04 Horton Yam | 50.68 | 3.53 | 20.98 Georgia Buck | 50.45 | 2.58 | 13.23 Vineless Yam | 56.22 | 1.81 | 16.72 Hanover Yam | 57.10 | 4.63 | 17.70 Georgia Yam | 62.93 | 3.32 | 13.62 +--------+--------+-------- Average | 55.82 | 3.09 | 16.16 -----------------+--------+--------+--------

SECOND LOT (January 7).

-----------------+-----------------------------------+ | ORIGINAL. | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ NAME OF | | | Invert | | VARIETY. | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.| -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ Georgia Buck | 69.74 | 12.72 | 1.75 | 9.25 | Bunch Yam | 67.31 | 13.66 | 2.02 | 9.90 | Do. | 67.29 | 13.83 | 2.40 | 9.43 | Horton Yam | 71.39 | 9.57 | 2.57 | 9.69 | Georgia Buck | 67.63 | 14.43 | 2.12 | 7.85 | Vineless Yam | 67.33 | 12.03 | 2.90 | 10.09 | Hanover Yam | 70.13 | 14.13 | 1.66 | 6.58 | Georgia Yam | 71.78 | 11.21 | 2.26 | 8.10 | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ Average | 69.08 | 12.70 | 2.21 | 8.86 | -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-----------------------------------+ | AIR-DRY. | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ NAME OF | | | Invert | | VARIETY. | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.| -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ Georgia Buck | 8.80 | 38.34 | 5.27 | 27.87 | Bunch Yam | 9.49 | 37.83 | 5.60 | 27.40 | Do. | 10.00 | 38.04 | 6.61 | 25.94 | Horton Yam | 7.18 | 31.05 | 8.35 | 31.43 | Georgia Buck | 8.46 | 40.80 | 6.00 | 22.21 | Vineless Yam | 7.90 | 33.90 | 8.19 | 28.44 | Hanover Yam | 9.29 | 42.90 | 5.05 | 19.99 | Georgia Yam | 8.62 | 36.30 | 7.31 | 26.24 | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ Average | 8.72 | 37.40 | 6.55 | 26.19 | -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----------------+-------------------------- | WATER-FREE. +--------+--------+-------- NAME OF | | Invert | VARIETY. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose. -----------------+--------+--------+-------- Georgia Buck | 42.04 | 5.78 | 30.56 Bunch Yam | 41.80 | 6.19 | 30.27 Do. | 42.27 | 7.34 | 28.82 Horton Yam | 33.45 | 9.00 | 33.86 Georgia Buck | 44.57 | 6.55 | 24.26 Vineless Yam | 36.81 | 8.89 | 30.88 Hanover Yam | 47.29 | 5.57 | 22.04 Georgia Yam | 39.72 | 8.00 | 28.72 +--------+--------+-------- Average | 40.99 | 7.17 | 28.68 -----------------+--------+--------+--------

[33] South Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 63, p. 25.

_Effect of Storage on Composition._--Experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than are stated in the above examples. In one instance of an analysis made on the 7th of January of stored potatoes, the starch had fallen to a little less than 13 percent, while the sugars had increased to over 11 percent in less than six weeks. The total quantity of fermentable matter, however, as will be seen, had not been greatly changed, although there was probably a slight loss. In the southern agricultural work referred to, the yam and the sweet potato are considered together. The composition and the changes on keeping are well illustrated by the preceding data.

The above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which attaches to the sweet potato and the yam, not only as edibles, but especially for the purpose of making alcohol. It is also seen that the sweet potato would not be a valuable material for making starch alone, because in starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is lost, whereas in the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch, as well as any fermentable celluloses or gums in the potato, are utilized. The following table shows the extent to which this crop is grown in the United States:

ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION OF SWEET POTATOES (INCLUDING YAMS) IN THE UNITED STATES BY STATES, IN 1899, AS REPORTED BY THE TWELFTH CENSUS.

--------------------+-------+----------+ STATES. | ACRES.| BUSHELS. | --------------------+-------+----------+ United States |537,447|42,526,696| +=======+==========+ Alabama | 50,865| 3,457,386| Arizona | 51| 4,299| Arkansas | 13,271| 998,767| California | 1,607| 239,029| Colorado | 20| 2,291| Connecticut | 2| 130| Delaware | 2,265| 222,165| District of Columbia| 5| 19,936| Florida | 22,791| 2,049,784| Georgia | 70,620| 5,087,674| Hawaii | 135| 9,284| Idaho | 6| 413| Illinois | 7,534| 511,695| Indiana | 3,989| 239,487| Indian Territory | 1,064| 80,364| Iowa | 2,688| 24,622| Kansas | 4,570| 74,810| Kentucky | 14,178| 925,786| Louisiana | 27,372| 1,865,482| Maryland | 6,469| 677,848| Massachusetts | .....| 23| Michigan | 71| 3,242| Minnesota | 4| 136| Mississippi | 38,169| 2,817,386| Missouri | 9,844| 743,377| Nebraska | 551| 48,224| Nevada | 5| 923| New Hampshire | 1| 6| New Jersey | 20,588| 2,418,641| New Mexico | 47| 6,180| New York | 73| 8,681| North Carolina | 68,730| 5,781,587| North Dakota | .....| 1| Ohio | 3,796| 249,767| Oklahoma | 2,512| 195,799| Oregon | 27| 2,825| Pennsylvania | 3,443| 234,724| Rhode Island | 1| 102| South Carolina | 48,831| 3,369,957| South Dakota | 3| 105| Tennessee | 23,374| 1,571,575| Texas | 43,561| 3,299,135| Utah | 40| 4,958| Vermont | 4| 306| Virginia | 40,681| 4,470,602| Washington | 52| 4,672| West Virginia | 3,393| 202,424| Wisconsin | 4| 86| --------------------+-------+----------+

_Average Composition of Sweet Potatoes._--The mean composition of varieties of sweet potatoes as determined by the California and Texas Experiment stations is shown in the following data:

CALIFORNIA STATION TEXAS STATION (17 varieties). (21 varieties). Water, 69.00 percent 70.27 percent Ash, 1.15 „ 1.14 „ Protein, 2.08 „ 2.41 „ Fat, 1.00 „ 0.99 „ Total sugars, 5.55 „ 6.81 „ Starch, etc., 24.23 „ 24.00 „ Crude fiber, 2.62 „ 1.26 „

Included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in boiling dilute acid and alkali.

=Turnip.=--The botanical name of the turnip is _Brassica napus_ L. The French name is navet; German, Herbst-Rübe; Italian, navone; Spanish, nabo.

The turnip is grown very largely in the United States both as a vegetable and as a field crop for feeding purposes. The turnip used as a vegetable usually has a spherical bulb. It is a crop that grows late in the autumn. In the central part of the country it is usually sown as a field crop after the harvesting of some of the early crops as, for instance, early potatoes, and is ready for harvest late in the autumn, just before freezing weather begins. Grown as a vegetable, however, it is grown early as well as late. It has a spicy, pungent taste which makes it extremely palatable. It is sometimes eaten raw, but generally stewed.

_Composition._--

Water, 90.46 percent Ash, .80 „ Protein, 1.14 „ Fiber, 1.15 „ Sugar, starch, etc., 6.27 „ Fat, .18 „

The above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable and that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates.

=Yam.=--Another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the sweet potato class is known as the yam. It is also, like the sweet potato, particularly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm climates. The name yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar in appearance to the sweet potato but produced by various species of vines of the genus _Dioscorea_, not belonging even to the same family as the sweet potato. In the southern United States, however, the name yam is applied to certain varieties of the sweet potato with large coarse stems. It is cultivated extensively in the southern part of the United States, and is valued both as a food for man and specially for domesticated animals. The character of the soil, method of planting, and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato. It is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common in the South, known as the “razor-back” hog. This animal does his own harvesting, and thus removes from the agriculturist a portion of his labor which is not of the most agreeable kind.

_Composition of Yams._--The composition of yams does not differ to any notable extent from that of the sweet potato.

_Other Uses of the Yam and Sweet Potato._--In addition to the use of the yam and sweet potato for human food, reference has already been made to their value as food for domesticated animals. These bodies are particularly relished by hogs and cattle. The feeding of sweet potatoes or yams to milk cows insures a healthy condition of the body, and also imparts to the milk, cream, and butter the distinct amber tint which is regarded as a mark of excellence. Thus even in the winter months the butter which is made from milk produced in this way will have the light amber tint, which should distinguish it from the highly tinted artificially colored product which does so much to bring good butter into bad repute. Both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yielding abundant supplies of distilled spirits. It is probable that under the new law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in the arts an abundant supply of this product can be secured from the sweet potato and the yam. There are millions of acres of cheap land of a sandy character in the South Atlantic and Gulf states where potatoes and yams can be successfully grown under scientific principles of agriculture. If not needed for food purposes as above mentioned, the residue can be very profitably devoted to the manufacture of industrial alcohol.

CANNED VEGETABLES.

It probably will excite no opposition to state that if fresh, succulent vegetables can be placed upon the table of the consumer they are to be preferred to the same kind of vegetables preserved in any manner. There are many circumstances, however, which render it difficult, if not impossible, to secure a regular supply of fresh, succulent vegetables upon the consumer’s table. Those who possess abundant wealth may have a proper supply of vegetables at all seasons of the year without resorting to any preserving process other than the refrigeration incident to transportation. But the great majority of consumers must of necessity adapt themselves to the conditions of the market and the proximity of supply. Succulent vegetables properly harvested and refrigerated may be sent long distances and over a considerable period of time, and reach the consumer in practically the same state of freshness and palatability as when first harvested. Owing to the exigencies of intermediary supply and the cost of transportation the great industry of keeping succulent vegetables by sterilization has been founded. Commonly vegetables prepared in this way are known as “canned” vegetables in this country and “tinned” in England. By availing himself of this process the consumer, even of moderate means, is able to command at all seasons of the year and in all locations an abundant supply of wholesome, fresh, succulent vegetable materials.

=Principles and Process of Canning.=--The sterilization of succulent vegetables depends upon the same principles as that of meat, already described. The decay of these vegetable substances is due to the action of certain ferments, either organic or inorganic, which act as agents in securing the oxidation and decay of the organic material. If the action of these organisms can be prevented or inhibited the food material will remain for a certain length of time, not yet definitely determined, in an excellent, almost perfect state of preservation and without losing, notably, any of its nutritive or palatable properties.

It is not the purpose of this manual to describe the technique of canning, further than to illustrate the principles thereof in their relations to wholesome and nutritive food.

=Selection of Materials.=--It is of the highest importance in the canning industry, both for the reputation of the manufacturer and the health and comfort of the consumer, that the vegetables selected for canning be fresh, free from disease, and prepared in such a way that all adhering dirt or other foreign substances be excluded. The process of preparation for canning should begin as soon as possible after the harvesting of the vegetables, since a delay, especially at the high temperature which usually prevails at the time of canning, produces rapid deterioration, both as respects the quality of the vegetable and its flavor. After the proper cleaning and preparation of the fresh vegetables they are next subjected to the process of canning. It is then the vegetables are heated to a temperature of, or above, that of boiling water for a sufficient length of time to thoroughly destroy all the living germs and spores contained therein. The degree of temperature and the length of time of heating depend upon the nature of the vegetable substance, the size of its particles and of the package and the relative difficulty of preservation. Where only living organisms are present the proper temperature is that which will destroy the life of the germ. It is well known that spores from which fermentative germs may be developed are more resistant to the action of heat than the germ itself. When, therefore, spores of this kind are present, the temperature of heating must be higher and the time more prolonged, or, in lieu of this, the food should be heated on two or three consecutive days during which time any spores which may have been present will have developed into organisms and been killed. Some forms of vegetable materials are sterilized much more readily than others. For instance, the kernels of green Indian corn are of such a character and degree of hardness as to resist, with a considerable degree of success, the influence of heat on the life of the germs which they contain. In such cases it is customary to previously cook the vegetable substance before placing it in the cans. The cans should contain enough water to fill the interstices between the particles of vegetable matter. It is the practice in many instances to add a little salt and sometimes also sugar to this liquid. When the can is filled and closed the sterilizing is best completed by placing it in a strong boiler, which is then closed and heated by steam under a pressure of two or three atmospheres or even higher, namely, from 30 to 45 pounds and over per square inch. By heating under pressure in this way the development of any pressure in the can due to the production of steam is counterbalanced by the pressure without the can, so that a swelling or cracking of the can cannot take place. If the cans are heated in an open bath of water or brine it is customary to leave a small perforation in the top of the can through which the combined gas of the interior of the can may escape, and this vent is closed by a small drop of solder applied before or at the time of taking the cans from the bath. The canning of vegetables may also be done in a small way in the household and the principle on which this process is based is exactly the same as that set forth. The vegetables must be properly prepared, placed in the cans, and heated a sufficient length of time to destroy germs and spores, and the vent in the can stopped with solder. For family purposes the use of closed boilers for heating is not practical on account of the expense of securing such apparatus. All kinds of vegetables which are eaten in a cooked state can be preserved by the canning process. This cannot be applied, however, to those forms of vegetables which are eaten raw, such as lettuce, radishes, etc.

The principal forms of canned vegetables are described below:

=Canned Beans.=--Fresh, green beans used for canning purposes are generally preserved in the pod and not shelled, as is the case with the pea. The raw material should be selected with the same care as that which attends the selection of other vegetable products intended for preserving purposes. If the pods are small they may be placed whole in the can. Sometimes they are cut into small lengths in order to fit better in the package. As in the case of peas, the interstices between the particles of beans are filled by the addition of a sufficient quantity of brine of the proper strength to fill the can to the top. The process of sterilization is the same as that for other vegetable substances. Cooked beans are also preserved by canning and are often improperly called baked beans.

=Composition of Typical Samples of Canned Beans.=--The composition of typical samples of canned beans is shown in the following table:

-------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+----- | | | |STARCH| | | | | | | AND |PRO- | | SUBSTANCE. |WATER.| FAT.|FIBER.|SUGAR.|TEIN.| ASH. |SALT. -------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+----- | Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per-| Per- | cent.|cent.| cent.| cent.|cent.| cent.|cent. String beans,|94.33 | .06 | .51 | 3.03 | .92 | 1.16 | .80 Unstringed | | | | | | | beans, |93.91 | .07 | .58 | 2.91 |1.14 | 1.40 | .92 Lima beans, |79.68 | .30 | 1.16 |13.24 |4.00 | 1.62 | .77 Canned baked | | | | | | | beans, |67.19 |3.18 | 2.46 |17.88 |7.14 | 2.15 |1.03 -------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----

As in the case of peas it is noticed that the beans in the hull are not a particularly nutritious vegetable in proportion to the quantity consumed and that the protein is the most valuable constituent in the dry matter.

_Adulteration of Canned Beans._--The same adulterations may be found in canned beans as in canned peas. No additional remarks, therefore, are needed on this point.

Both canned peas and beans form condimental, palatable, wholesome, and desirable forms of these leguminous vegetables. The great cheapness with which they can be grown and the improved method of canning make it possible to produce these articles of food in quantities, and for a price which bring them within the reach of those even in the most humble circumstances.

As soon as the manufacturer restores absolute confidence in the purity of his products by completely excluding all adulterations the trade in these articles will be greatly increased and immensely greater quantities thereof consumed.

=Canned Indian Corn.=--In the United States a dish which is very extensively consumed throughout all parts of the country is one almost unknown in Europe, namely, succulent Indian corn. In the growth of Indian corn, at the period when the starch is formed in the grain and before it becomes set or hard, the immature grains make a palatable and excellent food product. In the appropriate season this delicious vegetable substance is eaten principally on the cob. A variety of Indian corn, which has already been described, namely, sweet corn, is the one chiefly used for edible purposes in this immature state. The Indian corn canning industry is a most extensive one in this country. The estimate of the number of cans of Indian corn produced during the year ended Dec. 31, 1905, is 13,939,683 cases of 24 cans each.

The principal centers of the industry are found in the New England States, especially in Maine, New Jersey, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana. By planting different varieties of Indian corn which mature at different ages and extending the planting season over a long period, the canning season, for instance, in Maryland, may be continued from the last of July to the advent of killing frost, usually the middle or last of October.

_Technique of the Process._--The ears of sweet Indian corn are plucked from the stalk together with the husks, and brought in wagons in this condition to the factory. The husks are removed by hand or machinery and the ears passed through machinery by means of which, owing to the operation of knives, the grains are as evenly as possible removed from the cob. Care is taken not to cut too close to the cob so as to avoid mingling any of its particles with the corn. The separated grains are put into cans, treated with a sufficient quantity of water to fill the interstices, soldered, and subjected to sterilization. Nearly all of these operations are conducted by machinery. The sterilization is often effected by placing the cans upon an endless conveyer dipping into water or brine of the proper temperature and moving slowly through this bath at a pace determined by the length and temperature thereof, so that upon emerging the sterilization is complete. The cans may also be heated in closed vessels as already described. A typical view of a factory employed in the canning of Indian corn is given in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 44.

_Composition of Canned Indian Corn._--The composition of canned Indian corn varies so greatly that it is only possible to give analyses of a somewhat general character, without attempting to express the extremes of composition which may be found. The immature Indian corn differs from the dry mature variety principally in the following respects: There is usually more sugar, as compared with the same amount of dry substance, and less starch and protein than in the matured variety. In fact, the constituent which is of chief value in the green Indian corn is the natural sugar which it contains. This natural sweetening cannot be imitated by the addition of sugar although the mixture may be made very sweet by this method. There is a delicacy of flavor and a peculiar palatability in the natural sweetness of Indian corn which must necessarily be due to the form of combination with other natural ingredients in which the sugar is found, and not solely to the sugar itself, which is practically ordinary sugar, sucrose, or its inverted product. While there is less starch in the immature kernel of Indian corn the starch is in a different physical state. In other words, it has not become solidified into aggregates of solid particles. The starch in this form also appears to be more palatable, and perhaps somewhat more digestible, than in its aggregate and solidified condition. As a nutrient the green corn is not so valuable by any means as its equal weight when dry. The percentage of water in green corn is many times as great as in the dry variety. For mere nutritive purposes, therefore, it would not be worth while to go to the trouble of canning green Indian corn. Its value is that which is attached to a succulent fresh vegetable, that is, it is condimental and hygienic as well as nutritive.

The mean analysis of many samples of canned sweet Indian corn is given below:

Water, 75.50 percent Dry matter, 24.50 „

Oil and fat, 1.26 „ Cellulose, .79 „ Ash, .93 „ Salt, .23 „ Protein, 3.51 „ Sugar and starch, 17.58 „

These data were obtained on samples bought in the open market, some of which had been artificially sweetened and to some of which starch had probably been added. The analysis of the fresh green corn is given on page 227.

_Adulteration of Canned Corn._--Unfortunately many adulterations have been practiced in connection with the canning of Indian corn which, while not extensive or applicable to the great mass of material, have cast an unjust suspicion on the unadulterated product. The trade in this canned product would be vastly increased if the consumer could be assured that all forms of adulteration had been eliminated from the industry. The principal adulterants used are mentioned on page 228, but the following additional statements are pertinent:

_Adulteration with Starch._--In order to make a more creamy liquid in the can the addition of starch has been largely practiced. There are two objections to the addition of starch to canned corn. In the first place it unbalances the ration and makes it more or less unwholesome. Starch itself is an unbalanced food product, but Nature has so distributed the starches in various foods as to present them in the most favorable form for digestion and assimilation, and when this natural balance is disturbed by artificial means the result is more or less injurious to the organs of digestion. There are many persons to whom starchy foods are not nutritious nor easily digested, and when persons of this kind consume canned Indian corn to which starch has been added their health may be injured. The addition of starch, therefore, is reprehensible for hygienic reasons. In the second place it is objectionable because it is deceptive, since the canned product has a richer and better appearance to the eye by this addition than it otherwise would have, and because more water can be used in the can.

_Adulteration with Sugar._--It seems strange to speak of adulterating with sugar, and yet the addition of sugar without notice to canned Indian corn may become an adulteration. It has already been mentioned that the nature of Indian corn for canning purposes depends very largely upon its natural sugar content, and when corn of the proper sweet variety is selected the addition of other sweetening material is unnecessary. The use of sugar, therefore, in connection with canned Indian corn serves to cover up the defects of a corn whose natural sweetness is below the standard and thus the consumer is deceived. In addition to this, attention is also called to the fact already stated that no artificial sweetening, even with sugar, can produce that delicate and desired saccharine quality which the natural sweet corn possesses. The addition of sugar, therefore, to canned Indian corn without the notice thereof being plainly stated on the label is not to be encouraged.

_Addition of Saccharin._--The use of benzoic sulfinid, or, as it is commonly known, saccharin, to canned corn unhappily is too often practiced. This body, which has no relation chemically or hygienically to sugar, which is not a food, which is wholly indigestible, and which the majority of experts regard as harmful to health, should never be placed in canned Indian corn, even if its use is notified upon the label. It produces an intense, but not agreeable, sweet taste and yet one which the unwary consumer would naturally attribute to the sugar present in the corn itself. Thus the consumer is deceived, and at the same time he is consuming a drug which has valuable uses in medicine but which should only be administered with the consent and by the advice of a physician. It is believed that under the scrutiny of municipal, state, and national inspection the use of saccharin in food products will disappear. Moreover, the name saccharin itself is misleading. It is an application of a word which by common usage is attributed to natural sugar substances to a substance which has no relation of any kind to sugar. The use of a word of this kind is evidently objectionable. The canner himself who uses this product often buys it under another name, which gives no indication of its true character.

_Character of the Cans._--It is important that the containers in which canned vegetables are preserved should be of a character to yield no poisonous or injurious substance to the contents therein. What is said here in respect of canned Indian corn is generally applicable to canned products of all descriptions.

The approved standards for food products in the United States require the following properties for the containers:

“I. Suitable containers for keeping moist food products such as sirups, honey, condensed milk, soups, meat extracts, meats, manufactured meats, and undried fruits and vegetables and wrappers in contact with food products contain on their surfaces, in contact with the food products, no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, or copper or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or injurious substance. If the containers are made of tin plate they are outside soldered and the plate in no case contains less than one hundred and thirteen (113) milligrams of tin on a piece five (5) centimeters square or one and eight-tenths (1.8) grains on a piece two (2) inches square. The inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes, blisters, and cracks.

“If the tin plate is lacquered, the lacquer completely covers the tinned surface within the container and yields to the contents of the container no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, copper, or any compounds thereof.”

=Souring and Swelling of Canned Corn.=--In all cases where sterilization is not complete, or where spores remain undestroyed which afterward develop and produce various kinds of ferments, the canned corn spoils. The contents usually become sour and acquire a bad taste, and, in many cases, on puncturing the container gas escapes. The pressure of this gas in the can is sometimes great enough to produce a swelling, and hence the technical term “swelled” applied to cans of this kind. Various forms of ferments are active in producing these conditions. The usual alcoholic ferment does not usually occur by reason of the fact that the yeasts which produce this form of fermentation are readily destroyed in the sterilizing process. Ferments which produce lactic, butyric, and other acids, and those which act upon the nitrogenous matter and tend to form various decomposition products are the most common.

In the case of canned corn and other canned vegetables the nitrogenous decomposed products are not usually very poisonous. On the other hand in the case of meat, and especially of fish and crustaceans, the degradation products from the nitrogen constituents of the food become poisonous and are known collectively under the name of ptomains.

If the sterilization has not been complete at the time of preparation, sweet corn as well as other foodstuffs in similar circumstances undergoes a kind of fermentation which renders it unfit for food. The fermentation is usually due to the greater vitality of spores and fungi, the real bacteria usually succumbing to the heat of preparation. Various gases beside carbon dioxid are produced, causing the corn to swell. All swelled goods should be rejected for food purposes.

=Canned Peas and Beans.=--These leguminous products lend themselves readily to canning purposes, and are preserved in great quantities in the United States in this way. Peas are always shelled before canning, and are harvested at a time to secure their greatest succulence. If the peas be too ripe they make a hard, unpalatable berry which detracts from the value of the canned product. The smaller variety of pea is preferred to the larger for canning, but, irrespective of size, they should be fresh, succulent, and not too mature. In the large canning factories the peas are harvested with machines such as are used for the cereals. The harvested material is passed through a shelling machine, by means of which the pods are opened and the peas separated. The rest of the pods, stalks, leaves, etc., are very valuable for cattle food or fertilizing purposes. Peas, before canning, should be separated into different sizes so that all those entering one can may be as nearly uniform in size as possible. This separation not only makes the contents of the can appear more attractive but also renders the sterilization more certain and easy. If a large and small pea are put in the same can the heat of sterilization must be high enough and continue long enough to sterilize completely the large pea, and this might induce an over-cooking and impair the edible properties of the small one.

The technique of the canning process is not at all different except in the preparation of the material, as described above, from that of other vegetable canning factories.

_Composition of Canned Peas._--The composition of typical varieties of canned peas compiled from a large number of analyses is shown in the following table:

Water, 85.47 percent Fat, .21 „ Fiber, 1.18 „ Protein, 3.57 „ Starch and sugar, 7.79 „ Ash, 1.11 „ Salt, .67 „

From the above data it is seen that the canned pea does not have a high nutritive value, considering its bulk. In the canned pea one of the principal food elements in the wet material is the protein which it contains, both the pea and the bean being very rich in this important food material.

_Adulteration of Canned Peas._--The principal form of adulteration which is practiced in the canning of peas is the addition of sulfate of copper for the purpose of producing an intense green color. The delicate shade of green of the fresh, succulent pea tends to assume a yellowish tint on canning, and especially after keeping for some time. To such an extent does this oxidation of the natural chlorophyl go on that in many samples when opened, instead of a green, we discover a decidedly yellowish tint. When a copper salt, such as sulfate, is heated in contact with a nitrogenous substance, such as that which exists in the pea, a chemical combination is formed between the copper and nitrogenous bodies which has an intensely green tint.

It is often supposed that the sulfate of copper is added to canned peas to preserve their natural color. This, however, is not the case. The copper combination, as above mentioned, produces a dye of a very bright green hue. Sulfate of copper is a highly poisonous substance, and for this reason should be excluded from food products. It is only fair to state that those who use this material claim that in the form of the combination produced it remains insoluble during the process of digestion, and therefore the copper is inert. This claim is not sustained by the facts in the case. It is quite certain that the copper product forming the dye or the excess of the copper which is used remains in a state of very unstable composition which is easily broken up under the action of the acids and enzymes in the digestive organs.

It is greatly to the credit of the canners of the United States that the use of sulfate of copper has never come into use in this country.

_Tests for Copper._--Fortunately the presence of copper in canned peas is easily ascertained even by the novice. If a portion of the peas be rubbed in a mortar to a fine paste and mixed with water acidulated with two or three drops of hydrochloric acid, a paste will be formed which on boiling will deposit copper on a clean metallic substance such as silver, steel, or iron. If a bright steel knife or a clean iron nail be placed in this paste, the surface will soon be covered with metallic copper. This simple test shows that the copper is not combined in any such permanent form as is claimed.

_Saccharin._--The use of saccharin as an imitation of the natural sweet of the pea is, unfortunately, very largely practiced and is open to the same objections as were pointed out in the case of Indian corn. The use of sugar, salt, and other condimental substances in canned peas cannot be regarded as an adulteration unless deception results therefrom. It is claimed there is no special variety of pea distinguished by its content of sugar, and therefore the addition of sugar does not cause one variety of pea to imitate the properties of another. If this be true no deception is practiced, and, if the sugar is pure, no injury is done. In all cases of this kind, perhaps, it would be better if the manufacturer would plainly mark on the label the name of the added materials. Then there could be no question of the nature of the product.

=Canned Tomatoes.=--Next, perhaps, in importance to the industry of canned corn, is the preservation of tomatoes. Immense quantities of these goods are produced annually in the United States. The technique of the canning process is not at all different from that of canned corn. By reason of the pulpy condition of the material and its freedom from hard and impenetrable matter in the preparation for canning, the sterilization is accomplished in less time and with greater certainty than in the case of Indian corn.

_Preparation of the Raw Material._--Only fresh, ripe, mature, and sound tomatoes should be used in the preparation of the canned goods. These are delivered by the farmer or contractor in baskets or otherwise to the factory. After sorting and rejecting all those that are unfit, the portions selected for preservation are treated in the usual manner to secure sterilization.

The skins, cores, and rejected portions of the tomatoes should be removed to a sufficient distance from the factory to prevent any bad odor or danger of infection.

_Composition of Canned Tomatoes._--The chemical composition of canned tomatoes is shown in the following analysis:

Water, 93.59 percent Fat, .23 „ Fiber, .60 „ Starch and sugar, 3.47 „ Protein, 1.29 „ Ash, .66 „ Salt, .14 „

From the above data it is seen that the tomato is not particularly valuable on account of its nutrient properties. It consists chiefly of water, and its value as a food product is principally condimental. It must not be denied, however, that it has that peculiar value which is possessed by all edible succulent vegetables and fruits, namely, it is a means of keeping the digestive processes in good form, preventing constipation, and promoting the general metabolic activity. In this sense it is seen that it is more than condimental. It also, of course, has a distinct food value, due chiefly to the carbohydrates it contains.

_Addition of Sugar and Spices._--Sugar and other condimental substances are often used in the preparation of tomatoes. In this case it is doubtful whether the addition of pure sugar can be regarded in any sense as an adulteration if properly notified on the label. It is claimed that there is no distinction in the classification of tomatoes based upon their sugar content. If there was a variety of distinctly sweet tomato as distinguished from the ordinary field crop, then the addition of sugar to the field crop to imitate the sweet of the naturally sweet article would be an adulteration. But even in this case unripe or imperfect tomatoes may be used and sugar added to conceal inferiority. The use of common condimental substances, such as salt, spices, vinegar, etc., in the preparation of various products of tomatoes must be regarded as a perfectly legitimate operation.

_Adulteration of Canned Tomatoes._--Fortunately there are few adulterations practiced in the case of canned tomatoes. The use of antiseptics to insure the conservation of the contents of the can was formerly practiced to some extent, salicylic and benzoic acids being the chief antiseptics employed. Since it has been made possible to easily, speedily, and economically sterilize the contents of the cans, the use of antiseptics is practically a thing of the past. The most common adulteration of tomatoes, perhaps, has been artificial coloring. The use of artificial coloring is resorted to solely for deceptive purposes. Where green or immature tomatoes are used, or other portions and parts of such fruits as are not suitable for the production of the highest grade products, the naturally red color of the tomato is imitated artificially, usually by the addition of cochineal or a coal tar dye. The use of artificial color in canned tomatoes has almost ceased in this country.

Saccharin is also sometimes used as an adulterant to imitate the properties of pure sugar.

It has already been intimated that green or unfit tomatoes or the residue of better grades are sometimes prepared and sold as the real article. This is a form of adulteration which is most reprehensible. Unfortunately, except in so far as the artificial color is concerned, this adulteration is not readily revealed by either chemical or microscopic examination, although the latter is exceedingly valuable in detecting certain forms of this kind of material. Only by a rigid inspection of the factories can this form of adulteration be excluded with certainty. The use of such immature fruits or scraps without notice to the consumer is, without doubt, an adulteration of an exceedingly bad type. If there be a desire to make a very cheap grade of the product out of these materials the nature of them should be plainly stated upon the label and then, perhaps, there would be a valid excuse for their appearance on the market.

=Other Canned Vegetables.=--There is no necessity to enter into the detail of the preparation of other canned vegetables further than to say that practically all vegetables which are offered on the market, except those which are necessarily eaten in a raw state, are preserved or can be preserved by the sterilizing process.

=Tomato Ketchup.=--A sauce which is used in large quantities in the United States and in other countries is known as tomato ketchup and is manufactured in many parts of the country. Tomato ketchup is the pulp of sound, ripe tomatoes mixed with various condimental substances and flavoring matters to make it palatable and desirable as a sauce. The character of flavor and condimental substances employed is left to the judgment of the manufacturer and the taste of the consumer, provided the materials are wholesome and sanitary. It has been claimed by some manufacturers that it is impracticable to place this desirable product upon the market without the use of chemical antiseptics. They admit, as in the case of the manufacture of fruit sirups, that tomato ketchup can be sterilized and kept properly until the bottle is opened for consumption; but, inasmuch as it is used in small quantities and a bottle of it lasts for many days, it cannot be kept in a proper state except by the use of such preservatives. The principal antiseptics which are used in connection with tomato ketchup are salicylic and benzoic acids.

Experience has shown that these claims are not of sufficient value to warrant the exception of tomato ketchup from the ordinary regulations respecting pure food. The habit of leaving a tomato ketchup bottle upon the table where the material adheres to the rim and becomes hardened to a gummy paste, serving as a pabulum for flies, does not appeal with any great force to the æsthetic sense relative to dining rooms. A ketchup bottle carefully opened and used in such a way as to avoid infection and then returned to the ice box can be kept for many days without danger of fermentation.

_Artificial Colors._--Tomato ketchup is sometimes subjected to artificial coloring. This is done to imitate the color of the best raw material. If red, ripe, sound tomatoes are used no artificial color is necessary.

_Use of Refuse for Making Ketchup._--It has been stated that the ripe, imperfect tomatoes at the time of harvesting are cooked in large quantities and treated with benzoic acid and stored in large containers until the canning season is over, after which this material is made into ketchup and artificially colored. Further statements have also been made to the effect that the skins, cores, and refuse of the cannery have been treated in the same way as indicated below. The proper inspection of the factories would exclude from the preparation of ketchup unfit material of the kind mentioned. It is doubtless true that when the people are finally convinced that the ketchup which is used is made of the best material and contains no artificial color or no harmful antiseptic, its use will be immensely increased.

A manufacturer of ketchup recently made the following statement respecting the utilization of the refuse matter at the cannery:

“We use in our standard catsup the peelings and small tomatoes. We preserve the pulp with four ounces of sodium benzoate to each 50 gallon barrel, cooked and whipped through a cyclone pulp machine. It takes two barrels of this stock to produce 60 gallons of catsup, and we use eight ounces more of sodium benzoate to preserve it.”

If waste material of this kind is sound and wholesome, there can be no valid objection to its use if the product be offered for sale under its proper designation.

STARCHES USED AS FOODS.

=Edible Starches.=--Attention has already been called to the fact that starch is the principal constituent of many of the common foods, such as cereals and the different varieties of the potato and other vegetables. Starch is often separated from the part of the plant producing it, and is then largely consumed as food in practically a pure state. Starches used in this way are presented in the form of pudding or desserts of some kind, and are often richly spiced, highly sweetened, and often eaten with cream. Starch also appears in the market under other names such as tapioca, arrowroot, etc.

_Arrowroot._--The plant which furnishes the substance known as arrowroot belongs to the natural family Cannaceæ and is principally native of tropical regions. The most important source of the arrowroot of commerce is the _Canna indica_. The starch of this plant exhibits in a strong degree certain characteristic qualities of starches derived from this natural family. The hilum in this starch is round and in some varieties double. The appearance of this starch under the microscope is shown in Fig. 45. The product of commerce is obtained from the rhizome and tubers.

_Bermuda Arrowroot._--The Bermuda arrowroot is obtained principally from the _Maranta arundinacea_. This arrowroot is also produced very largely in St. Vincent and other West Indian localities. The granules of the starch are very much smaller than in the two species just described. The hilum is prominent, and frequently takes the shape of a well defined slit instead of the usual round spot. These arrowroots and those of South African origin are very extensively used for invalid foods where starchy foods are indicated, which, however, is not very often the case. These starches form a firm and semitranslucent jelly-like body when heated to the boiling point in a small quantity of water. The term arrowroot is applied to starch from plants of the origin mentioned because the natives of the country producing them use the bruised rhizomes as a poultice for wounds caused by arrows.

_Canna edulis._--This species of Cannaceæ also furnishes a starch of commerce nearly allied to the _Canna indica_. The common commercial name of this variety of starch is “Tous les mois.” The starch granules of this species are rather larger than those of the _Canna indica_, and the concentric markings are more delicate and regular.

_Madagascar Arrowroot._--There is also produced in Madagascar an arrowroot from a different form of plant, namely _Tacca pinnatifida_. It is not, however, of any very great commercial importance. A similar starch is made from the same plant in Otaheite.

_Plantain Meal._--The plants of the natural family Musaceæ are important articles of food in many tropical regions, the plant yielding also, in addition to the starch, fibers suitable for textile use. The fruit of the _Musa paradisiaca_ is chiefly employed for this purpose. It is quite similar in its character to the fruit of the allied species, _Musa sapientum_, or common banana. The starch granules which make up the plantain meal are remarkable for their long and narrow shape. The lines marking their surface are only faintly distinguishable, and the hilum is small and somewhat indistinct. Plantain meal is not used to any very great extent outside of the country where it is produced.

_Sago._--Another form of starch which has a high value as a food product is made from the natural family Palmaceæ. The palm starch or sago is consumed in immense quantities in many parts of the world, and is probably in importance only second to the starch derived from the cereals as human food. The starch granules are rather large and coarse, although very many small granules are found mixed with them. Some of the larger granules appear to be partially divided or broken. The hilum is distinct and very long. The sago of commerce is like a tapioca made from the palm starch. It has been subjected to heat while still moist in the process of manufacture, so that it is quite difficult, as a rule, to find the distinct starch granules of the palm in the commercial article. Sago is grown principally in the Moluccas and Sumatra.

_South African Arrowroot._--There are many species of Marantaceæ cultivated in South Africa from which arrowroot is manufactured. They are of the same variety as that used in Bermuda and the West Indies. The cultivation of the plant has modified to some extent the action of the starch granules as originally found in the uncultivated plant. The starch granules in the cultivated variety approach more nearly a spherical form. The concentric lines are much more distinct and the hilum more prominent than in the wild variety.

_Tapioca._--The most important of the starch products used as food is the tapioca. It is made from the plant belonging to the natural family Euphorbiaceæ, and is derived particularly from the variety of cassava plant known as _Manihot_. Attention has been called to the fact that many of the varieties of cassava plant are highly poisonous, due to the natural development during growth of hydrocyanic acid, one of the most violent of known poisons. This substance, however, is of quite a volatile character, and when comminuted cassava root is heated or boiled, all or at least the principal part of the hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) disappears. None of it or at least not more than a trace is found in the food product tapioca. A comparatively sweet variety of cassava that is containing but a small proportion of prussic acid is grown in Florida and Georgia. The appearance of a field of cassava is shown in Fig. 46. The tapioca of commerce is prepared by the separation of the starch in the usual way by grinding and washing with water. Before the starch becomes dry, in fact, while it is still containing its maximum degree of moisture, it is submitted to heat first at a low temperature, gradually increased until the starch granules are disintegrated or agglutinated into a somewhat firm and gelatinous mass. The heat is then continued at the proper temperature until the water is nearly all driven off. The starch from this plant is sometimes known as Brazilian arrowroot.

The starch granules of the bitter cassava are very small and often angular in shape, although some of them appear as well rounded spheroids. The hilum is, as a rule, clearly distinguished. The microscopic appearance of the grains of cassava starch is shown in Fig. 47.

_Adulteration of Tapioca._--The true tapioca should only be made from starch of the cassava. Any starch, derived from any source whatever, if taken in the moist state may be subjected to the same process of heating, and forms an imitation tapioca which possesses many of the physical and probably all of the edible properties of the genuine article. The substitution, however, of any of the other starches for that of the cassava is at least an imitation, if not an adulteration, of the genuine article.

_Food Starches Derived from Cereals._--The starches which are derived from the common cereals are also extensively used as food products, especially the maize starch in the United States. It is commonly sold as “corn” starch, and is largely used for the purpose already mentioned. It may be in its natural state or it may be previously submitted to the action of heat while still moist, so that it takes on the character of tapioca or sago. In the United States the Indian corn is practically the only cereal which furnishes the food starch in very large quantities, although rye starch is extensively used for this purpose in other countries.

The starches of certain of the legumes, such as peas and beans, have also been separated and used for food purposes. They are not, however, used to any such extent as would warrant any especial reference to them at this point.

_Starch from the Peanut._--The peanut also yields a starch which has sometimes been separated and used for food purposes. The quantity so employed, however, is of no consequence as far as magnitude of product is concerned.

_Food Starch Derived from the Potato._--Potato starch is also used very extensively for food purposes, either in its natural form or when subjected to heat while still moist, as in the preparation of tapioca and sago.

_Adulteration of Starches._--The most common adulteration of starches is rather a misbranding than adulteration. The practice of adding inert white powdered mineral matters to starches is practically unknown in this country. Starch sometimes contains sulfurous acid used as a bleach in its preparation. This is an injurious substance and should be excluded from edible starches. The naming of a starch of one kind by the name of another and more valuable kind is simple deception. It is practiced to some extent in this and other countries. Starch itself may be used as an adulterant, as when maize starch is mixed with wheat flour or powdered starch mixed with granulated sugar. This kind of adulteration is quite unknown in this country. The selling of cheaper starches for tapioca and sago is more common than it should be.

CONDIMENTS.

=Condiments other than Sugar, Salt, Vinegar, and Wood Smoke.=--The principal condimental substances which are used for food are of vegetable origin and of a highly aromatic character. Condimental substances themselves may have food value, that is, contain digestible material which takes part in the metabolic processes. Their utility, however, and their value do not depend upon the amount of food which they contain, but upon their aromatic and condimental principles above mentioned. Condimental substances are used in a variety of ways, but in general it may be said that in an air-dried state they are reduced to a fine powder and employed in this way. Extracts may also be made from these condimental substances, either with water or usually with alcohol, and this extractable matter used as a condiment. The essential oils which they contain are also frequently separated by distillation, and in this purified and concentrated state are, after dilution with alcohol, used for condimental purposes. Peppermint oil is a type of this character of condiments.

It will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual to mention the principal condimental substances and refer for the character of their composition to the standards of purity established for them under authority of Congress in Appendix A.

_Allspice_, also known as pimento, is the dried fruit of the _Pimenta pimenta_ L.

_Anise._--The anise is a plant which grows from 14 to 16 inches in height. Its botanical name is _Pimpinella Anisum_ L. French, anis; German, Anis; Italian, aniso; Spanish, anis.

The anise produces abundant seeds, which are the principal condimental part. The seeds are used either directly in bread and other foods or especially in the manufacture of liqueurs and confections. Anise seed is one of the oldest of condimental substances of which historical account has been preserved.

_Bay leaf_ is the dried leaf of the _Laurus nobilis_ L. In a powdered form it is used as a condimental substance in food, but it is chiefly employed in flavoring alcohol in the manufacture of the material known as bay rum.

_Capers._--The capers are obtained by drying the flower buds of the caper bush. The botanical name is _Capparis spinosa_ L. French, caprier; German, Kapernstrauch; Italian, cappero; Spanish, alcaparra.

The caper is a plant which is a native of southern Europe of shrub-like proportions, growing to a height of from three to five feet. The flower buds are gathered when they are about as large as peas and are preserved by pickling in vinegar.

_Caraway._--This is a plant which is native to Europe, is either annual or biennial, and belongs to the botanical species _Carum Carvi_ L. French, carvi; German, Feld-Kümmel; Italian, carvi; Spanish, alcaravea.

The seeds contain the aromatic principles which make the caraway valuable as a condiment. The plant often grows wild. The roots have some value as food and are also highly spiced, but are seldom eaten. The seeds are used very largely for flavoring bread, especially among the Germans. They are also used in certain varieties of cheese, especially that made in Holland. Often they are found in certain candies and other confections.

_Cassia_ is that variety of cinnamon obtained from other species of cinnamon than _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, and is not so highly valued for condimental and other purposes as the true cinnamon.

Cassia buds, which are often used for condimental purposes, are the dried immature fruit of any species of the cinnamomum plant. The cinnamon, as it is offered for condimental purposes, is usually finely ground, and the same is true of cassia.

_Celery Seed._--The seeds of celery are highly prized for condimental purposes, either directly or in the form of an extract. The seeds or their extracts are also often recommended for medicinal purposes.

_Cinnamon._--The cinnamon is the bark of various species of plants belonging to the genus _Cinnamomum_. The true cinnamon is derived solely from the bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ Breyne.

_Cloves._--Cloves are dried buds of the _Caryophyllus aromaticus_ L. They are used either in the original dried state or as a finely ground powder.

_Coriander._--The aromatic principles of coriander which is used for condimental purposes are the dried seeds of the _Coriandrum sativum_ L. This is a plant which is indigenous to southern Europe, growing from two to two and a half feet high. The seeds are used in the manufacture of liqueurs and for seasoning a great number of culinary preparations. It is stated by some authorities that the leaves are used for condimental purposes, but this is not the case. The leaves as well as the other green parts of this plant have a very unpleasant odor from which the name of the plant is derived. This odor is of a character which would exclude the leaves from use for condimental purposes.

_Cumin Seed._--The cumin plant (_Cuminum Cyminum_ L.) is thought to be indigenous to Egypt. It is an annual plant, sometimes growing from four to five inches high. The seeds are the aromatic part and are used for condimental purposes. They have a hot, acrid taste and a strong aromatic flavor. They are used chiefly for flavoring soups and in the manufacture of pastry of all kinds. They are also found in many kinds of liqueurs.

_Dill._--The dill plant (_Anethum graveolens_ L.) is indigenous to southern Europe. It is an annual plant and grows from two to two and a half feet high. The seeds, which are the condimental part of the plant, are flat and have a strong and bitter flavor. They are used in this country principally for flavoring a kind of pickle known as the dill pickle.

_Fennel._--The fennel plant (_Fœniculum fœniculum_ L.) is indigenous to southern Europe. It grows both wild and under cultivation. The common garden fennel is biennial in its habits. The seeds contain the condimental properties of the plant, and the seeds of the cultivated fennel are usually about twice as long as those of the wild variety. They are flat on one side and convex on the other and crossed by thick yellow-colored ribs. The seeds are used chiefly in the manufacture of liqueurs.

_Ginger._--The ginger is the root of the plant _Zingiber zingiber_ L., and is one of the most highly prized of the condimental substances. It is a plant which naturally contains a large amount of starch, which forms nearly half of its weight in the dried state. The roots are often sent into commerce covered with lime, either for the purpose of preserving them or bleaching them. This is such a common condition that the limed ginger or bleached ginger is recognized as a legitimate article of commerce.

_Mace._--The mace of commerce is composed of the dried arillus of _Myristica fragrans_ Honttyn. Mace contains a large quantity of fatty substance, usually not less than 20 nor more than 30 percent of its total weight. There are several varieties of mace on the market, the principal one being Macassar mace, which is obtained from the dried arillus of _Myristica argentea_ Warb. The Bombay mace is derived from the dried arillus of _Myristica malabarica_.

_Marjoram_ is the dried leaf of the plant known by the botanical name of _Majorana majorana_ (L.) Karst. or _Origanum vulgare_ L. This plant is a native of Europe and is a very common wild plant in France, especially on the borders of the forests. It is also extensively cultivated. It is a perennial. The leaves of the plant are the condimental portions. A plant known as mountain mint is frequently sold as marjoram and has some of its condimental properties.

_Mustard._--The mustard seed is derived from various species, distinguished largely by the color of the seeds. For instance, the white mustard is the seed of _Sinapis alba_ L., the black mustard the seed of _Brassica nigra_ (L.) Koch, and the black or brown mustard the seed of _Brassica juncea_ (L.) Cosson. The mustard is a widely distributed plant probably indigenous to Europe. It grows extensively wild and is also largely cultivated. The mustard seed forms one of the most important condiments of commerce. The mustard is often ground before it is sold, and frequently it is mixed with other spices and with oils and is known as prepared mustard. This latter variety is subjected to all kinds of adulterations, frequently containing very little mustard but with enough turmeric to give the preparation a yellow color resembling that attributed to the pure article. Prepared mustard should be a thick paste composed largely of ground mustard seed together with salt, spices of different kinds, and vinegar. It may also be ground in oil.

_Nutmeg._--Nutmeg is the seed of _Myristica fragrans_. The seed is sent into commerce with a thin coating of lime, which, of course, must be removed before the nutmeg is used. It is principally used as the unground nut and by grating it into the food which is to be flavored at the time of use. The nut thus retains its flavor much better than when all ground at once and kept for some time. There are many varieties of nutmeg on the market, the principal ones being the Macassar, Papua, male, and long nutmegs. These are all the dried seeds of the _Myristica argentea_.

_Pepper._--Pepper is one of the most important of the principal aromatic condimental substances. There are many standard varieties which are known to the trade and which are derived from distinct botanical species. The principal varieties are black pepper, white pepper, and paprika pepper. Black pepper is the dried immature berry of _Piper nigrum_ L. White pepper is the dried mature berry of _Piper nigrum_ L. from which the outer and the inner coatings of the seed have been removed. Paprika pepper is a red pepper of very mild aromatic qualities grown chiefly in Hungary and in Spain.

Cayenne pepper is a very active aromatic red pepper which is the dried fruit of _Capsicum frutescens_ L. or _Capsicum baccatum_ L.

The red peppers, therefore, may be divided into two distinct classes, namely, cayenne or hot, acrid pepper and the paprika or mild-flavored pepper. There is another variety of pepper known on the market as long pepper which is the dried fruit of _Piper longum_ L.

_Saffron_ is the dried stigma of _Crocus sativus_ L.

_Sage_ is a common garden plant which is very extensively used for condimental purposes, belonging to the species _Salvia officinalis_ L. Sage is used very extensively by the housewife in the preparation of domestic sausage, and is perhaps more commonly used in meat products of this description than in other foods.

_Savory_ or _summer savory_ is a preparation from the leaf, the blossom, and tender tips of the branches of _Satureja hortensis_ L.

_Sweet Basil._--This plant is indigenous to India, growing usually about one foot high. The botanical name is _Ocymum Basilicum_ L. French, basilic grand; German, Basilikum; Italian, basilico; Spanish, albaca.

The leaves of the plant are the aromatic part and are extensively used for condimental purposes of different kinds. There are many varieties of basil in use.

_Thyme._--Thyme is a plant indigenous to southern Europe and belongs to the botanical species _Thymus vulgaris_ L. It is a perennial plant and grows in the form of a small dwarf shrub. The plant may be propagated either by cuttings or may be grown from the seed. The leaves and young shoots of the thyme may be used for condimental purposes. Some other species of the thyme are also used for condimental purposes, especially the varieties known as lemon thyme and mother-of-thyme.

=Vegetable Flavoring Extracts.=--In speaking of condimental substances it was stated that they were either used directly in a state of fine subdivision for flavoring purposes or their extracts were employed. The use of the extract is often more convenient than the use of the powdered material, and, also, it secures a more even distribution of the flavoring principal throughout the food product. It is doubtful, however, if for really condimental purposes there is any advantage in the use of the extracted materials. Nevertheless there are many food products in which it would be inconvenient to use the powdered aromatic substance itself and the flavoring extract has become established as a legitimate article of a condimental nature.

All the common extracts used in foods are described in the standards of purity established by the Secretary of Agriculture by authority of Congress, and will be found in Appendix A.

FRUITS.

=Definition.=--Under the term “fruit” is included the edible products of many trees and shrubs. The term “fruit” in its general sense can be applied to any kind of a food product, as for instance the fruit of the farm, the fields, and the forest, but in a restricted sense, as it will be used here, it is applied to the class of orchard products represented by apples, peaches, pears, etc. Fruits, in a general sense, include also that class of wild or cultivated edible bodies known as berries. The term “berry” is restricted in its present sense to the products of certain small shrubs or vines, such as gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, etc. The fruits that grow upon small bushes, such as the currant and gooseberry, occupy an intermediate position between the orchard fruits which have been mentioned and berries. Orchard fruits are conveniently divided into large and small fruits, the large fruits being represented by the apple, pear, peach, quince, etc., and the small fruit by the cherry and plum. Fruits were doubtless among the earliest foods of man, and this leads to another classification of fruits, namely, wild and cultivated. Wild fruits, at the present time, do not include any large proportion of human foods. There are certain trees growing wild, such as the mulberry, the wild cherry, and others, which produce delicious fruits, usually of small size. The term “fruit” as used herein does not include that very valuable class of foods known as nuts, which is considered under a separate classification.

=General Characteristics of Fruits.=--The general characteristics of fruits include their color, flavor, odor, and nutritive properties in so far as we are concerned with them in this manual. They are composed very largely of water, perhaps 80 percent or more. The solid matter consists of the usual cellulose structure of vegetable bodies, sugars, gums, organic acids, and mineral matters. Fruits are all succulent, that is, by reason of their high content of water, composed chiefly of matters in solution which constitute their juices. All fruits, therefore, when subjected to pressure yield a juice which contains the principal portion of their dietetic constituents. The study of the composition of the fruit juices would, therefore, naturally accompany a study of the fruits themselves. The chief characteristics of fruit from a dietetic point of view and also a palatable standpoint are their sugars and acids. The characteristic of taste depends on these two constituents principally. In addition to this, the fruits contain aromatic substances belonging to the class of essential oils and compound ethers which give to them the agreeable odor which adds so much to their value. Fruits are naturally colored and these colors, to which the eye is accustomed, become marks of distinction and excellence in many cases. The prevailing colors of fruits are red, yellow, and green. All shades of colors, however, are represented by the mingling of the primary tints. Certain colors are associated with certain fruits as, for instance, red with the cherry, raspberry, etc., green, red, and yellow with apples, and shades of red and yellow with peaches. These colors are due to the different conditions of the chlorophyll or vegetable coloring matter which the skin of the fruit contains. The three principal color tints which are produced are known as chlorophyll, green, xanthophyll, yellow, and erythrophyll, red. The mingling of these three distinct colors in the plant coloring matter forms the various tints which are seen in fruits and which render them so attractive to the eye.

The sugars in fruit include both the common sugar (sucrose) and invert sugar, which contains equal quantities of dextrose and levulose. As the sugar is more or less abundant in proportion to the other ingredients the fruit is more or less sweet. The different fruits contain different quantities of sugar,--the richest perhaps is the grape which often in a state of complete maturity may have from 25 to 30 percent of sugar. Apples contain from five to 15 percent of sugar, and peaches and pears somewhat less. In fact this range in sugar will cover nearly all the fruits, large and small, as well as most of the berries. The quantity of sugar contained in each of the fruits will be especially noted in treating of them individually. One of the most important constituents of fruit from a palatable point of view is found in its organic acids. These vary in different classes of fruits. The most common organic acid in fruit is malic, which is the chief acid in the apple and allied forms. In citrus fruits, such as the lemon and orange, citric acid is the principal organic acid. In grapes the principal organic acid is tartaric. More than one of these acids is, however, usually contained in a single fruit, and other organic acids than those named are found in small quantities in various fruits. The three mentioned may be regarded as the typical acids in fruits. These acids, if prepared chemically and administered in a pure state, have practically no food value at all, and cannot be considered as wholesome material to place in the stomach. When, however, they are eaten in their natural state in combination with the potash and other bases which fruits contain, and mingled, as Nature has done, with the other constituents, they add not only to the palatability but also to the wholesomeness of the product. This is only another illustration of the fact that natural products are often wholesome and desirable where artificial products of the same kind chemically are hurtful and undesirable. Many fruits contain considerable quantities of a carbohydrate allied to some extent in its composition to sugar and starch but which has the property of setting to a semi-resilient mass known as jelly. This constituent in fruit is known as pectin or pectose and is present in greater or less quantities in almost all fruits. It is by the utilization of this component of fruit that the jellies which are so common an article of food are prepared. While in its physical properties the jelly of fruits has some resemblance to the gelatine or jelly of animals, its chemical composition and nutritive values are entirely different. The gelatine or jelly of animals is essentially a nitrogenous product while the pectin or jelly of fruit is essentially a carbohydrate product. The two, therefore, are not to be confounded.

=Nutritive Uses.=--The edible fruits are not only valuable on account of the nourishment they contain but particularly so because of the general effect which they have upon the digestive operations. Their judicious use is conducive to health in many ways. The fruits are mildly laxative, as a rule, although there are some exceptions to this. For instance, in some berries, like the blackberry, the quantity of tannin present is sufficient to cause a styptic or binding action. While all the fruits contain tannin it is usually not in such proportions as to produce a constipating effect. On the other hand the combination of the acids, bases, pectins, and sugars favors a free and natural progress of the food through the alimentary canal. The entire withdrawal of fruit from the dietary, even if the nourishment it supplies be provided in some other way, would work great damage to health. There are certain dangers, however, to be avoided in the general use of fruit. Immature and imperfect fruits are unwholesome. Fruits are often subjected, moreover, to infection with eggs of various kinds of insects, and these organisms and the larvæ or eggs thereof may be introduced into the stomach with more or less injurious effects. In the eating of fruit, care should be exercised in the inspection and proper preparation of the article; it should be free from infection, decay, and insect life. The natural condition in which fruit is eaten is in the raw state, and in general it may be said that this is the more wholesome and preferable way of eating it. On the other hand the cooking of fruit sterilizes it and makes the consumer secure against any infection from bacteria and insect life, and in some ways promotes to a certain degree the digestive processes. This is especially true of fruits of a hard or unyielding nature. Cooked fruits, as a rule, may be considered less desirable than the natural article, but they deserve mention on account of their freedom from infection, wholesomeness, and general dietetic value. Some fruits, such as apples and pears, contain notable quantities of starch, especially in the immature state, and this disappears to a greater or less extent during the process of ripening. At the period of complete maturity the starch is reduced to a minimum and the sugar in the fruit reaches a maximum. After this period the fruit begins to lose in dietetic value, due to the natural process of decay, which is not even entirely checked by placing the fruit in cold storage. The sugar gradually ferments and disappears. The fruit becomes more spongy and less palatable and its general properties are impaired. Other fruits, such as the orange and lemon, berries, etc., contain little or no starch at any period of their growth. By careful storage the period of maturity may be prolonged for weeks or even months, and thus the fruit made available over a very much longer period than would otherwise be the case. Under the existing conditions of communication with all parts of the world it is not impracticable for even those who are not blest with wealth to have a daily supply of fresh fruits grown in different parts of the world. In temperate climes fresh fruits are available from June until May of the following year, either furnished directly from the orchard or properly preserved by storage.

=Apples.=--The apple is one of the principal fruits in the market both for its crop value and for its general properties.

It is the most abundant as well as the most valuable of fruits. The apple is grown practically in all parts of the United States, but there are some localities in which the apple tree flourishes in great abundance. Among the states which are famous for apple growing may be mentioned New York, Virginia, Michigan, and Missouri.

The varieties of apples are so numerous that it will be useless to attempt to mention them. Some of the most important are the Ben Davis, the Pippin, the Winesap, Jonathan, Rhode Island Greening, York, Albemarle Pippin, Clayton, Early Harvester, Sweet June, Tompkins King, Northern Spy, Russet, Yellow Bellflower, etc.

_Acidity of Apples._--One of the chief points in the palatability of apples as well as in their general character is their acidity. While apples are not relished when too sour they are as little relished when too sweet. The sugar and acid in apples are the chief factors in their palatability, not excluding the delicate flavor imparted by essential oils and ethereal substances which, though present in such small quantities as not to be measured chemically, nevertheless are highly important in making up the total effect of palatability and wholesomeness. The chief acid in apples is malic. It exists during all periods of the growth of the apple, but is more apparent in the green and immature state than in the ripe fruit. The relative quantity of malic acid in respect of sugar and starch is given under the heading of “Behavior of Apples During Storage.”

_Adulteration of Apples._--There is, of course, no adulteration of apples in their natural state except the attempt which is sometimes made to deceive the purchaser respecting the character of the whole package by placing the best and most attractive fruit on the top. This is such a well known practice, though regrettable, as not to demand any particular comment. The purchaser who has his own interest at stake will usually inspect the bottom as well as the top of the package before buying. The chief forms of debasement are those which are not practiced with any attempt to deceive. They consist in offering apples which are bruised by carelessness in gathering, or which are infected by insect life. In fact the greatest damage to which the apple is subject is that of the ravages of insects. There are certain kinds of insects which naturally breed in the apple. The egg is often laid in the early development of the fruit and by the time the apples are ready for consumption the larvæ stage has been reached and the worm has produced ravages to a great extent which are often not indicated by any external appearance. It is evident that the farmer cannot be held responsible in all cases for this condition of the fruit. Nevertheless it is only fair to state that in the modern development of the spraying industry the ravages of insect pests can be restrained and controlled, if not entirely prevented, by the proper spraying of the fruit. This spraying introduces another danger which cannot be forgotten, namely, the remaining upon the surface of the fruit of some of the spraying material itself. If present at all this material is apt to be either at the point of the junction of the stem with the fruit or at the opposite extremity of the apple. For this reason the fruit when eaten raw should be peeled in order that any remaining particles of the poisonous material used in spraying may be removed. It is to the interest of the merchant to present fruit of this kind in the most attractive form, by the exclusion of bruised, rotten, or infected apples and the offering of the sound, ripe fruit in as presentable a condition as possible.

_Composition of Apples at Various Stages of Maturity._--The following table shows the analysis made of one variety of apple, the Baldwin, at various stages of maturity:

------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------ | | | | | ACIDITY | | | | | | AS MALIC| | |INVERT| CANE | | ACID. | CONDITION. |SOLIDS.|SUGAR.|SUGAR.|STARCH.|PER CENT.| ASH. ------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------ | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- | _Per- |_Per- | cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._| cent._ |cent._ Very green, | 18.47 | 6.40 | 1.63 | 4.14 | 1.14 | 0.27 Green, | 20.19 | 6.46 | 4.05 | 3.67 | .... | .... Ripe, | 19.64 | 7.70 | 6.81 | .17 | .65 | .27 Overripe, | 19.70 | 8.81 | 5.26 | None | .48 | .28 ------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------

The chief point of interest in the above analysis is the gradual decline of the starch. When the apple is overripe the starch is entirely gone. When the apple is ripe only a small part of the starch is found. In the green apple very large quantities of starch are found. The sugar increases as the starch diminishes. There is a little over 14 percent of sugar in the perfectly ripe apple but much less in the green. The acidity calculated as malic acid diminishes as maturity is approached. In general it may be said that in the ripening of an apple the starch is converted into sugar and the acidity is diminished.

The composition of apples varies very greatly, as may be easily understood, with the variety of the apple examined, the character of the season in which it grew, and with the individual apple or sample. The best that can be done in showing the composition of apples is to give some of the most reliable analyses, covering the largest range of examinations in this and other countries. In the following table are given three sets of analyses of American apples and two sets of foreign apples, the first three being American and the second series being foreign.

The table gives the number of samples included in the analytical data, and the mean, maximum, and minimum results of the analyses.

-----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------ | | | |ACIDITY| | | | | NO. | | | EX- | PRO-| | | | OF | | |PRESSED| TEIN| RE- | | | SAM-| TOTAL | | AS | N × |DUCING| CANE | CRUDE |PLES.|SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄.| 6.25.|SUGAR.|SUGAR.|FIBER. -----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------ | | _Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per-|_Per- | | cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._ _Series 1_:| | | | | | | | Average, | | 13.77 | .240 | .376 | .590| 7.04| 4.59 | .... Maximum, | 13 | 16.47 | .320 | .670 | .806| ....| 7.79 | .... Minimum, | | 9.37 | .170 | .190 | .356| ....| 1.80 | .... _Series 2_:| | | | | | | | Average, | | 16.43 | .27 | .486 | ....| 7.92| 3.99 | .... Maximum, | 27 | 23.36 | .34 | .811 | ....| 11.75| 6.81 | .... Minimum, | | 13.46 | .17 | .073 | ....| 5.34| 1.74 | .... _Series 3_:| | | | | | | | Average, | | 13.65 | .288 | .452 | .694| 8.73| 1.53 | 0.96 Maximum, | 23 | 16.55 | .404 | .863 | 1.094| 10.80| 2.81 | 1.29 Minimum, | | 10.60 | .228 | .139 | .421| 6.89| .15 | .70 | | | | | | | | FOREIGN | | | | | | | | VARIETY. | | | | | | | | _Series 1_:| 17 | 16.42 | .310 | .614 | .39 | 7.73| .... | 1.98 _Series 2_:| | | | | | | | Average, | | 15.07 | .290 | .234 | ....| 10.12| .55 | .... Maximum, | 5 | 16.03 | .360 | .329 | ....| 10.69| 1.11 | .... Minimum, | | 14.04 | .240 | .190 | ....| 9.77| None | .... -----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------

The combination of the average data of the American series shows a mean percentage of reducing or invert sugar of 7.90 and of cane sugar of 3.40. The average American apple therefore contains 11.30 percent sugar.

_Dietetic Value._--The wholesomeness of apples is well recognized by all authors on physiology and hygiene, and the necessity of at least a partial fruit diet is acknowledged by all. Inasmuch as the apple is one of the most abundant of fruits, being produced in enormous quantities and sold often at a very low rate, its value as a food product is probably not as fully acknowledged by our own people as it should be. Through a greater part of the year apples can be made a staple article of diet. They are, of course, to be most highly recommended uncooked, and especially those varieties which have high palatable qualities and a suitable softness of texture. Very hard apples, even if palatable, are not recommended for eating raw. In a cooked state the apples are scarcely less wholesome and nutritious than in the raw state. It is true that in pastry their good qualities are often counteracted by the poor quality of the pastry envelop which, by reason of the method of its preparation, usually with an excessive quantity of lard or some other oil or fat, is rendered sometimes not only unpalatable but also difficult of digestion. In a stewed condition or prepared in some other unobjectionable manner no adverse criticism can be made upon the quality of the apple as an edible product. It may also be preserved in cans by sterilization by the process described under canned fruits. In this condition the product is known as “canned apples.” When prepared in this way the apples are often flavored with sugar and sometimes with spices.

Many suggestions are often given as to the proper time for eating apples, but it probably makes little difference, so far as their dietary or hygienic character is concerned, whether they are eaten before or after meals or during meals. Since it is advisable, as a rule, not to introduce into the stomach continually fresh portions of food, it may be regarded as safe advice to suggest that the consumption of fruit be made practically a function of the meal and that it be not used indiscriminately, loading the stomach between meals with additional quantities of material which require digestion.

_Length of Harvest._--By selecting varieties that mature early in the summer, in the early autumn, and in the late autumn the period for harvesting apples may be prolonged in the northern states from August to November. During this period, if the different varieties are properly selected for the maturing time, the ripe apple can be offered to the markets fresh from the tree during the entire season. As a rule the later maturing varieties are more palatable, more aromatic, and more nutritious than those that mature early.

_Pectose Content of Apples._--The juice of apples like the juice of many other fruits has the property of coagulating to a solid or semi-solid material on boiling to a proper consistence and allowing to stand. It is due, essentially, to the existence of pectin or pectose bodies as described in the introduction on the chapter on fruits. This is a body allied to the carbohydrates and must be regarded as one of the essential constituents of apples and as imparting to them a characteristic flavor and quality.

_Picking and Care of Apples._--The greatest difficulty experienced in marketing apples is in the danger of bruising either at the time of picking or during transportation. The apple when removed from the tree still remains a living organism with all of its functional activities, except additional growth, continuing in full power. As a rule, at the time of picking the apple is not yet mature, and unless intended for immediate consumption the utmost care should be exercised that the skin be not broken or the flesh bruised. Wherever the flesh of the apple is bruised it lessens its vitality and decay soon begins. This is shown very conclusively in the studies in the Bureau of Chemistry, where it was found that the starch which is still present in apples at the time of picking is gradually converted into sugar during the storage of the apple, thus increasing the palatability of the fruit. In those parts of the flesh that have been bruised and the vitality impaired the starch remains unchanged during the process of ripening. By the careful picking of the fruit and wrapping in soft papers, so as to prevent bruising in transit, apples of the proper character can be transported long distances, even beyond the seas, and arrive in good condition. This is an especially important fact in the American product, because our foreign trade in fresh apples is very large and constantly growing. It is useless to attempt to send a bruised or decaying apple on a long journey, since it will arrive in a condition unfit for consumption and, further than this, the organisms which are active in decay are conveyed to the sound fruit, and thus a whole package may be infected from a single apple in bad condition.

_Storage of Apples._--The apple is a crop which is capable of being stored through many months, especially in winter time, without any material deterioration. The subject of the storage of apples has been carefully studied in the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the following are some of the conclusions which have been reached:

_Tannin Principle._--Apples, as is the case with other fruits, have a notable content of tannin in some form. This constituent of apples is also active in giving flavor and palatability to the product. It is not present in quantities which render the apple unusually bitter or styptic in its character. Inasmuch as tannin is practically a universal constituent of all vegetable substances it must not be neglected as a normal constituent of fruit, while some of the fruits, especially the grape, owe some of their chief characteristics as to flavor and palatability to their tannin content.

_Preparation of Apples for Drying._--The apples usually are brought to the large factories in wagons or by railway and are pared and sliced by machinery. Where proper control is exercised all the imperfect, rotten, and infected apples are rejected, and are used either for cattle feeding or sometimes, unfortunately, in cider making. The sound apples, after they are pared and sliced, are placed in trays and passed to a sulfuring apparatus where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur to prevent their becoming dark upon evaporation. In other words it is essentially a bleaching process. The fumes of sulfur are also strongly antiseptic in character, and thus the finished product is less likely to decay or become infected with mould than a similar product not exposed to the fumes of sulfur. This process is extensively practiced, but its extent does not render it immune from proper criticism. Of 24 samples of evaporated fruits purchased on the open market 13 samples had been treated with sulfur fumes. This shows that over 50 percent of evaporated fruits are sulfured during the process of preparation and evaporation. The greater number of physiological and hygienic experts agree that the fumes of burning sulfur, commonly known as sulfurous acid, are injurious to health. It has been shown by researches in the Bureau of Chemistry that sulfurous acid or sulfites have a specific influence upon the red corpuscles of the blood, tending to diminish them very largely in relative numbers. This acid has also many other influences upon metabolism of an objectionable character. The question is one worthy of very careful consideration--whether for the sake of preserving a light color and securing immunity from mould or decay it is advisable to introduce into a food product any quantity whatever of a substance injurious to health. The answer to this question seems almost unavoidable, and it is, and should be, negative. It is highly advisable that the manufacturer of evaporated apples, as well as other fruits treated in a similar manner, should at once begin a series of experimental determinations for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not a product equally as palatable and more wholesome cannot be made without the use of sulfurous acid. The result of this investigation cannot be doubted. There is no doubt whatever, even at the present time, that by the elimination of the sulfuring process a product can be made which is far more wholesome, although perhaps not so presentable as that which is now made. If all manufacturers of evaporated fruits practice the same method there can be no injury in the market as a result of a darker color which the finished product would assume. On the contrary the consumer of this product would soon understand that the darker color was due to a more hygienic method of preparation, and hence the product would be commended in such a way as doubtless to enter more largely into consumption. Instead of the manufacturer being injured by the prohibition of the use of sulfur he would in a very short time be greatly benefited. It is hoped that by the means of general information which is spread abroad concerning matters of this kind among our people and also through the operations of national and state laws the use of injurious substances, such as the fumes of burning sulfur in connection with food products, may be entirely discontinued.

_Dried Apples._--A very important industry in this country is the preservation of apples by drying or evaporation. The term “dried” apples is usually applied to the product which is naturally dried by cutting the apples into convenient sizes and exposing them to the action of the sun. This is more of a domestic than a commercial industry, and until the introduction of artificial drying was practiced very generally by the farmers’ wives of the country. It was not an unusual thing in the autumn to see the roofs of smoke houses or kitchens practically covered with sliced apples exposed to the drying influence of the autumnal sun. In such cases care must be exercised always to have the exposed articles under such control as to enable them to be gathered up and put away when rain is threatening. The dried apple is a wholesome fruit, although somewhat unattractive in appearance owing to the darkening of the surface during the long exposure necessary to secure the proper degree of evaporation. When properly prepared the dried apple has its moisture content reduced to approximately 30 percent or less.

_Evaporated Apples._--The term “evaporated” is applied to apples produced on the same principle as “dried,” but instead of being exposed to the heat of the sun they are artificially dried by evaporation. This industry has reached a great magnitude in this country, and Wayne Co., New York, especially, may be regarded as one of the centers of the evaporating industry.

=Cherries.=--The cultivated cherry tree is believed by Bailey and Powell to have been derived from its ancestral type, the sour cherry (_Prunus cerasus_ L.), which is characterized by a diffuse and mostly low, round-headed growth with fruit which is always red, with soft flesh and very sour taste, and from the sweet cherry (_Prunus avium_ L.), a tall growing tree with the bark tending to peel off in birch-like rings and with variously colored fruit, spherical or heart-shaped, with the flesh hard or soft and generally sweet. There are a great many varieties of these trees. The cherry orchard begins to bear profitably at about the age of five years; the trees often live to a great age and continue to bear fruit. Records of cherry trees over a hundred years old are known. However, it is believed that about thirty years is the limit for profitable bearing. Cherries grow in all parts of the United States. Formerly the crop was a very important one in the East, especially New York, but of late years the California cherries have been more and more occupying the market. As a rule the California cherries are finer in appearance, larger, and freer from worms and imperfections, and possess a flavor which is often equal to that of the best flavored cherries grown in the East.

_Composition of Cherries._--What has been said respecting the variations in the composition of apples is applicable with equal force to cherries. In the following table is given first the mean composition of six samples of cherries of American origin with the maximum and minimum. Following this is the mean composition of nine samples of foreign cherries.

------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+------- | | | |ACIDITY| | | | | | EX- | PRO- | |NO. OF| | |PRESSED| TEIN | | SAM- | TOTAL | | AS | N × | TOTAL | PLES.|SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄.| 6.25.|SUGARS. ------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+------- | | _Per-|_Per- | _Per- |_Per- | | | cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._| _American origin_:| | | | | | Average, | | 20.13 | .443 | .432 | 1.425| 11.10 Maximum, | 6 | 38.84 | .521 | .605 | 1.727| 12.75 Minimum, | | 11.46 | .403 | .328 | 1.100| 8.98 _Foreign origin_: | | | | | | Average, | 9 | 19.74 | .73 | .665 | .620| 10.24 ------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------

The data show that the average quantity of insoluble matter in cherries is about the same whether of American or foreign origin. The total solids represent that part of the cherry which is not water, including principally the cellulose, the ash, and the protein. The quantity of protein, as is seen, is quite small, the average being a little less than 1¹⁄₂ percent. The total sugar present, including cane sugar and reducing sugar, is a little over 11 percent. The analytical table does not give the minute portions of essential oils, ethereal substances, and acids to which the juice owes its distinctive flavor.

_Varieties._--There are a great many trade-names given to different varieties of cherries. In New York the common varieties are the Black Tartarian, Black Eagle, Napoleon, Yellow Spanish, Windsor, May Duke, Robert’s Red Heart, Governor Wood, Early Richmond, etc.

A great many cherry trees are also grown in Iowa. The varieties most prized in Iowa are the Malaheb, the Mazzard, Wild Bird Cherry, Sand Cherry, American Morello, Russian Seedling, Northwest, Duchess d’Angoulême, and very many others.

In Virginia the principal varieties, in addition to those mentioned, which are cultivated, are the Coe, Early Purple, Kirtland Mary, Rockport, Olivet, Philippe, etc.

The cherry owes one of its chief values to the fact that it is one of the first orchard fruits to ripen. In the vicinity of Washington cherries ripen in May, and further north not later than June. The cherry, therefore, offers a delicious and wholesome fruit early in the season, and is the precursor of the crops of orchard fruits which begin early in May and last until the frosts of autumn. It is eaten raw, stewed, or in the form of pie or pudding. For cooking purposes it is desirable that the pit of the cherry be removed.

=Grapes.=--There is no fruit more highly esteemed in this and other countries than grapes. The utilization of grapes for wine making is reserved for discussion in the companion volume to the present manual devoted to beverages. Table grapes are grown extensively in this country in New York, Ohio, Virginia, Missouri, and California. In fact, such grapes are grown in almost every state, but those mentioned embrace the principal grape-growing districts. The Catawba and Delaware varieties are the chief products of the northern vineyards. Many other varieties are produced in California, such as the Tokay, Muscat, and Malaga, while in the South one of the principal varieties is the Scuppernong. The oldest grape vine known in the United States is the original Scuppernong stock.

I am indebted to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, of Raleigh, N. C., for the following description of the vine and also for Fig. 48.

“THE SCUPPERNONG VINE ON ROANOKE ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA.

“The old scuppernong grape vine on Roanoke Island is probably the oldest fruiting plant in America--certainly one of the oldest of which there is definite knowledge. A clear record of it begins in 1797, when the land on which it was growing was purchased by Maurice Baum. Previous to his purchase nothing definite is known as to its age or to whom it belonged, save the fact that it was then a very old vine, as Maurice Baum was told by his father that he had eaten grapes from it when a boy. From Maurice Baum the estate, of which the vine was a part, descended to his daughter, Mahala, and from her to Benjamin F. Meekins, her son, who is the present owner.

“The vine is situated on the northern end and on the eastern shore of the island, about two miles south of the supposed site of Fort Raleigh. It covers an area of about one-fourth of an acre, and as far back as can be remembered its growth has been stationary, probably due to a lack of proper training and inducement to spread. The vine has five large trunks averaging two feet in circumference which are indescribably gnarled and twisted. It is still vigorous and yields abundantly, seemingly unaffected by age in this respect. A conservative estimate of its yield is an average of sixty bushels of grapes a season.”

There is no part of the country, however, that grows grapes so abundantly as California. Many thousands of acres are covered with vines, both for table use and wine making. The climate is remarkably well suited to produce a grape very rich in sugar. The edible grapes do not have so high a content of sugar as those used for wine making, as is shown by the data below.

_Composition of California Grapes_ (three samples) (edible portion):

Water, 80.12 percent Protein, 1.26 „ Sugar, 16.50 „ Pure ash, 0.50 „ Fat, fiber, etc., 1.62 „

The preceding analyses are evidently of grapes for table use. The juice of the wine-making grapes of California, according to the composition of the wine, contains about 24 percent of sugars.

The luxurious growth of the vine in California is illustrated by Fig. 49, showing a scene in a vineyard near Fresno, California.

=Peaches.=--One of the most valued orchard fruits in the United States is the peach. The peach is a tree which is particularly sensitive to the environment in respect of bearing a crop. In many localities where peaches have once been valuable they have ceased to produce with any regularity, which renders the planting of an orchard inadvisable. The principal danger in the peach tree is the too early blooming and the exposure of the tender fruit to late frosts. The peach tree is also subject to many forms of disease, one of which, namely, the yellows, has baffled up to the present time the efforts of the experts to diagnose and treat. In planting a peach orchard experience has shown that it is well to plant the trees upon high ground or upon the sides of hills. By being placed on high ground near deep ravines it has been found that the chilling of the air, which would naturally come with frosts, makes the air heavier, so that it rolls down into the valleys, replacing the air on the hills with fresh portions unchilled and thus protecting the high ground from frost while the low ground is chilled below the freezing point. Everyone must have noticed, especially in the autumn at the time of the first frosts, that the vegetation in low lying land is usually killed before that on the adjacent hills. The peculiar susceptibility of the peach tree to the environment mentioned above has practically confined the culture of peaches to certain definite localities, as for instance to Michigan, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, and Georgia. The danger of late frosts of course does not attach to the peach tree grown in California and similarly situated localities. At the present time Georgia is probably the most important peach-growing state in the Union, both on account of the reasonable certainty of the crop and also because of the early date at which the peach can reach the markets of the large cities of the east and central portions of our country.

Many attempts have been made to protect the peach tree against the danger of premature blossoming and consequent exposure to the late frosts. In the cultivation of the trees it has been desirable to secure a variety which blooms as late in the spring as possible. The building of fires around a peach orchard in the spring when a frost is imminent has sometimes protected the orchard from disaster. This process is known as smudging. Another method of protecting the trees from the danger of late frosts is by whitewashing. The colors which absorb heat most readily are black and purple. White is one of the best protections by reason of its reflective power. A whitewashing of the branches of the trees and in fact of all the tree has been practiced with some success as retarding the early bloom of the buds. Elaborate studies of this method of treatment have been carried on by the Missouri station, and it has been developed that there is a considerable difference between the temperature of whitewashed and unwhitewashed peach twigs. The whitewash is therefore recommended as a means of retarding the development of the buds. The whitewashed trees bloom from a week to ten days later than those which are not thus treated. It is reasonably certain that by means of this kind or by cultivation a peach tree may be produced in any given locality which will put forth its buds from a week to ten days later than the normal period of blooming in that neighborhood. In regions where the winters are severe, the development of the tree in the early spring may also be prevented by placing straw round about it when the ground is frozen. The straw protects the frozen ground from rapid thawing and thus delays the development of the buds. The varieties of peach trees are legion, and it is useless to try to name them here. Some of the varieties most prized in Georgia are the Bishop, Champion, Crawford’s Early, Chinese Free, Crimson Beauty, Crosby, etc.

_Composition of the Peach._--Naturally, the peach varies greatly in its composition according to the variety, environment, and general accidental conditions. Its chief characteristics, of course, are the acid which it contains, its sugar content, and the taste and aroma due to the essential oils, ethers, etc., which are developed with proper delicacy in the fruit. The peach also has a distinct flavor associated with small quantities of hydrocyanic acid. This poisonous compound is developed in considerable quantities in the kernel of the fruit, and there are sufficient traces of the flavor above mentioned in the fruit itself to give a distinct and characteristic taste. The mean composition of some of the different varieties of peaches is given below:

Water, 88.1 percent Protein, .7 „ Fat, .1 „ Ash, .7 „ Sugar and other carbohydrates, 10.8 „

_Free and Cling Peach._--Peaches may be divided into two great classes in respect of persistence with which the flesh adheres to the pit of the fruit. Peaches in which the flesh is separated easily from the pit, leaving the external surface of the pit dry and clean, are called freestones, while in the other variety, where the flesh is firmly attached to the pit and on the removal of the flesh a portion adheres thereto, the term “clingstone” is applied. There is probably no difference in the value of the two varieties, but by reason of the ease with which the freestone peach can be utilized for eating and cooking purposes it is sometimes preferred.

Since the development of rapid means of transportation and the effective manner of cold storage the peach is exposed in the city markets from early spring to late autumn. The peaches in Florida are ready for the market in May and in Georgia from June on, while in the north the peach ripens at later periods up to October. In fact in the north the late peaches are esteemed as better in flavor and quality, and especially suitable for canning and preserving purposes.

_Uses of the Peach._--Peaches are perhaps the most esteemed of all the common fruits for eating purposes. On the table the sliced peaches with sugar and cream is a common dish through the whole summer in almost every part of the country. Peach cobbler (a deep pie) and peach pudding are dishes which are highly esteemed.

=Plums.=--(Native Plums.) The following data represent the mean composition of three samples of California plums:

Total solids, 21.60 percent Ash, .52 „ Acidity, 1.00 „ Protein, .40 „ Total sugars, 13.25 „

The plums imported from Japan and the hybrids produced therefrom are considered of higher value than the native plum. The Japan plum (_Prunus triflora_) has been introduced into this country for many years. They are larger and handsomer and have better shipping qualities than those of native origin, except perhaps in a few cases. The trees are also less subject to that great enemy of the plum, the curculio, than the native plum. Of the plum trees grown in Georgia the varieties of native trees which are recommended are the Clifford and the Wilder, of Japan trees the Lutts, Red June, Abundance, and Chabot, and of the hybrid varieties, the Wickson. Plums in Georgia mature from the first of June until the middle of July. Further north the date of maturity is later. The plum, as well as the cherry, flourishes especially in California, which is more famous for these fruits than any other state.

=Quince.=--The quince is a fruit which is not very extensively used raw, but is valued chiefly as a preserve. The quince flourishes in localities that produce good apples, but the magnitude of the crop is very restricted as compared with apples.

SMALL FRUITS.

=Blackberries= (_Rubus nigrobaccus_ var. _Sativus_ Bailey).--Among the small fruits one of the most common and abundant is the blackberry. This fruit grows wild over large areas in the United States, mostly in the middle portion between the extreme north and south. The brier on which it grows is an annual plant, springing each year from the roots and dying after bearing fruit. The plant is very largely cultivated, bearing larger and more presentable berries, but gaining nothing in flavor and palatability. The berries are generally black when fully ripe, though red during the ripening stage and sometimes when mature. They are eaten raw, stewed, and in pies or “cobblers.” The berry is extensively used for making jams, jellies, and preserves, and for canning purposes. The juice of the berry is used for making a wine, usually with the admixture of sugar. Blackberry cordial is blackberry juice preserved in whisky or brandy.

=Dewberry.=--This is a variety of blackberry in which the vines lie on the ground instead of standing upright. Some of the dewberries possess unusual fragrance and palatability. In other respects they conform to the statements relating to blackberries.

=Gooseberry= (_Ribes oxyacanthoides_ L.).--The gooseberry resembles very closely the currant in its general properties. In the European gooseberry the surface is covered with prickles, but the American variety is smooth. The gooseberry bush is found in most gardens, affording a fruit of high condimental value. The fruit is eaten raw, but principally in pies and as preserves.

=Huckleberry= (_Gaylussacia resinosa_ Torr. and Gray).--The fruit of the huckleberry bush is used very extensively for making pies, especially in the northeastern parts of the United States. There are many varieties of the berry on the markets. The blueberry is one variety that is very abundant. The term whortleberry is also applied to this fruit.

=Mulberry= (_Morus nigra_).--The mulberry grows wild over extensive areas in the United States, especially in the Ohio valley. It is a tree valued highly for its wood, which is lasting and excellent for fence-posts. The berries ripen early in the summer or late in the spring and are used as food to a limited extent.

=Raspberry= (_Rubus strigosus_ Michx.).--The raspberry is nearly related to the blackberry in all of its characters. It is chiefly a cultivated plant, being less hardy than the blackberry, and therefore not growing wild to such an extent. The fruit matures just before the blackberry, and is usually of a red color and of a pleasant characteristic taste.

=Strawberry= (_Fragaria Chiloensis_ Ehrh.).--For edible purposes in its fresh state the strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is offered on the markets at all seasons of the year--ripening in the winter time in Florida and California and coming into the markets in the late summer in the northern and northeastern states. It grows on vines lying on the ground and ripens early in the spring in the latitude of Washington, viz., from about the middle of May. It is eaten raw--often with sugar and cream--more extensively than any other small fruit. The wild strawberry is not so large as the cultivated variety, but is more highly prized for its aroma and taste.

_Composition of Small Fruits._--

SUGAR, STARCH WATER. PROTEIN. FAT. ETC. ASH. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Blackberries, 86.3 1.3 1.0 10.9 0.5 Cranberries, 88.9 0.4 0.6 9.9 0.2 Huckleberries, 81.9 0.6 0.6 16.6 0.3 Raspberries, 84.1 1.7 1.0 12.6 0.6 Strawberries, 85.9 0.9 0.6 7.0 0.6

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS.

(Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry.)

=Anona.=--This is a variety of edible fruit grown in the tropics, especially in Cuba, but on account of its restricted production is of little importance. There are three varieties, known as follows: Sweet-sop (anona) (_Anona squamosa_ L.), sour-sop (guanabana) (_Anona muricata_ L.), and custard apple (chirimoya) (_Anona reticulata_ L.). The sour-sop is a green, irregular-shaped, pod-like fruit, varying from 3¹⁄₂ inches to 12 inches in length and about two-thirds as broad near the top, and curving to a blunt point at the lower end. The skin is thick and covered with numerous small, hooked briers. The pulp has the appearance of wet cotton and surrounds the numerous seed sacs containing the small brown seeds. A fibrous core runs through the fruit from the stem to the lower point. The fruit weighs from 3.5 ounces to 2.2 pounds. The flavor is acid, but not too much so. This fruit is more extensively used in the manufacture of cooling beverages than directly as a food, but it is also used very extensively for making preserves. The sweet-sop resembles the sour-sop in general character, but does not attain by any means to so large a size. The fruit is heart-shaped and deeply creased. The pulp contains more sugar and less acid than that of the sour-sop. This variety is eaten fresh and is also used for flavoring beverages, but is not extensively used for making preserves. The third variety, known as the custard apple, varies in color from light green to reddish brown, and is shaped something like a strawberry. It has a thick skin and black seeds, and a pulp very similar to that of sweet-sop in flavor. It is eaten chiefly raw, and is not very extensively used in the manufacture of preserves.

_Composition of the Sour- and Sweet-sop Varieties._--

------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------- | EDIBLE | | TOTAL | | | |PORTION.|SOLIDS.|SUGAR. |PROTEIN.| ASH. |ACIDITY. ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------- | _Per- | _Per-| _Per-| _Per- | _Per-| _Per- | cent._ | cent._| cent._| cent._ |cent._| cent._ ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------- Sour- | | | | | | sop, | 72.30 | 19.03 | 13.07 | 1.65 | .41 | .51 Sweet-| | | | | | sop, | 30.00 | 28.10 | 10.07 | 2.13 | .92 | .20 ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+--------

The above analyses show that the anona is a fruit which has about half the nutritive value of the banana. It has a much larger percentage of waste, especially the sweet-sop variety, where nearly three-fourths of the fruit is not edible.

_Anona Preserves._--The anona preserves should be made exclusively with sugar and thus have the character of the fruit modified only by the amount of sugar added. In one sample of preserves analyzed the following data were obtained:

Total solids, 54.33 percent Total sugar, 49.66 „ Protein, .73 „ Ash, .43 „ Acidity, .19 „

The above data show that the natural constituents of the fruit have been diminished in quantity in proportion to the amount of sugar added.

=The Avocado= (_Persea persea_).--The avocado is a fruit which has only lately been introduced into the United States. Its common name is alligator pear and it is already very highly prized.

The cultivation of the alligator pear was first undertaken as a novelty, and its real value as a dessert fruit is only beginning to be appreciated. It is evident that this fruit will have a great vogue in the near future, and will be in much demand as soon as its production is on a scale which makes it accessible to the people of ordinary means. The edible part of the fruit is a sweet, soft substance with an agreeable taste and of a semi-solid consistence. It has a nutty and peculiar flavor which is highly prized.

In the regions where the alligator pear is grown it is often used in the raw state or after having been treated with a little salt. It is highly prized when served in this manner. It is also often cut into small pieces and put into soup and is said to give a most agreeable odor and flavor thereto. The ripe fruit has different colors; it may be green, yellow, brown or dark purple or a combination of any of these colors. The alligator pear is particularly valued as a salad fruit.

_Composition of the Avocado._--

Water, 81.10 percent Protein, 1.00 „ Fat, 10.20 „ Starch and sugar, 6.80 „ Ash, .90 „

The above data show that the alligator pear is not a fruit which is very highly nutritious. Its principle nutrient is fat, the next most important being starch and sugar, but it is extremely deficient in protein, and therefore could not be regarded as a balanced ration. Its principle value, therefore, is mostly on account of its condimental properties rather than for its nutrients. Bulletins 61 and 77 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, give important information regarding the avocado. The accompanying illustration is taken from Bulletin 77, above mentioned.

From the amount of fat in the alligator pear it might be regarded as a nut instead of a fruit, but its paucity of nitrogenous constituents excludes it from that category.

=Bananas= (_Musa_).--One of the most abundant and most important of the tropical fruits, for food purposes, is the banana. The banana is not grown to any extent for food purposes in the United States, though it is produced on a limited scale in southern Florida. Immense quantities of bananas come into this country from the Central American states, particularly from Guatemala and Nicaragua. This fruit can be landed at New Orleans at very small expense for transportation, and for this reason can be distributed all over the country at a price which looks to be ridiculously small when it is considered that the fruit comes from so great a distance. It is also sent in large quantities to other ports, notably New York, Boston, and Baltimore. For shipping purposes the banana is gathered while still green, and often the ripening has not reached the stage when the ordinary yellow color which characterizes the ripe fruit is seen when it reaches the markets in the center of the country. The banana is not only valued for its peculiar flavor, which is pleasant and sweet, sometimes almost too much so, but it also has a high nutritive value, being a substance rich in carbohydrates and growing in such abundance that its price is within the reach of the poorest classes. Great quantities of bananas are also grown in Cuba, but they are mostly consumed by the native population, forming one of the principal foods of the island.

The banana has perhaps less waste than almost any other fruit, as the whole of the inner portion is edible. In the green fruit there is a large proportion of starch, which gradually changes into invert sugar in the ripe fruit. In thoroughly mature bananas the quantity of sugar is relatively high and the quantity of starch correspondingly low. Bananas are not only eaten raw but also fried and in various other forms. The banana is a fruit which, when properly cared for, can be transported over long distances and kept for a long time. When properly prepared the banana forms a nutritious diet, probably equal in value to the same amount of solid matter contained in the common fresh fruits. One hundred grams may be taken as the average weight of the banana, although some of them are very much larger. About 70 percent of the banana is edible and 30 percent inedible, that is, the skin, which while not wholly inedible is usually rejected. The banana is essentially a carbohydrate food, the percentage of protein not usually rising above 1.3. Nearly all the carbohydrates in the ripe fruit consist of sugars which are present both as reducing and as cane sugars. The average total percentage of sugar present in the banana is a little over 20.

The composition of the banana is shown in the following table which contains the data of analyses of two samples bought in the open market in Washington.

---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | EDIBLE | SOLIDS. | TOTAL | PROTEIN. | ASH. | PORTION. | | SUGARS. | | ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Sample 1,| 62.10 | 26.13 | 21.71 | 1.13 | .84 Sample 2,| 64.50 | 26.24 | 21.76 | 1.21 | .86 ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The analytical data were obtained upon the edible portion and not upon the whole fruit.

The bananas which are imported from Jamaica and Central America are represented by the analyses given above. They are commonly known as the Johnson banana. Smaller fruits with better flavors are grown in Cuba,--some of them are of a red color like the oronoco and colorado. The indiano is a large, yellow, angular fruit with a salmon-colored pulp and a rather disagreeable acid flavor.

With reference to the banana as a food product it is seen that, including the starch and digestible cellulose, it consists of at least 25 percent, in its edible portion, of carbohydrates suitable for food purposes. Its low content of protein indicates that it is not a well balanced ration, but should be eaten in connection with beans, peas, or other vegetables rich in protein, or with lean meat in order to secure a proper quantity of protein in the diet.

On account of the great abundance of the product and luxuriance of growth in the Central American states, it is evident that the banana might become a profitable source of industrial alcohol in that locality.

=Cashew= (=Maranon=) (_Anacardium occidentale_).--The cashew, of which the principal habitat is Cuba, is a small, oddly shaped, yellow and red fruit from two to three inches long and from ¹⁄₂ to two inches in diameter at the bottom, decreasing gradually in diameter toward the top. The seed is small and kidney-shaped and grows outside of the fruit at the lower end. The seed is regarded as poisonous until it has been roasted, due probably to the presence of hydrocyanic acid. After roasting it is regarded as a delectable edible. The meat of the seed of the cashew resembles the roasted chestnut, but contains more oil. The pulp is of a dull yellow color, is tough and very juicy, with an acid astringent flavor and a disagreeable odor. The fruit is not eaten raw but chiefly in preserves. The composition of the cashew is shown in the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--85.9 percent._--

Solids, 12.84 percent Sugar, 6.76 „ Acid, .31 „ Ash, .36 „

The composition is somewhat like that of the hicaco, but the cashew contains a larger proportion of acid and hence is better suited for preserves. The sample of cashew preserves examined had the following composition:

Solids, 71.22 percent Sugar, 66.89 „ Protein, .26 „ Acidity, .08 „ Ash, .14 „

=Citrus Fruits.=--The term “citrus fruit” is applied to that class of fruits represented by the orange, lemon, grape fruit, and lime. In the United States extensive areas are devoted to the production of citrus fruits, and it is claimed by connoisseurs that some of the best varieties grown anywhere in the world are the products of this country. Florida and southern California are two localities where the development of the citrus fruit industry has been carried to the greatest extent. The phenomenally cold winter which occurred in Florida some ten years ago almost ruined the citrus fruit industry in that state for the time being. In the reëstablishment of it the center of production has been extended farther south than it was before. It is believed that at the present time the industry has been extended sufficiently far south in the Florida peninsula to avoid any repetition of the great disaster which ruined the citrus groves in certain portions of the state at the time mentioned. The climate of southern California is more equable, and no injury has ever been experienced in that location from very low temperature. In Florida the oranges are cultivated without irrigation, while in southern California irrigation is universally practiced. The seasonal conditions are therefore under better control in California than in Florida.

=Figs= (_Ficus carica_ L.).--The fig is a fruit which is well known in biblical and profane history. Together with the grape it is the fruit which is most often mentioned in the Bible.

The importance of the fig as a fruit and food is recognized in all the earlier writings, both sacred and profane. When dried and pressed into convenient forms it is a food which can be easily transported, and makes a ration well suited to supply heat and energy, although deficient in nitrogen in so far as a complete ration is concerned. The fig tree is extensively cultivated in all localities where the temperature permits its growth. It grows in the open in the whole southern part of the United States, and I have seen fig trees of large size grow in the yard as far north as Washington.

The fig tree grows luxuriantly and to a great size in California, and the fruit, both fresh and dried, is of superior excellence. A typical illustration of a California fig tree is shown in Fig. 51.

The Smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western part of the United States with great success. It grows especially well in the southern part of California and Arizona. The Smyrna fig is one of the varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the mediation of an insect. This process is called caprification. Although this variety of fig has only been introduced into California to any extent in the last five or six years, the growth of this most highly esteemed variety has so increased that at the present time the output of California alone amounts to about twelve million pounds per annum. The Smyrna and Adriatic figs, used largely for drying and preserving purposes, are seen in their natural colors in the appended colored plate.

_Composition of Fresh Figs (Edible Portion)._--

Water, 79.11 percent Protein, 1.52 „ Sugar, 15.53 „ Pure ash, .58 „ Fat, fiber, etc., 3.26 „

_Composition of Dried Figs._--

Water, 28.78 percent Total sugar, 51.43 „ Acid as malic, .71 „ Protein, 3.58 „ Ether extract, 1.27 „ Cellulose, etc., 5.29 „ Crude fiber, 6.19 „ Ash, 2.75 „

The interesting process of caprification is thus described by Professor Hugh N. Starnes of the Georgia Experiment Station:

“In the base or false ovary of the gall flowers, which are merely degenerate pistillates, the egg of the _Blastophaga grossorum_ or fig wasp--a minute insect--is deposited and develops to maturity. The wingless males emerge first and, with their powerful mandibles, cut into the flowers containing the female wasps, partially release them, and impregnate them. The gravid females shortly complete the liberating process and, being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinctive purpose of laying their eggs. They emerge from the eye of the caprifig, after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered anthers protecting the exit, and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs. Naturally they would enter the nearest caprifig in the proper stage of development. But, meanwhile, if the caprifig containing the colony has been plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent Smyrna tree, the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the latter class, losing her wings in the process, and at once begins a frantic scramble around the interior, searching for the anticipated gall flowers in which to deposit her eggs. Failing, necessarily, to find them, and incapable of again taking flight, she finally curls up and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions have between them pollinated every female flower in the cavity with the plentiful store of pollen conveyed from the caprifig--thereby insuring the development of the fruit.”

=Grape Fruit= (=Pomelo=) (_Citrus decumana_).--The so-called grape fruit or pomelo is one of the biggest products of the citrus family and also possesses properties which may be regarded as a cross between the lemon and the orange. It is more acid than the orange and more sweet than the lemon. This fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any other citrus variety for direct edible purposes, forming a breakfast dish which is eaten very extensively throughout all parts of the United States by those who are able to afford the luxury, for so it still is by reason of the high price of the product. Grape fruit grows to a large extent in the United States, and its culture is confined to the same region as that where the orange and lemon are grown.

_Composition of Grape Fruit (Pomelo)._--The composition of the pomelo as given for the California product (Station Report, 1892, p. 256) shows this fruit to have the following composition:

Average weight, 357.00 grams Rind, 23.50 percent Seeds, 3.70 „ Edible portion, 72.80 „

Composition of the juice from the edible portion:

Total solids, 13.20 percent Total sugars, 9.50 „ Acids (as citric), 2.70 „

Professor Colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion of acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands.

_Cuban Grape Fruit._--The grape fruit which is grown in Cuba has quite a different character. Its flavor is mild, and it is almost devoid of the bitter taste which is found in the American product, and which adds greatly to its palatable properties when the consumer becomes accustomed to it.

A marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects, except the peculiar flavor given by the raw material, to that made from oranges. It is evident from its high palatable properties and its wholesomeness that grape fruit will become more and more an article of value and be consumed in large quantities throughout the country.

=Guava= (_Psidium Guajava_).--This fruit is grown very extensively in both California and Florida, also in Cuba, where a number of varieties grow wild. The white guava is a small, round fruit, grayish-white or yellow in color, and having an average weight of 1.5 ounces. The pear-shaped fruit, the guava of Peru, is about twice the size of the white variety, but otherwise resembles it very closely. Both varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered throughout the yellowish-white pulp. As a rule the guava is not eaten raw, but it is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and preserves are made.

_Composition of the Guava._--The guava contains, in its fresh state, an average of a little less than 80 percent of water and a little more than 20 percent of solid matter. The solid materials in guavas are quite insoluble in water, more than one-half of them not passing into solution. The chief part of the soluble constituents of guavas are the sugars, and these exist chiefly in the invert state. The total percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state averages about six, the protein amounts to about one percent, and the ash to a little over one-half of one percent. The value of the guava, therefore, is more condimental than nutritive, and for this reason it is seen why it is not a valuable food product eaten in the raw state.

_Guava Preserves._--A large number of preserves are made from the guava, and these products are well known and relished throughout the country. The preserves are in various forms, being chiefly pastes, marmalades, and jellies. These preparations contain the aromas and flavoring qualities of the fruit, and when pure contain no added product save sugar. They contain from 60 to 75 percent of added sugar. The preserved products of the guava are generally packed in wooden boxes, lined with paper, though some are packed in glass. The crystallized guava, the guava cream, and the pastes contain large quantities of added sugar, namely, about 80 percent. These preserves naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity of sugar which has been added in their preparation. In this country often the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup.

=Hicaco= (_Chrysobalanus icaco_).--The fruit of the hicaco is small and round, varying from one to three inches in diameter. The average weight of each fruit is about ¹⁄₄ oz. The skin is thin and green in color, shading to red on the side exposed to the sun. It grows on a small shrub and is sometimes called the cocoa plum. The surface is somewhat shrivelled and wrinkled, and the seed weighs almost half as much as the whole fruit. The fruit is not eaten in a fresh state, but is used for making preserves. It is sweet to the taste and has a low acid content. The composition of the fresh fruit is shown by the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--68.9 percent._--

Total solids, 14.29 percent Total sugar, 5.18 „ Protein, .46 „ Acidity, .10 „ Ash, .96 „

These data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value, in so far as sugar is concerned, of a low content of protein and very slight acidity.

_Hicaco Preserves._--A sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the following composition:

Total solids, 65.07 percent Sugar, 60.08 „ Protein, .12 „ Ash, .14 „ Acidity, .05 „

The above data indicate only the change in composition which would come from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture. By reason of the low acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would, theoretically, be largely cane sugar. In the case mentioned, however, one-third of the sugar was inverted. Whether this was accomplished by the action of the acid on the sugar during the process of manufacture or whether by the use of molasses instead of sugar in the preserves does not appear. More likely it is due to the latter.

=Kumquat= (_Citrus japonica_).--The kumquat is one of the smallest of citrus fruits. It stands as one extreme of that important family of which the grape fruit or pomelo represents the other. The fruit is oval in shape, about one inch in diameter, and is one and one-half inches long. It may be regarded as a dwarf orange, and was brought into the United States from Japan, although it is a native of China. The name--kumquat--is of Chinese origin and is intended to mean “Gold Orange.” The kumquat tree, under favorable circumstances, reaches a height of 10 or 12 feet and forms a compact, symmetrical, and handsome head. The pulp of the fruit is very tender and agreeably acid and the rind is spicy, as is the case with most of the acid fruits. It is not only valued as a fruit, but the tree is also highly prized as an ornament. Its beautifully colored fruit, in contrast with its green leaves, presents a most agreeable spectacle. It is grown in the United States principally in Florida. The composition of the kumquat is practically that of the orange.

=Lemons.=--The citrus fruit, next in importance to the orange, if not more important, is the lemon (_Citrus limonum_). This fruit is grown extensively in the United States in the same localities that produce the orange, that is, chiefly in Florida and southern California. Its method of cultivation, general treatment, time of ripening and harvesting are the same as that of the orange. Its principal difference from the orange is in its greater acidity and in certain peculiarities of its aromatic and oily substances. From the rind is produced an essential oil which, while resembling that of the orange in general character, has distinct properties which easily discriminate it from the orange product. The lemon also has a correspondingly less proportion of sugar than the orange. In 22 analyses of California lemons they were found to contain 5.26 percent of acid and only 2.33 percent of sugar. The distinct feature of the lemon, therefore, is its acidity. The principal acid present in lemons is citric acid, though other organic acids are also found. The acids are either free or in combination with a base, the principal base being potash. On account of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon is used more as a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than directly as a food. There are some varieties known as sweet lemons which are eaten as oranges or used directly for food purposes, but generally the lemon is too sour and acid for consumption in this manner.

=Lime.=--A species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the lemon is known as the lime (_Citrus hysrix acida_).

Limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity, but their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages and medicinal purposes. The lime also yields an essential oil, which is very similar in character to that derived from lemons. In fact the lime may be regarded as a very sour lemon, just as the orange may be regarded as a very sweet one.

_Adulteration of Lime Juice._--Unfortunately lime juice is offered on the market often in entirely spurious forms, that is, a mixture made up with flavoring of an acid character resembling that of the natural juice. The natural juice is also frequently adulterated by the addition of preservatives. Among these, sulfurous and salicylic acids are perhaps the most frequent. Lime juice can be perfectly preserved by sterilization, and there is no necessity for the use of preservatives therein.

In the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character known as the sweet lime, but this fruit does not have a very great vogue.

=Mamey Colorado.=--This is a tropical fruit which is very extensively grown in Cuba, and derives its local name from a very slight outward resemblance to the mammee (_Mammea americana_). These two fruits, however, have no botanical or other relation to each other, nor do they have any internal resemblance. The mamey colorado is chocolate brown in color, oval or round in shape, and its average weight is about 1.5 pounds. The skin is thick and coarse. The pulp has a yellowish color, varying to a deep scarlet, and is slightly fibrous and firm, but mealy and rather dry. It has a sweetish taste with very little acid flavor. It is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is also stewed with sugar. The fruit usually contains but one seed, though as many as four are sometimes found. The seeds are imbedded in a soft core and are irregularly oval. The natural season is from December to August. These fruits are very largely used for making preserves.

The composition of the mamey colorado is as follows:

_Composition of Edible Portion--86.10 percent._--

Solids, 34.01 percent Total ash, .80 „ Acid, .10 „ Total sugar, 22.05 „

The analysis shows that the mamey colorado is a fruit which in its edible properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana.

=Mamey de Santo Domingo= (_Mammea americana_).--This is a fruit extensively used in Cuba and other tropical countries. It is of a light brown color, from three to ten inches in diameter, and weighs sometimes as much as 1¹⁄₂ pounds. The skin is thick and fibrous, the outer surface being tough and covered with small brown spots. The pulp is dark yellow in color, firm, and very juicy. It has a sweet characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic odor. The seeds sometimes measure three inches in diameter and cling tenaciously to the pulp. It is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed for preserving purposes.

The composition of the mamey de Santo Domingo is shown in the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--60.70 percent._--

Solids, 14.12 percent Total ash, .31 „ Acids, .42 „ Protein, .49 „ Total sugar, 9.47 „

The above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very much more acid than the mamey colorado and for nutritive purposes is of much less value, but by reason of its greater acidity and higher flavoring it is more suitable for the manufacture of preserves than the fruit resembling it in external appearances and name. It is used extensively in the manufacture of preserves and marmalades which are so similar in composition as not to be distinguished from each other by their chemical analyses.

The compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a marmalade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table:

---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | | TOTAL | | | TOTAL | SOLIDS. | ASH. | ACIDS. | PROTEIN. | SUGARS. ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Mamey en | | | | | almibar, | 60.05 | .154 | .194 | .363 | 57.45 Mermelade| | | | | de mamey,| 69.74 | .149 | .123 | .269 | 62.68 ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

=Mango= (_Magnifera indica_ L.).--The mango is a fruit which is highly prized throughout the world. It is a native of southern Asia, where it has been known from earliest times. In the United States the mango is chiefly grown in Florida as a horticultural crop. The mango is a tree peculiarly sensitive to frost, and therefore does not grow as far north as oranges. Its profitable cultivation at present is confined to the extreme southern part of the Florida peninsula.

The mango is an evergreen tree. In Florida, under favorable conditions of growth, it reaches as high as 40 or 50 feet. It makes a tree of graceful appearance with a dense, dome-shaped top. The color of the mango fruit is varied; it may be red, green, or yellow, or a mixture of these colors. The tree and fruit both possess an agreeable odor, and every part of the tree, almost, can be of some economic value. The ripe fruit is a delicious dessert and is wholesome. It is often recommended for its medicinal properties. The rind and fiber, as well as the unripe fruit, are acid and full of tannin, which makes them astringent to the taste. Mangos may be eaten in the raw state, and they are also valued for making preserves, pickles, marmalades, and jelly. A very popular sauce known as mango chutney is prepared from the mango and is largely used in the United States and England, being mostly imported from India. The appearance of the tree is shown in Fig. 52.

=Oranges= (_Citrus aurantium_).--This fruit is characterized by its delightful flavor and by the distribution of certain aromatic oils, especially in the rind, which give it a peculiar aroma and flavor. The orange has a thick yellow rind which, while edible, is not usually eaten, but is the source of valuable essential oils. A large part of the orange, as far as weight is concerned, is not usually eaten; usually from 25 to 40 percent of the weight is in the rind or some inedible portion. The ash of the orange is usually less than one-half of one percent. The predominant organic acid of the orange is citric, although other organic acids are present. The quantity of protein present in an orange is very small, usually not exceeding very much a half of one percent. The quantity of sugar varies greatly in different samples. It is present both as cane sugar or sucrose and as reducing or invert sugar. In the very sweet orange the quantity reaches as high as 10 percent or even greater, while in the sour orange it is less. The principal food value of the orange, as far as nutriment is concerned, is its sugar. The orange, however, has other valuable properties, especially from a hygienic standpoint, aside from its nutriment. The organic salts which it contains, the organic acids, and other condimental material make the orange an exceptionally wholesome fruit, exercising a beneficial effect upon the digestive process and especially aiding in the passage of the undigested food through the alimentary canal. The orange is a fruit which has lasting keeping qualities. It is not unusual to see ripe oranges which are edible hanging on the same tree with the blossoms which are blooming for the next year’s crop. In California and Florida the oranges begin to ripen in November and may be continuously harvested until the following April, if it be advisable to leave them on the tree for that length of time. Owing to the thick and resistant skin of the orange, it can be kept for a long time without material deterioration after harvesting, if care be taken to avoid bruising or injuring the fruit in any way while handling. Oranges thus harvested and wrapped in paper and kept at a low temperature will keep for weeks and even months, and still be edible and nourishing. This property of the orange makes it possible to supply the markets of the world practically throughout the entire year with one of the most delicious and nutritious of fruits. In former years the orange was regarded as a luxury, but at the present time it is a staple article of diet even for people in moderate circumstances, and is often eaten by those who are poor. In Fig. 53 is given a typical illustration of a California orange grove.

The culture of the orange has demanded the highest agricultural and scientific skill, and perhaps there is no crop produced to which greater attention has been paid. In Florida, especially, the oranges are grown on soil which is not much more than poor sand, and hence the scientific feeding of the trees, that is, the fertilization of the soil in which they grow, is necessary to success. As a result of this application of science luxuriant crops of oranges are found growing upon sandy soil which without scientific treatment would be almost barren. The soils in southern California, on the other hand, are very rich in natural plant food, but this does not obviate the necessity of scientific manuring. Oranges grow throughout the year in tropical and semi-tropical regions. It is considered by connoisseurs, however, that the oranges grown in the semi-tropical regions, that is far enough north for a little frost to come during the winter, but without a sufficient degree of cold to injure the trees, are of better quality than those grown in tropical regions where frost is unknown.

_The Seedless Orange._--The variety of orange which contains no seed has been widely cultivated in the United States, and by reason of the absence of seeds is more highly prized by many than the ordinary orange for edible purposes. Since the orange tree has been cultivated by grafting rather than by direct production of the different varieties from the natural seed, it has been possible to secure a fruit without seeds. Whether such an unnatural product will continue to maintain its high rank as an edible product remains to be seen. The seedless orange tree, from which are descended the greater part of these trees in the United States, was secured by Mr. William Sanders from Bahia. Its present appearance in the greenhouse of the Department of Agriculture is shown in Fig. 54. The naval orange is exceedingly beautiful as it grows upon the tree. A bunch of these oranges growing on the parent tree in Washington is shown in Fig. 55.

=Pineapple.=--The pineapple is a fruit grown very extensively in tropical and also subtropical countries. It is a crop of great importance in Florida. The flavor and aroma of the pineapple grown in subtropical countries is often preferred to that of the tropical grown fruit. Pineapples grow best when sheltered to some extent from the direct rays of the sun. In Florida it is planted near live oaks, where a partial shade is secured. It is often artificially covered by means of narrow boards placed near together and yet leaving abundant space for the sunlight. Sometimes these covered fields are two or three acres in extent. In Fig. 56 is given a representation of the pineapple growing under a covering of this kind in Florida at the Agricultural Experiment Station, Lake City.

Formerly pineapples were regarded as great luxuries, and often were set up in the center of the table as an ornament rather than as a dessert. They have now become very common and are frequently used as a dessert, for flavoring ice cream, for preserving, and for general use as a fruit.

_Adulteration of Pineapples._--The only adulterations which are found in pineapples are of course in the canned product. Investigations in the Bureau of Chemistry show that adulteration is not extensively practiced, unless the addition of cane sugar without notice can be so regarded.

From the point of view of the collection of duties, the addition of cane sugar without notice is an adulteration, since under provision of law pineapples canned in their own juice pay one rate of duty and when preserved with sugar pay another. Inasmuch as the label of a food product should tell the whole truth concerning it, the addition of cane sugar, without notice to that effect upon the label, is calculated to deceive and should not be practiced. There is no objection of any kind to the use of cane sugar in the canning of pineapples if the label indicates that this has been done. On the other hand there is no reason why the addition of sugar should be practiced. The pineapples are bought and consumed for their natural flavor, and not on account of the added sugar which they may contain. In the canning of pineapples it is just as easy to secure complete sterilization in their own juice as it is to secure it with the added sirup. In practice, however, it is more convenient after filling the cans with the pieces of pines to add a sugar sirup to fill up the spaces than to secure sterilization by the application of heat alone, which would not cause a sufficient quantity of juice to exude to fill up the interstices of the cans, and they, therefore, would be partially empty.

_Canned Pineapples._--There is a very large trade in this country in canned pineapples imported from Singapore and the Straits Settlements and the Bahamas. The pines are usually canned with the addition of sugar, and those that come to our ports are as a rule sweetened only with cane sugar.

A large number of analyses has been made of these canned pineapples in the Bureau of Chemistry and the general data which were secured are presented below:

Canned pineapples from Singapore, average, maximum, and minimum composition:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | SOLIDS. | SUGAR. | PROTEIN. | ASH. | ACIDITY. --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Average,| 20.15 | 17.90 | .46 | .28 | .30 Maximum,| 25.30 | 25.10 | .60 | .36 | .43 Minimum,| 18.18 | 14.87 | .39 | .21 | .16 --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that it is possible to compute the average quantity of sugar which is added in the preparation of the sample. If we assume in round numbers that the natural pine contains 12 percent of sugar, we find that approximately eight pounds per hundred of fruit have been added in the preparation of the pines from Singapore.

Below is found the average, maximum, and minimum composition of ten samples of canned pineapples from the Straits Settlements:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | SOLIDS. | SUGAR. | PROTEIN. | ASH. | ACIDITY. --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Average,| 21.04 | 18.45 | .47 | .26 | .26 Maximum,| 24.28 | 21.94 | .57 | .32 | .32 Minimum,| 17.32 | 14.54 | .39 | .22 | .17 --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

These data show that the preparation of the pines in the Straits Settlements for shipment in cans is the same as that in Singapore. The average amount of sugar added appears to be about one percent greater.

Average composition of canned pineapples from the Bahamas:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | SOLIDS. | SUGAR. | PROTEIN. | ASH. | ACIDITY. --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Average,| 13.78 | 10.69 | .34 | .38 | .57 Maximum,| 26.78 | 22.43 | .46 | .50 | 1.18 Minimum,| 8.54 | 6.33 | .20 | .22 | .22 --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that nearly all the canned pineapples coming from the Bahamas must be regarded as canned in their natural juice without the addition of sugar. Of the whole number of samples examined, only four gave any indication of containing added sugar.

_Composition of the Pineapple._--The average composition of twenty-two samples of fresh pineapple grown in Florida, as determined in the Bureau of Chemistry, is as follows:

Total solids, 13.85 percent Total sugar, 11.69 „ Protein, .40 „ Ash, .42 „ Acidity, .52 „

Of the sugars 4.44 percent existed in the form of invert or reducing sugar and 6.88 percent as cane sugar. These data show that the value of a pineapple as a food product lies chiefly in the sugar which it contains. The ethereal and aromatic properties of the pineapple give to it its chief value as a food, since it is the flavor and aroma rather than the nutriment in the fruit which make it valued as a food. These flavors and aromas are due to essential oils and ethers or compound ethers, and they exist in such minute quantities as to escape ordinary chemical investigation. A study of the details of analyses show that there is a wide variation in the percentage of sugar. In two instances the total sugar fell below eight percent, but those evidently were green and imperfect samples and were not included in the general average.

The highest quantity of sugar found in any case of a Florida pineapple was 15.28 percent.

The data show that in general it may be said that the Florida pineapple contains nearly 12 percent of its weight of sugar.

_Average Composition of Cuban Pineapples._--The average composition of 10 samples of Cuban pineapples examined in the Bureau of Chemistry is shown in the following data:

Total solids, 14.52 percent Sugars, 11.87 „ Protein, .40 „ Ash, .35 „ Acidity, .56 „

These data show that the Cuban pineapple is only a trifle sweeter than that grown in Florida and has in general the same composition.

The Florida pineapples when placed on the market have qualities which are by most connoisseurs judged to be superior to those of Cuban origin, although these qualities are not indicated by any marked difference in the analytical results.

The average composition of Bahama pineapples, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, is given in the following table:

Total solids, 14.81 percent Sugar, 12.22 „ Protein, .48 „ Ash, .40 „ Acidity, .77 „

The Bahama pineapple, as is seen by the above data, is somewhat sweeter than the Florida or Cuban grown fruit and also has a higher acidity.

_Average Composition of Porto Rican Pineapples._--Two samples of Porto Rican pines, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, had the following composition:

Total solids, 15.91 percent Total sugar, 15.36 „ Protein, .48 „ Ash, .37 „ Acidity, .72 „

The other samples of pines coming from Porto Rico were so immature that it was found they contained only about one-half the percentage of sugar and one-half the total solids of the ripened fruits. They were probably harvested in an immature state in order to withstand the vicissitudes of transportation. The above data show that the ripe pines of Porto Rico are even richer than those of the Bahamas in sugar and nutritive value.

The average, maximum, and minimum of all samples of the fresh pine from all countries examined in the Bureau of Chemistry show the following composition:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | SOLIDS. | SUGAR. | PROTEIN. | ASH. | ACIDITY. --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Average,| 14.17 | 11.90 | .42 | .40 | .60 Maximum,| 18.86 | 15.28 | .57 | .55 | .85 Minimum,| 10.78 | 8.20 | .21 | .27 | .30 --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

In order that some idea might be obtained of the composition of the pines grown at Singapore and Nassau, the consuls in those localities were requested to secure the preservation of the pines by sterilization without the addition of any substance, that is, their preservation in their natural juice. In this condition the fruit of the pine, naturally preserved, was sent to the Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to analysis with the following average results:

_Average Composition_ (ten samples from Singapore).--

Solids, 13.39 percent Sugars, 11.73 „ Protein, .48 „ Ash, .38 „ Acidity, .39 „

_Average Composition_ (two samples from Nassau).--

Solids, 13.18 percent Sugars, 10.86 „ Protein, .40 „ Ash, .41 „ Acidity, .58 „

The above data show that the pineapples grown in Singapore and Nassau are not notably different in composition from those grown in Florida, Cuba, and Jamaica. All the data indicate that the pineapples grown in different parts of the world have practically the same composition at the same state of maturity.

=Sapota= (=Sapodilla=) (_Sapota zapotilla_ (Jacq.) Coville).--This is a tropical fruit which is grown in large quantities in Cuba, where two varieties are known, differing only in shape, one being round and the other oval. In the Havana markets the latter variety is incorrectly known as the nispero. This name, however, is properly applied to the fruit loquat (_Eriobotrya japonica_). The fruit is small, weighing usually under two ounces, has a brown or brownish-green color and in general appearance resembles a smooth, dark potato. The skin is thick and coarse in texture, the pulp is yellowish-brown in color, granular in texture, and rich in juice. The odor is characteristic, and the taste is quite sweet. The seeds number from one to five and are contained in a soft open core,--they are of a brownish-black color with a single white stripe. They measure from three-quarters to one inch in length. The fruit comes into use about the first of April and lasts until the end of summer. It is a very popular fruit in summer and deserves more attention in the various markets than it has yet received. The sap of the sapota tree and juice of the green fruit when concentrated furnish the material known as chicle, from which chewing-gum is made. The compositions of the round and long sapota and the natural preserved pulp of the sapota are given in the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion._--

-------------------------+--------+----------------------------------- | | COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION. | +-------+------+------+------+------ | EDIBLE | | Total| | Pro- |Total |PORTION.|Solids.| ash. |Acids.| tein.|sugar. -------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------ | _Per- | _Per- | _Per-|_Per- | _Per-| _Per- | cent._ |cent._ |cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._ Round sapota, | 76.40 | 23.07 | 0.384| 0.132| 0.350| 10.85 Long sapota, | 80.90 | 21.01 | .555| .162| .650| 12.76 Natural sapota preserves,| .... | 22.95 | .399| .086| .231| 11.30 -------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------

The sapota is also used in the manufacture of preserves by boiling it with sugar in the usual way. The analyses show that the sapota is a fruit which is principally valuable as a carbohydrate food. It has, however, very little acid, and is a much sweeter fruit than the anona and, therefore, more pleasant to the taste.

=Star-apple= (=Cainito=) (_Chrysophyllum cainito_).--The star-apple is one of the less important fruits which abound in Cuba. It is not very extensively used, but medicinal properties are attributed to it. Three different varieties are sold in the Havana markets,--one of a white color and two purple. The first attains the size of a small apple, approaching about seven ounces in weight. There are two kinds of meat in the pulp; the outer portion is a white, gelatinous matter which contains the small black seed and is really the edible portion, and constitutes about one-third the weight of the fruit. The outer fibrous and purple portion of the flesh is inedible. The inner pulp has a sweet characteristic flavor and is eaten raw. No preserves were found made of this in Cuban markets. The composition of the white star-apple is shown in the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--41.80 percent._--

Solids, 14.23 percent Sugar, 7.91 „ Protein, .67 „ Ash, .35 „ Acidity, .05 „

These data show that the fruit is not of a very high nutritive order, and on account of its low acidity it is not suitable for the making of preserves.

=Tamarind= (_Tamarindus Indica_).--This fruit belongs to the leguminous family and forms a dark brown pod from one to six inches in length and from three-fourths of an inch to one inch in width. The rind is thin and very brittle. Within the pod is found a dark-colored pasty material, closely attached to the seed sacks and joined to the stem of the pod by coarse fibers. This pasty material constitutes the edible portion of the fruit and has a very sour taste which serves to mask the large amount of sugar, sometimes as much as 30 percent, which it contains. The tamarind is remarkable as having the highest content both of acid and sugar of any of the edible fruits which are in common use. It contains more acid, for instance, than the sourest lime and more sugar than the sweetest fruit. The tamarind is not very largely used directly for edible purposes but is a component of many refreshing summer beverages and is used for flavoring other products. It has mild purgative properties, and hence its intermittent use in small quantities tends to keep in proper regulation the mechanical movements which are so necessary to normal digestion.

_Composition of the Tamarind._--

Water, 47.47 percent Acid, 6.03 „ Sugar, 31.43 „ Protein, 1.36 „ Ash, 1.56 „

The above data show that the tamarind is essentially of a carbohydrate nature, its chief food value being in the sugar which it contains. On account of its high acidity very little of the sugar which is present is in the form of sucrose or cane sugar, but is mostly in an invert condition.

_Preparation of Tamarinds._--Tamarinds are not only used directly but most extensively in the form of tamarind paste which is made up chiefly by the addition of cane sugar to the pulp; as much as 75 percent of sugar is often added to the making of paste. Another form of preparation is called tamarind pulp, which has practically the same composition as the paste. These two bodies may be called tamarind preserves. The proportion of pulp to added sugar is about as 20 to 80.

=Mineral Constituents of Tropical Fruits.=--The mineral content of the edible portions of fruits is important, both from a dietetic and chemical point of view.

The mineral substances in fruits not only add to their palatability but also have important functions in digestion and assimilation. The lime and phosphoric acid which the ash of fruits contain are foods that nourish certain tissues of the body, such as the bones. The other mineral ingredients of fruits take an active part in the circulation of the fluids of the body. Since the modern development of physiological chemistry, what is known as osmotic force, or the power that causes solutions to pass through membranes, is believed to be due largely to the mineral constituents of the juices of the body. These mineral constituents are therefore necessary in the food. The following table gives the total quantity of ash in the edible portion of the tropical fruits named, together with the composition of the ash in respect of its most important constituents (Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry):

ANALYSES OF THE ASH OF THE EDIBLE PORTION OF THE SEVERAL FRUITS.

--------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ | | | | | | DESCRIPTION |TOTAL | SILICA|POTASH| LIME |MAGNESIA| OF SAMPLE. | ASH. |(SiO₂).|(K₂O).|(CaO).| (MgO). | --------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ | _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per- | |cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._ | Orange (china), | 0.52 | 1.01 | 40.66|10.26 | 5.27 | Orange (rough skin),| .55 | .. | 49.15| 2.62 | 1.41 | Orange (sour), | .57 | .. | 45.09| 7.95 | 2.17 | Grape fruit, | .39 | .. | 44.19| 7.34 | 3.92 | Lime, | .98 | .. | 43.01| 7.84 | 2.36 | Sweet lemon, | .98 | .. | 54.35| 4.29 | 1.08 | Tamarind, | 1.56 | 15.57 | .. | .68 | 2.19 | | | [34] | | | | Guava, | .84 | 1.13 | 55.00| 2.48 | 1.64 | Banana (niño), | .70 | .. | 46.46| .95 | .42 | Banana (oronoco), | 1.08 | .. | 52.41| 1.02 | 1.90 | Banana (colorado), | .83 | .. | 51.47| .37 | .65 | Mango (French), | .53 | .. | 47.37| 6.38 | 1.62 | Mango (Filipino), | .41 | 1.75 | 51.79| 1.74 | 3.25 | Manga, | .78 | 2.14 | 49.37| 2.38 | .. | Guanabana, | .86 | 1.48 | 48.93| .44 | 2.17 | Anona, | .80 | .63 | 47.27| .81 | 2.07 | Chirimoya, | 1.04 | .. | 49.73| 2.21 | .66 | Sapota, | .50 | .. | 43.13| 7.49 | 2.83 | Mamey (colorado), | .80 | .. | 50.57| 1.38 | 1.36 | Do., | .89 | .. | 48.20| 1.73 | 3.35 | Hicaco, | .91 | .. | 35.15| 5.84 | 4.51 | Cainito, | .35 | .. | 54.75| 1.31 | .. | Pineapple, | .. | .. | 59.18| 9.44 | 5.52 | Do., | .. | .. | 57.13| 4.80 | 3.44 | --------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+

--------------------+--------+----------+--------+------- | FERRIC |PHOSPHORIC|SULFURIC| DESCRIPTION | OXID | ACID | ACID |CHLORIN OF SAMPLE. |(Fe₂O₃).| (P₂O₅). | (SO₃). | (Cl). --------------------+--------+----------+--------+------- | _Per- | _Per- | _Per- | _Per- | cent._ | cent._ | cent._ | cent._ Orange (china), | 1.09 | 8.56 | 2.84 | 2.44 Orange (rough skin),| 4.51 | 7.42 | 3.42 | 1.50 Orange (sour), | 2.40 | 8.70 | 2.72 | .98 Grape fruit, | 1.28 | 11.09 | 3.39 | 1.38 Lime, | .. | 8.45 | 2.62 | 4.07 Sweet lemon, | .. | 9.83 | 4.09 | 1.32 Tamarind, | .. | 4.99 | 1.40 | .48 | | | | Guava, | .. | 8.29 | 3.58 | 5.33 Banana (niño), | .. | 10.36 | 2.36 | 6.59 Banana (oronoco), | .. | 5.16 | 3.32 | 8.48 Banana (colorado), | .. | 3.25 | 2.77 | 7.63 Mango (French), | .. | 6.49 | 3.67 | 3.88 Mango (Filipino), | .. | 9.04 | 4.88 | 1.56 Manga, | .. | 5.57 | 3.84 | 4.20 Guanabana, | .. | 9.15 | 4.54 | 3.40 Anona, | .. | 13.63 | 3.19 | 3.51 Chirimoya, | .. | 6.57 | 4.49 | 7.40 Sapota, | .. | 2.74 | 4.55 | 17.41 Mamey (colorado), | .. | 4.90 | 3.54 | 17.34 Do., | .. | 9.66 | 3.80 | 16.00 Hicaco, | .. | 3.09 | 4.77 | 18.62 Cainito, | .. | 11.00 | 5.50 | 9.46 Pineapple, | .. | 6.51 | 3.04 | 3.22 Do., | .. | 4.29 | 3.65 | 4.08 --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------

[34] 2.88 percent sand.

The above data show that the percentage of ash in the edible portion of tropical fruits is never very high. In only three instances in the above table does it exceed one percent and in two of those only slightly. The principal mineral constituent is potash, which in round numbers may be said to constitute one-half of the total ash. Of the acid constituents phosphoric acid is the most important. In four cases the amount of phosphoric acid is greater than 10 percent of the total weight of the ash. The proportion of sulfuric acid in the ash is quite constant, while the amount of chlorin varies from less than one-half of one percent to more than 18 percent.

In this case of high ash there is a low content of phosphoric acid, which leads to the supposition that the chlorin is partially or wholly combined with sodium and potassium. In addition to the elements mentioned above the ash of edible fruits often contains notable quantities of silica and sometimes considerable quantities of sand, added accidentally or by the collection of dust. The ash of fruit also quite universally contains iron. In some cases the quantity of iron amounts to as much as four percent of the total weight of the ash. The data in the above table are calculated on the percentage of total ash and not on the percentage of pure ash, that is, ash deprived of its carbon, sand, and carbonic acid.

There are some peculiarities in the composition of the ash of tropical fruits to which attention may be called. The citrus fruits contain somewhat larger amounts of lime and iron than ordinary fruits. The ash of the tamarind contains large quantities of silica. The ash of the banana has a low content of lime and magnesia and a high content of chlorin. Attention is also called to the fact that in the ordinary combustion of an organic substance to secure the mineral matter notable quantities of the phosphoric acid and chlorin contained may be lost. Therefore, the data for phosphoric acid and for chlorin are probably lower than would be the case if all of these substances present in the fruit had been secured in the ash. The ash of pineapples is not peculiar in any respect, nor does it contain any marked amount of a constituent by which it can be identified. The pineapple, as is seen, contains slightly more potash than the other tropical fruits.

SUGAR AND ACID IN FRUIT.

The palatable quality of fruit depends largely upon the aromatic substances which they contain in the form of essential oils, esters, and ethers, and especially upon their sugar and acid content. The sweet taste of sugar in fruits and also often in nuts is modified and relieved by the acid or astringent materials, chiefly tannin, with which it is associated. In the analyses indicating the composition of fruits and of nuts and also of vegetables the sugar has not always been given separately, but as one member of a group consisting of sugar, starch, and cellulose materials soluble in weak acid and alkalies, and for this reason deemed to be digestible. It seems advisable to supplement this information with a special table giving the average quantity of sugar and acid found in some of the principal fruits. It must not be forgotten that in individual cases the quantity of sugar and acid may vary largely from the average, but the following data may be regarded as expressing very accurately the average content of sugar and acid in the common fruits.

SUGAR. ACID. _Percent._ _Percent._ Apples, Rhode Island Greening, 10.95 .70 as malic „ Winesap, 11.95 .50 „ „ „ Northern Spy, 11.80 .70 „ „ Apricots, fresh, 11.01 1.15 „ „ „ dried, 29.59 2.52 „ „ Bananas, 20.28 .30 „ sulfuric Blackberries, 5.78 .77 „ malic Cranberries, 1.52 2.34 „ „ Currants, 6.70 2.24 „ „ Grapes, 7.90-26.40 .59 „ tartaric Lemons, .37 5.39 „ citric Oranges, 5.65 1.35 „ „ Peaches, 7.88 .56 „ sulfuric Pears, 9.11 .19 „ malic Pineapples, 11.50 .60 „ sulfuric Plums, 14.71 .77 „ malic Prunes, 16.11 .32 „ „ Raspberries, 5.33 1.48 „ „ Strawberries, 6.24 1.10 „ „

In the above data the acidity is determined as malic acid in apples, blackberries, and strawberries, in which the predominant acid is malic. In cranberries one of the acids is benzoic, amounting sometimes to as much as 0.05 percent, in grapes tartaric, in lemons and oranges citric. In the other fruits where the character of the organic acid is not distinctly of one kind, the total organic acid is estimated as sulfuric acid (SO₃), not meaning by that, however, that the acids are present in the form of sulfuric acid but merely that their quantity was measured in terms of sulfuric acid.

CANNED FRUITS.

The industry devoted to canning fruits is of less importance in the United States than that identified with canned vegetables. Practically, nevertheless, every fruit which has been produced in this country has become a commercial article in the form of canned goods. With the exception of the method of preparation, the process of canning and other treatments are essentially the same as that of vegetables and therefore does not warrant any further description.

In the following data are found a brief description and the composition of the leading varieties of canned fruit:

=Canned Cherries.=--Cherries are one of the fruits which are valued for canning purposes. The pits may or may not be removed, according to the desire of the manufacturer and the demand of the consumer. The galvanic action which the cherry juice sets up on the tin plate tends to bleach the natural color of the cherry, and this action can be avoided by coating the interior of the can with a gum or some similar substance which entirely protects the metallic surface from contact with the juice of the fruit. When treated in this way the natural color of the cherry is preserved for a reasonable length of time.

_Adulteration of Canned Cherries._--The only adulteration of canned cherries which is of any consequence is that which relates to artificial coloring. By reason of the tendency to bleach the color, mentioned above, it has been quite customary to add an artificial color to the cherry so that the red color may be preserved. Coal tar dyes, under various names, and an animal dye, cochineal, have been used for this purpose. The practice of artificial coloring is reprehensible and may, in the case of some colors, be harmful to health. By observing the precautions already mentioned, the natural color of the cherry may be preserved without artificial color, and in general this is desirable. The consumer should at all times demand canned cherries which have not been artificially colored.

_Maraschino Cherries._--A very common method of treating cherries is to bleach them in a brine of common salt and sulfurous acid until all the natural color has disappeared. The cherries are then thoroughly washed for the removal of the salt and sulfurous acid and at the same time the juice and soluble portions of the cherry are removed, so that at the end of the washing there is little left but the cellular structure. The cherries are then saturated with sugar or sugar and glucose and colored a deep artificial red by coal tar dye or cochineal. If the natural flavor of cherries has been destroyed by the bleaching an artificial flavor is often added. The product is a cherry of an even deep red tint, more or less sweet, according to the use of greater or less quantities of sugar or glucose, and having a flavor of almond oil. When cherries of this kind are preserved in a solution of alcohol, flavored or unflavored, they are called maraschino cherries. The name is taken from a kind of cherry first used in making the product. They are used to a very large extent with certain beverages such as cocktails, soda water, mint juleps, etc., and also in ice cream and other preparations for the table. Little can be said in praise either of the taste or wholesomeness of these preparations and they are valuable chiefly for their supposed attractive appearance. The offense which is committed against the æsthetic taste of the individual in the preparation of such a product probably offsets any good effect which comes from attractiveness or ornamentation. The product cannot be regarded in any sense as resembling even in color the natural fruit, since practically the whole of the natural fruit, except its cellular structure, has been withdrawn and artificial substances substituted in place thereof.

=Canned Peaches.=--A great industry in this country is the canning of peaches. Some of the finest and most perfect varieties are used for this purpose. Peaches may be canned whole or by slicing in half or quarters and removing the pit. The principles of sterilization are not different from those which have already been described. Since the peach is a fruit which decays easily and is thus difficult of transportation, the establishment of canning factories in the vicinity of large peach orchards renders it possible to preserve this delicate fruit in a condition practically as good as that of the natural article, and thus makes it accessible to the people in all parts of the country at all seasons of the year.

_Adulteration of Canned Peaches._--Fortunately in this case there is no record of adulterations which is of any consequence. The perfection of the method of sterilization has rendered it unnecessary to make further use of antiseptics for canned peaches. The use of the artificial sweetening agent, saccharin, is almost unknown and is about the only adulteration which at the present time can be practiced without easy detection. It may be confidently stated that the consumer can rely, with a fair degree of assurance, upon the purity of the product which is taken from the can. The only real danger is in the action of the fruit juice upon the imperfect tin plate, and this is a danger which probably will soon pass away, since there is a tendency manifested now to so protect the tin by a varnish of some kind as to render it impossible for any electric action to take place which impairs the color or flavor of the fruit and also to exclude the poisonous salts of tin and lead from the contents of the can.

=Adulteration of Canned Fruit.=--_Artificial coloring:_ The principal adulteration of canned fruit is that due to artificial coloring. There is, perhaps, no other form of adulteration which has so little excuse. It only needs a cursory observation of the fruits of Nature to show that even in the same varieties they differ to a vast degree in natural tint. Bright colors are especially prized in fruits. For instance, the yellow of the peach, the red of the cherry, the purple of the plum, etc. The object of artificial coloring is to make all kinds and varieties of these fruits imitate those of naturally rich color. Its sole purpose is deception, since it can add nothing whatever to the nutritive value. The claim that it adds to the dietetic value of the fruit, as in other cases of the same kind of argument, is plainly fallacious. The very moment the consumer realizes he is eating an artificially tinted fruit, if his temperament be as artistic as should always be the case, he becomes sensitive to the effort made to deceive him. Such artificially colored foods, thus, instead of tasting better than they otherwise would, have a worse taste due to the feeling of antipathy excited by their presence. Hence there can be no excuse, under any circumstances, for the addition of artificial colors to food products of this kind, or in fact, of any kind except those which are purely synthetic and have no relation in composition or in quality to a natural product. With the exception of cherries and berries, the addition of artificial color to canned fruits is not common.

Another form of adulteration, which fortunately is seldom practiced in fruit, is one which has already been described in sufficient detail, that is, the addition of saccharin, a substance which has even less place in fruits than in vegetables. The addition of a non-sugar, such as saccharin, with an intensely sweet taste for the purpose of inducing the consumer to believe that the article is a natural sweet product, is an adulteration of the most reprehensible type, to say nothing of the evil effects of the adulterant employed upon health. The addition of spices and other condimental substances to fruit products cannot be regarded as an adulteration, because they reveal their own presence and are not added for the purpose of imitation or deception. As has been mentioned above, the manufacturer would save all criticism in such cases by a plain statement upon the label of the nature of the substance added.

Canned fruits properly preserved retain their natural aroma and flavor better than any other form of canned food and deserve the high estimation in which they are held by the consumer. The time is now rapidly approaching when all such goods will be free of any imitation or adulteration, and this will add greatly to their value in the markets of the country. The consumer will then only need to have the date of preservation marked on the can to be fully protected.

FRUIT SIRUPS.

The expressed juice of fruits mixed with the proper proportion of sugar produces an important article of commerce known as fruit sirup. These fruit sirups are used principally in the preparation of cooling, non-alcoholic beverages such as are drunk at the “soda fountains” so-called in the United States. In the preparation of fruit sirups only the choicest and best fruits are to be used. The juice, after expression, is properly freed from suspended matter by filtration or sedimentation and is brought to a proper consistence by mixing at once with pure sugar. When it is used as soon as prepared no further preparation in regard to its preservation is necessary, since juice prepared in this way and kept in an ice-box will keep several days without fermenting. When prepared on a large scale for commercial purposes it becomes necessary to prepare these sirups in some more permanent form. To this end they are subjected to the usual process of pasteurization. On account of their liquid condition, sterilization, that is, the use of a temperature of boiling water, is rarely necessary. If, on pasteurization, a precipitate is formed in these sirups, they should be heated to the temperature of pasteurization previous to the final processing and any deposited matter be separated by filtration or deposit. The sirup thus clarified is placed in bottles or separate containers and subjected to the pasteurizing process for a sufficient length of time, and is then ready for the market. These pasteurized sirups, if stored in a cool place, will keep almost indefinitely. In all cases where pasteurization is practiced at a very low temperature it is necessary to keep the product at a low temperature, since, as is well known, pasteurization does not kill all the spores, but does act with deadly effect upon the yeasts which produce alcoholic fermentation. Fresh sirups thus prepared and pasteurized are wholesome and palatable and are unobjectionable.

=Composition of Fruit Sirup.=--Naturally the principal constituent of fruit sirup is the added sugar. The other constituents correspond to those of the juice from which the sirup is made. As one of the principal constituents of fruit juice is sugar, it is seen that the natural sugar plus the addition makes up practically the total solid components in articles of this kind.

=Adulteration of Fruit Sirup.=--Fruit sirups have been extensively and unnecessarily adulterated. The principal adulteration is the omission of the pasteurization process and the preserving of the fruit juice by means of an antiseptic. The two antiseptics which have been most commonly employed for this purpose are salicylic and benzoic acids. At the present time, by reason of prohibitive legislation in respect of salicylic acid, benzoic acid or its compounds are quite universally employed. These antiseptics are injurious to health and even in small quantities cannot fail to have some deleterious effect upon the system. As they are not necessary in the preservation of fruit sirups, they should be rigidly excluded therefrom. In justice to those who use antiseptics of this kind it is said that, as a rule, they frankly admit that these sirups can be preserved by sterilization, but that when consumed they are used only in small quantities, and when the air has access to the remaining portion fermentation is set up. To this the answer may be made that if unstoppered and used under proper conditions to avoid the admission of germs, and if kept on ice or in a cool place, fermentation will not set up for several days, during which time opportunity will be had for disposing of the contents of the bottle. It does not appear that there is any convincing reason to warrant the continuance of the use of preservatives in this kind of products.

=Imitation Fruit Sirups.=--By far the most general adulteration of fruit sirups is that of the imitations thereof, pure and simple, by synthetic products. The flavors which give to fruits their character and aroma are chemical compounds produced by Nature and are chiefly of the nature of a volatile oil or compound ether. Of these flavors, the compound ethers especially are readily produced by purely synthetic processes. It is possible, therefore, for the chemist to make an approximate imitation of the natural fruit flavor. No difference how great his skill, however, or the skill of the mixer, there is always a gustatory and hygienic difference between the synthetic and the natural product, and the natural product always has the advantage of the difference. While I do not go so far as to say that synthetic flavors or sirups should be excluded in the preparation of non-alcoholic beverages, I do say with emphasis that they should never be used, except with notification to the consumer, and never, under any circumstance, if they contain any ingredient which is prejudicial to health.

One of the principal arguments which has been made against the enactment of the pure food bill has been that it would exclude from the market these synthetic products. At least let them be sold under their proper designations. A law which requires plain and honest branding can hardly be objected to on any ground whatever.

JAMS, JELLIES, AND PRESERVES.

The preparation of various fruits or fruit juices with sugar is an important industry both for domestic purposes and for commerce in the United States. When the fleshy portion of the fruit is treated with sugar sirup and boiled, it produces the product known as preserves. When a fruit is reduced to a pulp and treated with sugar sirup and boiled, it makes a product known as jam. When the fruit juice itself is treated with sugar and boiled, it forms a product known as jelly. The above are general definitions of three important classes of fruit products, though it is not intended by any means in the definitions to describe the details of preparation. These vary greatly in respect of the method of preparation, the fruit, the quantity of sugar used, the length of time the boiling is continued, and the consistency of the final product. These definitions merely outline the three distinct classes of products which are made from fruits.

=Selection of the Fruit.=--In the selection of the fruit for making these sweet products it is highly important that only the very best quality should be used. The fruit should be of a proper degree of maturity, and yet not overripe. The practice of using immature, waste, or partially deformed or decayed fruit for the purposes named cannot be too strongly condemned. The great advantage of preparing these products at the home consists in the fact that the character of the material used is under the immediate supervision of the housewife. In large factories where no official inspection is exercised it is possible that any kind of fruit or any portion of the fruit may be devoted to the purpose. All deteriorated raw material should be rigidly excluded from the factory. Various fruits are utilized in different manners in the preparation of the above-named products. Large fruits with tough skins, such as apples, peaches, and pears, are pared, the cores removed, and all decayed or infected portions cut away, and the clean, fresh, fleshy portion of the fruit used for manufacturing purposes. Small fruits, such as berries, after the exclusion of all dirt, immature or imperfect samples, and the removal of the stem, are used in the whole state for the purposes named.

It would be manifestly impracticable, as a rule, to remove even the seeds of small fruits, except where jelly is to be manufactured. The fruits, having been properly prepared, are mixed with sugar or thick sugar sirup and subjected to heat for two purposes. The first purpose of heat is to sterilize completely the material so that no bacteria, germs, or spores may be left alive in the finished product. The second purpose of heating is to concentrate the material to a proper consistence and to thoroughly saturate all portions with sugar sirup. Incidentally, the heating also by the combined action of temperature and free acids in the fruit inverts a large quantity of the cane sugar that is used and thus prevents the finished product from granulating. The crystallization of the sugar in these bodies renders them very much less desirable and suitable for consumption. For this reason, among others, the precaution above mentioned, namely, that the fruit should not be overripe, should be observed. It has been seen that overripe fruit diminishes in acidity, and hence it is less suitable for converting the cane sugar than fruit just short of complete maturity. For this reason, too, the more strongly acid fruits are better suited for making these sweetened products than those in which the acidity is less strongly developed.

=Jams.=--As has already been said, jams differ from jellies in that they contain not only the juice of the fruit but the whole pulp of the fruit or the whole fruit. The methods of preparation in effect produce the same changes upon the sugars that are produced by the fruit juice. The fruit after proper comminution is boiled with large quantities of sugar a sufficient length of time to reduce the fruit flesh to a pulp and to invert more or less of the sugar which is used. The insoluble matter which jam contains consists chiefly of the cellulose and pectose matter in the fruit, together with the seeds of the small fruit. The various solids are made up of the solid bodies in the fruits, including the sugars which are added. The character of the ash of the jams is a good indication whether or not they are pure, that is, made out of sugar and fruit only. While it is true that the ash of fruit varies, it is also true that the real ash of fruit has certain characteristics in regard to alkalinity which are not possessed by the ash of adulterated fruit products. For the sake of convenience and reference it is seen advisable to append a table showing the composition of the ash of some of the fresh fruits (Bulletin 66, Bureau of Chemistry).

---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+-------- | | | | | P₂O₅.| SO₃. | | | | | | PHOS-| SUL- | | PURE | K₂O. | Na₂O.| CaO. |PHORIC| FURIC| Cl. FRUIT. | ASH. |POTASH.| SODA.| LIME.| ACID.| ACID.|CHLORIN. ---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+-------- | _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per- |cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._ Apple, | 0.264| 55.21 | 11.69| 4.79| 12.83| 4.62 | 0.83 Apricots,| .508| 59.36 | 10.26| 3.17| 13.09| 2.63 | .45 Banana, | 1.078| 63.06 | 2.34| .86| 1.62| 2.32 | 26.93 Cherries,| 0.440| 57.67 | 6.80| 4.20| 15.11| 5.83 | 1.83 Figs, | .682| 57.16 | 2.38| 10.90| 12.76| 3.90 | 2.05 Grapes, | .500| 50.95 | 6.32| 4.96| 21.27| 4.28 | 1.54 Lemons, | .526| 48.26 | 1.76| 24.87| 11.09| 2.84 | .39 Oranges, | .432| 48.94 | 2.50| 22.71| 12.37| 5.25 | .92 Prunes, | .486| 63.83 | 2.65| 4.66| 14.08| 2.68 | .34 ---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------

From the above table it is seen that there is not a very large percentage of sulfuric acid in the natural ash in fruits, and very little chlorin, with the exception of the banana, in which the ash is principally potassium chlorid. Since the ash of glucose, as it is made at the present time, consists almost entirely of sulfates and chlorids, any considerable increase of these ingredients of an ash over the normal may be regarded as an indication that the fruit product from which the ash is obtained contains added glucose. Inasmuch as there are chemical and physical methods of detecting glucose which are entirely reliable, the utility of the composition of ash for this purpose is rather confirmatory than otherwise. Since the added sugar is the chief constituent of jams there is little difference in other respects in the composition of jams made from different fruits, as will be seen by the table of analysis given below:

------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | TOTAL | | REDUCING | CANE | TOTAL DESCRIPTION.| SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- _Jams._ |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Apple, | 63.22 | 0.282 | 25.52 | 29.11 | 54.63 Blackberry, | 55.42 | .851 | 18.77 | 29.00 | 47.77 Grape, | 56.64 | .744 | 33.44 | 11.33 | 44.77 Orange, | 80.52 | .433 | 13.61 | 54.23 | 67.84 Pear, | 61.52 | .163 | 13.20 | 33.74 | 46.94 Peach, | 65.65 | .500 | 36.48 | 23.16 | 59.64 Pineapple, | 73.92 | .314 | 14.05 | 46.40 | 60.45 Plum, | 50.43 | 1.012 | 28.29 | 9.70 | 37.99 ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The characteristics of fruit which give the special flavors to the jams are imparted by constituents such as ethers, essential oils, and other aromatic substances, together with the free acids which are present in such quantities as not to be susceptible of easy quantitative determination by chemical means. The relation which exists between the cane sugar and the invert sugar is not a safe index of the method of preparation, but is rather an indication of the excess or deficiency of the acid in the fruit employed. The greater the quantity of active acids, other things being equal, the larger the quantity of inverted sugar and the smaller the quantity of cane sugar in the finished product.

In the following table is given the composition of a number of jams made in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. These analyses are selected from a great many which are available because the character and amount of sugar in the composition of the jam were carefully controlled, and thus the chemical data afford a base of direct composition.

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | | TOTAL | | | | | | ACIDS | + | | | | EX- | | SERIAL| | | | PRESSED|PROTEIDS| NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF | TOTAL | | AS | (N × | BER. |SAMPLE. | SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). | ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._| 20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 63.22 | 0.20 | 0.282 | 0.175 | 20414 |Blackberry | 55.42 | .48 | .851 | .737 | 20445 |Grape (fox) | 61.80 | .19 | .698 | .200 | 20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 56.64 | .48 | .744 | .525 | 20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 80.52 | .44 | .433 | .944 | 20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 61.52 | .28 | .163 | .312 | 20442 |Pineapple | 73.92 | .30 | .315 | .312 | 20421 |Plum (damson) | 50.43 | .54 | 1.102 | .525 | 20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 62.10 | .46 | 1.355 | .212 | ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

------+----------------------+--------------------------+ | | SUGARS. | | +--------+--------+--------+ | | | | | SERIAL| | | Cane | Cane | NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF |Reducing| sugar | sugar | BER. |SAMPLE. | sugar. | added. | found. | ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._| 20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 25.52 | 51.31 | 29.11 | 20414 |Blackberry | 18.77 | 43.99 | 29.00 | 20445 |Grape (fox) | 50.06 | 54.21 | 3.70 | 20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 33.44 | 42.45 | 11.33 | 20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 13.61 | 69.13 | 54.23 | 20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 13.20 | 46.52 | 33.74 | 20442 |Pineapple | 14.05 | 60.20 | 46.40 | 20421 |Plum (damson) | 28.29 | 37.75 | 9.70 | 20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 28.78 | 47.86 | 23.26 | ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+

------+----------------------+----------------------------- | | POLARIZATIONS. | +--------+------+------+------ | | Cane | | | SERIAL| | sugar |Direct|Invert|Invert NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF | in- | at | at | at BER. |SAMPLE. | verted.|18° C.|18° C.|86° C. ------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------ | |_P. ct._| _°V._| _°V._| _°V._ 20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 43.22 | +26.3| -13.0| +4.8 20414 |Blackberry | 34.08 | +24.6| -14.6| +1.6 20445 |Grape (fox) | 92.96 | -9.0| -14.0| +2.2 20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 73.38 | +3.5| -11.8| 0 20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 21.55 | +55.9| -17.5| +2.0 20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 18.87 | +32.3| -13.2| +1.0 20442 |Pineapple | 22.90 | +52.3| -10.3| +6.2 20421 |Plum (damson) | 74.42 | +3.1| -10.0| +1.2 20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 53.43 | +13.9| -17.5| 0 ------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------

The following table represents the data relating to the composition of jams from samples purchased in the open market, free from glucose and apparently pure:

-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | TOTAL | | REDUCING | CANE | TOTAL DESCRIPTION. | SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. -------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Apricots, | 70.15 | .407 | 38.96 | 26.00 | 64.96 Currants, | 66.32 | 1.117 | 52.45 | 1.64 | 54.09 Figs, | 69.89 | .744 | .... | 45.92 | .... Grape fruit, | 69.20 | .387 | 27.00 | 35.51 | 62.51 Guava, | 82.46 | .299 | 25.14 | 52.73 | 77.87 Peach, | 65.65 | .500 | 36.48 | 23.16 | 59.64 Strawberries,| 75.83 | .480 | 37.15 | 31.43 | 68.58 -------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The average composition of a large number of pure jams, some of which were made in the laboratory and some purchased in the open market, is as follows:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- | TOTAL | | REDUCING | CANE | TOTAL | SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. | SUGAR. --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._ Average,| 65.98 | .536 | 36.41 | 22.15 | 58.56 Maximum,| 82.46 | 1.355 | 61.02 | 54.23 | .... Minimum,| 50.43 | .163 | 13.20 | .30 | .... --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The analytical data show that the jams, in so far as active food constituents are concerned, are composed chiefly of sugar. These sugars include both that natural to the fruit and that which has been added. The average content of sugar in round numbers is 58.5 percent, while in round numbers the average content of solids, not sugar, is 7.5 percent. It is thus seen that the amount of sugar present in round numbers is eight times as great as that of the other solids. It is also noticed that the percentage of reducing sugar is about one-third greater than the cane sugar, indicating that the inversion of the sugar, when the real fruits have been used in the manufacture, has been carried to such an extent as to avoid any danger of crystallization. These data are all in complete refutation of the claims made by many manufacturers that it is necessary to add glucose in the manufacture of complex products of this kind in order to prevent crystallization. If the real fruit is used in the proper quantity and the manufacture conducted according to the approved method, there is no danger of crystallization except in those rare cases where the fruits used have little or no acid.

_Adulteration of Jams._--The adulterations of jams are practically the same as those which are practiced with jellies. Artificial colors have been very extensively used together with the artificial flavors resembling the fruits, the names of which appear erroneously upon the packages. Glucose is used to a large extent in these adulterated goods. In the adulterated articles a preservative is nearly always present. Starch is used but very rarely for adulterating articles of this kind.

Fifty-eight samples of jams which proved to be adulterated were bought on the open market by the Bureau of Chemistry, none of which bore any label or description indicating that it was an adulterated article. The character of the principal adulterant (glucose) in each case is revealed at once by the polarization, which is always strongly right-handed, and also by other chemical tests for glucose. The quantity of sulfate and chlorid in the ash of these samples is always very considerably increased over that of the natural product. The quantity of glucose in some of the samples is so great as to indicate that practically the whole of the solid matter is composed of this substance. In two samples the alleged jam contained no fruit product whatever. In many cases more than 70 percent of glucose is found and in one instance as high as 76 percent. In a great majority of the cases the glucose is approximately one-half of the whole weight of the jam. In a great many cases the glucose was present in quantities which indicated the utilization of some fruit product. There were a few cases where the amount of glucose fell below 10 percent. Artificial coloring matter was present in almost every case, and in the great majority of cases either benzoic acid or salicylic acid is present as a preservative. The colors used are coal tar dyes and cochineal.

It is evident that articles of food adulterated in this manner should not be permitted to bear the name of the natural product, and in many of the states the local laws forbid the use of a misleading name. The national law, which was approved on the 30th of June, 1906, also forbids misbranding of this description.

In addition to the jams which on their labels bore no indication of the adulterations, a number of samples of jam were purchased labeled “Compound,” or in some way indicating that they were not the pure article. Thirteen samples of this kind were examined in the Bureau of Chemistry and all of them had very large quantities of glucose, the largest amount present in any one case being 37 percent. They were all artificially colored, and ten of them contained preservatives, either benzoic or salicylic acid.

=Jellies.=--In addition to the jellies which were made in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry for the purpose of controlling the manufacture, 44 samples of jelly were bought upon the open market. Of these commercial samples 19 contained no glucose, 13 of them contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 12 were labeled as compound or adulterated articles. Nearly all of the commercial jellies were made with apple jelly as the base. The apple jelly and glucose made up practically the total solids, no matter what name was applied. The flavors were artificial, and a very large number of the samples contained preservatives. The samples of jelly which contained no glucose were evidently made of the natural fruit,--they contained no artificial coloring matter and in only a few instances did they contain preservatives. On the other hand the jellies which were made of glucose were uniformly colored and contained preservatives.

It is of interest here to say a few words about the very cheapest of adulterated jellies which are found upon the market. These jellies were made with some apple juice, but chiefly of glucose. They contained large quantities of preservatives, and the ash was rich in sulfates and chlorids except in two instances. In these cases it is possible that the glucose which was used was manufactured by some special process not involving the use of either sulfuric or hydrochloric acid.

=Adulteration of Jelly.=--Jellies are of the class of fruit products which have been extensively adulterated. The markets of the country have been flooded for years with so-called “compound jellies” or imitations of jelly. The chief forms of adulteration are the following: The use of apple stock for making all kinds of jelly. Attention has already been called to the fact that apples contain a large number of pectose bodies which favor jellification. A common method of manufacturing jelly has been to use a stock of apple juice or cider or a preparation made from the cores, skins, and rejected portions of the apple at evaporating factories or from whole rejected apples. This stock is used as a common base for the manufacture of jellies of different kinds. Whenever apple juice enters into the composition of a jelly made from any other fruit than the apple it becomes an adulteration. Apple juice is not an adulteration in the sense of being an injury to health, but in the sense of being substituted for other fruit juices.

=Artificial Coloring.=--In as much as each kind of fruit tends to give to a jelly a particular color, it is evident that if apple stock is used the natural colors of the other fruits must be imitated.

To this end coal tar dyes have been generally employed, and sometimes vegetable or animal coloring matter to imitate the color of the fruit whose name is given to the product.

=Artificial Flavors.=--Since when apple stock is used as a base of manufacture it imparts to the finished product only the flavor of apples, artificial chemical flavors resembling other fruits are employed. Thus the jellies which, presumably, are made from other fruits, have the particular flavor of those fruits imitated in a wholly artificial way.

=Composition of Jelly.=--The properties of a jelly, in respect of its distinct character, are due solely to the fruit from which it is made. Each one of the fruits contains essential oils, ethereal substances, acids, etc., which give to it a distinct character. These bodies are carried with the fruit juice into the finished product and give to it its distinct characteristics. The sugar, of course, in all these products is the same. In the following table are found the data showing the composition of jellies made from different fruits in the Bureau of Chemistry.

COMPOSITION OF JELLY.

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | | TOTAL | | | | | | ACIDS | + SE- | | | | EX- | | RIAL| | | | PRESSED|PROTEIDS| NUM-| DESCRIPTION | TOTAL | | AS | (N × | BER.| OF SAMPLE. | SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). | -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._| 20408|Apple (fall | | | | | |pippin) | 59.18 | 0.22 | 0.279 | 0.175 | 20405|Blackberry | 59.63 | .33 | .475 | .243 | 20410|Crab apple | 63.28 | .11 | .171 | .137 | 20405|Grape (Ives | | | | | |seedling) | 63.66 | .45 | .524 | .175 | 20412|Huckleberry | 63.02 | .28 | .245 | .069 | 20435|Orange (Florida | | | | | |navel) | 68.56 | .30 | .171 | .418 | 20437|Peach | 69.98 | .21 | .245 | .175 | 20434|Pear (Bartlett) | 69.12 | .34 | .181 | .156 | 20436|Pineapple | 80.28 | .43 | .328 | .387 | 20433|Pineapple husk | 76.34 | .73 | .352 | .350 | 20404|Plum (damson) | 45.56 | .68 | 1.127 | .350 | 20409|Plum (wild fox) | 54.49 | .40 | 1.029 | .138 | 20411|Plum (wild fox),| | | | | |boiled down | 73.01 | .65 | 1.529 | .175 | 20407|Mixed fruit | 66.58 | .21 | .367 | .069 | -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----+----------------+-----------------------------------+ | | SUGARS. | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ SE- | | | | | Cane | RIAL| | | Cane | Cane | sugar | NUM-| DESCRIPTION |Reducing| sugar | sugar | in- | BER.| OF SAMPLE. | Sugars.| added. | found. | verted.| -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._| 20408|Apple (fall | | | | | |pippin) | 20.78 | 51.76 | 33.04 | 36.17 | 20405|Blackberry | 12.51 | 54.89 | 44.90 | 18.20 | 20410|Crab apple | 34.93 | 57.61 | 23.68 | 58.88 | 20405|Grape (Ives | | | | | |seedling) | 32.29 | 60.29 | 30.52 | 49.33 | 20412|Huckleberry | 24.27 | 53.39 | 32.74 | 37.54 | 20435|Orange (Florida | | | | | |navel) | 3.95 | 65.59 | 62.52 | 4.91 | 20437|Peach | 8.75 | 63.70 | 56.59 | 11.16 | 20434|Pear (Bartlett) | 6.58 | 63.09 | 58.46 | 7.33 | 20436|Pineapple | 22.13 | 72.98 | 56.70 | 28.45 | 20433|Pineapple husk | 7.40 | 70.22 | 65.22 | 7.12 | 20404|Plum (damson) | 19.18 | 38.00 | 22.67 | 40.38 | 20409|Plum (wild fox) | 24.00 | 48.05 | 25.48 | 46.97 | 20411|Plum (wild fox),| | | | | |boiled down | 44.22 | 64.66 | 22.37 | 66.18 | 20407|Mixed fruit | 39.70 | 59.72 | 24.22 | 40.38 | -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----+----------------+-------------------- | | POLARIZATIONS. | +------+------+------ SE- | | | | RIAL| |Direct|Invert|Invert NUM-| DESCRIPTION | at | at | at BER.| OF SAMPLE. |18° C.|18° C.|86° C. -----+----------------+------+------+------ | | _°V._| _°V._| _°V._ 20408|Apple (fall | | | |pippin) | +24.0| -20.6| -1.2 20405|Blackberry | +47.0| -20.1| 0 20410|Crab apple | +13.0| -19.0| 0 20405|Grape (Ives | | | |seedling) | +22.3| -18.9| + .2 20412|Huckleberry | +24.1| -20.1| - .4 20435|Orange (Florida | | | |navel) | +61.3| -23.1| - .2 20437|Peach | +53.4| -23.0| - .6 20434|Pear (Bartlett) | +52.7| -26.2| -1.8 20436|Pineapple | +50.4| -26.1| 0 20433|Pineapple husk | +63.7| -24.3| - .6 20404|Plum (damson) | +17.8| -12.8| 0 20409|Plum (wild fox) | +16.7| -17.8| 0 20411|Plum (wild fox),| | | |boiled down | +7.6| -22.6| - .6 20407|Mixed fruit | +14.8| -17.9| +2.2 -----+----------------+------+------+------

As is to be expected the chief constituent of these jellies is the sugar which is derived both from the sugar present in the natural juice and from that added in the manufacture. The data show that the quantity of cane sugar inverted varies greatly with the different fruits. Some of the fruit juices appear to have little or no effect whatever in the inversion of sugar. This is particularly true of the orange, the pear, and the jelly made from the husks of pineapples.

=Manufacture of Jellies.=--In the manufacture of jellies the fruit juices are separated from the pulpy mass of the fruit, and these alone are used in the process. The most common method of procedure is to boil the fruit with more or less water until the juices are more or less separated and then to remove them by straining or pressure. The fruits are heated for this purpose with sufficient water to prevent scorching until they are thoroughly softened and then reduced to a pulp. The best jellies are made from juices which are obtained by simply allowing the pulpy mass to drain through cloth. The juices thus obtained are clear and free of any suspended matter. When pressure is used the juices are less clear and contain more or less suspended solid matter. In the preparation of jellies approximately equal portions of pure cane sugar and the strained juices are used, and the mixture is heated to the boiling point. It is evident that in the manufacture of jelly where boiling is not continued for any length of time the amount of sugar inverted is less than in the manufacture of jams and preserves where the boiling is continued for a greater length of time.

The quantity of non-crystallizing material in the juices from which the jellies are made, namely, the pectose bodies in fruits, is sufficient in most cases to prevent the crystallization of the cane sugar in the jelly. The jelly is formed by these pectose bodies being present in the juice in sufficient quantities to become semi-solid on cooling after manufacture. The solidifying may take place in a short time or only after several hours. The juice at the time of completion of the boiling is thoroughly sterilized, and in this hot condition should be placed in sterilized vessels and covered before setting away with sterilized parchment paper or a thin film of sterilized paraffine. The covering of the surface will prevent the deposition of the seed of moulds and bacteria which often infect the top layer of jellies or other fruit products prepared in a similar manner whose surface is not properly protected.

=Preservatives.=--Since the care which is necessary to prepare a jelly in a thoroughly sterilized condition and to protect the exposed surface so that infection thereof cannot take place is a matter of expense and requires great attention to details, it has been sought to avoid these by the use of chemical preservatives. Salicylic acid and benzoic acid or benzoate of soda have been the principal preservatives employed, and until state and municipal laws introduced a proper inspection or analysis of these products the use of these chemical preservatives was very common. In later years their use has been gradually diminished, owing to the objections on the part of the laws and the public to the presence of these bodies in the finished products. There are, however, still on the market many products which are preserved by salicylic acid, benzoic acid, or benzoate of soda or some similar active agent.

From the above résumé it is seen that the consumer who buys in the open market is not quite certain that he is getting the product for which he pays. This condition of affairs will doubtless pass away with the advent of the proper inspection of fruits which are used in manufacturing on a large scale and a proper supervision of the manufacturing establishments, together with a rigid execution of the national and state food laws. Under such conditions the adulterations will either disappear from the market or be so labeled as to practically inform the purchaser of their character.

=Marmalade.=--The term “marmalade” is applied to a special character of fruit product prepared in the same manner as jam in which the fruit is not so thoroughly pulped. The orange is a fruit which is used very extensively for making marmalade,--an orange marmalade, in other words, is only a fruit product of the character of jam and made after the same manner. This class of fruit products is so nearly the same as jam as not to need any special description.

_Adulteration._--The adulterations to which the marmalades are subjected are practically the same as for jams. In the study of marmalade in the Bureau of Chemistry 96 samples were examined. Of this number 86 were commercial products and 10 were prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau. Of the commercial articles 18 samples, somewhat less than 20 percent, contained no glucose. Fifty-three contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 15 were labeled as compound or artificial. The percentage of solids in these products varied within a wide limit. The maximum percentage of solids found was 82.46 and the minimum 53.43. The average percentage of ash in the marmalade not containing glucose was 0.32, and the average alkalinity of the ash as measured by a standard acid was 0.26. In the adulterated marmalade containing glucose the average percentage of ash was 0.59, almost as great as in the pure article, and the average alkalinity was 0.29, somewhat greater than in the pure article.

=Compound Jams and Jellies.=--A word should be said respecting the meaning of the word “compound” as attached to fruit products, especially jams and jellies, since it is a word which has been selected as somewhat more euphonious than the term “adulterated” or “misbranded.” So true is this that the word “compound” when placed upon a food product indicates at once to the purchaser that the article is a mixture or substitute. The term, therefore, indicates the character of sophistication. To such an extent may this be practiced that the actual material named in connection with the word “compound” may be absent from the mixture altogether. The term arose first on account of the desire of the manufacturer to leave off of the labels a statement of the exact composition of the contents of the package and to substitute a word of less significance, and at the same time to comply with certain state laws which require that all fruit products containing glucose be labeled with the word “compound” or some similar term. A much simpler and more direct method would be to make the label a truthful one, indicating, as nearly as possible, the character of the product. A compound generally means a jelly or jam made without the fruit named, that is, largely of glucose. It also indicates, as a rule, that the product is artificially colored and artificially flavored. In these cases the word “imitation” is to be preferred, inasmuch as the mixtures bearing the word “compound” can only be regarded in reality as a mixture of unlike substances.

=General Conclusions.=--In regard to fruit products made by boiling with sugar, the general statement that they should be true to name and free from artificial colors, preservatives, or other adulterations apparently covers the whole ground. If it is desired to make a cheaper article for the benefit of consumers of small means, the principles which should guide the manufacturers are plain. The materials which are added should be wholesome and free of deleterious or injurious matter. The poor man, while entitled to get a cheaper article, is likewise entitled, as well as the rich man, to protection against deleterious substances. In the present state of our knowledge, glucose is not regarded by the majority of hygienists as a substance injurious to health. If it be injurious it is due more to a lack of care in manufacture than to any inherent properties. Pure glucose, being simply a hydrolyzed production of starch, cannot be regarded as a substance injurious to health. The objections to glucose which have been legitimately made are due to the fact that the acids which have been used in converting the starch and also the sulfurous acid which has been used in bleaching the product have not been entirely removed. It appears that the glucose used for food purposes can be freed from all objection by inverting the starch with which it is made with diastase and avoiding the use of all bleaching reagents. The glucose thus made would not be water-white, nor is it desirable for edible purposes that it be so, since it is always, except, perhaps, in the manufacture of certain candies, used in connection with naturally colored food products. There is no reason to believe that a glucose made as above and possessing, as it naturally would, an amber or reddish color would be made less desirable than a product which is absolutely colorless. This suggestion, therefore, is made to the manufacturer of glucose for edible purposes in the interest of public health and to avoid any possible condemnation of the glucose by reason of the method of manufacture, namely, that the use of acid in the manufacture of glucose be discontinued, that malt or some other form of diastase be substituted and that bleaching, except by passing through animal charcoal, be entirely omitted. The product made in this way would be free from the objections which have been, and may in the future still be, urged with reason against the use of the article at the present time.

=Preserves.=--The term “preserves” is a general one which is applied in common language to a preparation of fruit preserved by boiling with sugar until complete sterilization is accomplished. The term in its general application includes the different varieties of preserves which have already been mentioned, namely, jams, marmalades, etc. It must also be extended to include the class of fruit products known as jellies, though, as a rule, it is not made so comprehensive in meaning, inasmuch as the jelly does not contain any of the solid particles of fruit. Perhaps there is no other part of the food-manufacturing industry which is so universally practiced in the household as the manufacture of preserves. Not only is this true of farm life in the country but also of those living in the city. The sterilization of fresh fruit without the use of sugar is not nearly so common as the making of the domestic supply of preserved fruits in the sense above mentioned. There is only one sufficient reason for the preparation of such foods, namely, the suspicion which attaches to the manufactured article appearing upon the market. So universal has been the custom of artificially coloring the product, and of the use of glucose and preservatives, as to create a general impression among consumers that the articles thus purchased in the open market are adulterated and misbranded. When these preparations are made in the household we are at least assured of the genuineness of the product. It must be admitted that the art and technique of manufacture cannot possibly be so perfect in the home as in the large factories. It follows as a necessary consequence that such goods as those indicated ought to be better and cheaper and more readily preserved if made in large manufacturing centers than when made at home. Even those who make the genuine product suffer in common with those who make adulterated articles, since the suspicion of adulteration attaches to the whole output. The practice of domestic manufacture will undoubtedly continue until the public is fully convinced that better and cheaper articles can be purchased in the open market.

=Peach Preserves.=--A common practice among the housewives throughout the United States is to boil peaches with sugar or sugar sirup, forming the well known product, peach preserves. Preserves of this kind are considered a delicacy, and, as they are easily made and kept, they are a very common article of diet throughout all parts of the country where peaches are grown.

=Fruit Butter.=--There are several preparations of fruit which differ in some respect from those just mentioned, to which the term “butter” has been applied, such as apple butter, peach butter, etc., and these are common articles of domestic manufacture. This type of article is illustrated by a description of apple butter.

Apple butter is made by boiling comminuted, sound, carefully selected apples of a proper degree of maturity with cider until the whole mass forms a bulk of the proper consistence. The preparation thus made is treated with certain spices according to the desire of the manufacturer and the taste of the consumer. There is quite a quantity of material insoluble in water in genuine fruit butter. The rest consists of water, the added sugar, if any, and the fruit juice with which the butter is made.

_Adulteration of Fruit Butter._--Very extensive adulterations are practiced with fruit butter offered in the open market. In the Bureau of Chemistry as high as 30 percent of glucose has been found as an added product. The addition of cane sugar cannot be regarded as an adulteration but the best fruit butters are made without it. Artificial colors are sometimes used, and preservatives, especially benzoic acid, are quite common in the commercial article.

=Brandied Fruit.=--The use of brandy in common with sugar in the preservation of fruit is widely practiced. Sometimes alcohol alone is relied upon as a preserving agent. At other times greater or less quantities of cane sugar are used. Usually heat is employed in addition to the other preserving agents to complete sterilization. Nearly all forms of fruit may be preserved in this way. Brandied cherries and peaches are perhaps the most abundant. The quantity of alcohol employed varies between 15 and 20 percent of the total weight of the goods. The quantity of cane sugar used has been found to range from six to 20 percent of the weight of the fruit. Fruit preserved in this way cannot be regarded in the light of food solely, but only as a condimental substance. The eating of any large quantity of food containing that percentage of alcohol could not be accomplished without danger of intoxication. The utilization of such foods upon the table should be of a restricted character, and, especially, they should not be used with children or very young people where the danger from the direct effects of the alcohol is magnified and the possibility of forming the alcohol habit is also present.

_Adulteration of Brandied Fruits._--The principal adulteration of brandied fruit is in the use of alcohol which is not genuine brandy. It is well known that much of the brandy offered in commerce is fictitious, that is, is not the pure distilled alcoholic product from sound wine properly aged in wood before using. When brandy is purchased for preserved fruit, unless special care is taken to secure the genuine article the imitation article may be supplied. Instead of the real brandy the manufacturers may use an article which is entirely devoid of any product of the distillation of wine or containing only a small amount thereof. The term “brandy” used with the fruit in such a case is a misnomer and the article would be deemed misbranded under the provisions of the law. The manufacturer can assure himself of the purity of the brandy by obtaining it from a bonded warehouse, since it is made under the supervision of the officials of the internal revenue and kept under such supervision until delivered to the consumer. Inasmuch as preparations of this kind are regarded as delicacies and the cost of the product does not enter materially into consideration it is highly advisable that only genuine brandy, distilled from sound wine and aged in wood for a period of not less than four years, be employed in the manufacture.

=Importance of the Canning and Preserving Industries.=--The statistics for the canning and preserving industries for the calendar year ending December 31, 1904, form a part of the census of manufactures, which is made in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902, and are compared with similar statistics for the census of 1900, which covered the fiscal year ending May 31st.

There has been a large increase in those industries. The slight decrease in the average number of wage-earners is more apparent than real, and is due largely to the fact that a considerable number were employed in fish canneries under a contract system. The contractor furnishes the laborers and is paid for an agreed quantity of product. The establishment reporting has no record of the number employed by the contractors, and they were not included in the number reported, the amount paid for such contract work being included in the item of miscellaneous expenses. Fishermen were not included in the census, and it is possible that a larger proportion of the salted fish was prepared in connection with the actual catch than at the census of 1900, thus accounting in part, at least, for the decrease in the quantity.

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, AND FISH AND OYSTERS.

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY--CENSUSES OF 1904 AND 1900.

---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+ | | |PERCENT| | | | OF IN-| | 1904. | 1900. |CREASE.| ---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+ Number of establishments, | 2,687| 2,182| 23.1 | Capital, | $69,589,316| $47,970,787| 45.1 | Salaried officials, clerks,| | | | etc.: | | | | Number, | 3,604| 2,418| 49.0 | Salaries, | $3,216,773| $1,926,639| 67.0 | Wage-earners: | | | | Average number, | 50,258| 51,955| 3.3 | | | | [35] | Wages, | $14,154,730| $12,759,459| 10.9 | Miscellaneous expenses, | 8,544,497| 3,290,459| 159.7 | Materials used, | 69,814,330| 52,243,948| 33.6 | Products:[36] | | | | Aggregate value, | $107,534,464| $81,020,384| 32.7 | Fruits and Vegetables--| | | | Total value, | $72,570,974| $44,460,665| 63.2 | Canned Vegetables--| | | | Pounds, |1,672,759,438|1,142,327,265| 46.4 | Value, | $45,262,148| $28,734,598| 57.5 | Canned Fruits-- | | | | Pounds, | 295,760,355| 293,637,273| .7 | Value, | $11,644,042| $11,311,062| 2.9 | Dried Fruits-- | | | | Pounds, | 343,579,623| 81,189,406| 323.2 | Value, | $15,664,784| $4,415,005| 254.8 | Fish-- | | | | Total value, | $24,452,533| $20,542,691| 19.0 | Canned-- | | | | Pounds, | 259,469,861| 167,836,808| 54.6 | Value, | $15,966,513| $14,308,723| 11.6 | Smoked-- | | | | Pounds, | 35,439,619| 21,252,066| 66.8 | Value, | $2,362,740| $973,041| 142.8 | Salted-- | | | | Pounds, | 112,156,655| 125,669,131| 10.8 | | | | [35] | Value, | $6,123,280| $5,260,927| 16.4 | Oysters-- | | | | Value, | $3,799,412| 2,054,800| 84.9 | All other products, | 6,711,545| $13,962,228| 51.9 | | | | [35] | ---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+

[35] Decrease.

[36] Exclusive of fruits and vegetables valued at $715,920, fish at $274,403, and oysters at $12,900, manufactured by establishments classified as food preparations, pickles, preserves and sauces, slaughtering and meat packing, wholesale, etc.

=Importance of the Industry.=--The importance of the canning industry is not to be measured solely by its commercial extent. The principle of the conservation of food products by sterilization or pasteurization is of immense significance in the nutrition of man. It enables nourishing foods of a perishable character to be kept and transported to great distances and to be used in localities where fresh foods of similar kinds are otherwise unobtainable. Such preserved foods mean everything to pioneers, explorers, armies, and navies. The “winning of the west” in the United States has been marked by the débris of the rusty cans. The roads along which the pioneers who settled the great American desert marched since 1865 have been bordered with the discarded packages in which they carried their foods.

It is doubtless true that foods when they can be had fresh are to be preferred to those which have been sterilized. It is also true that many unsterilized foods from unsanitary environments are more dangerous in the fresh state than when they have been exposed to a high temperature. Taking into consideration all the circumstances in the case, it must be conceded that the process of sterilization, first practiced by Appert and afterward placed on a scientific basis by Pasteur, has proved of almost immeasurable advantage to mankind. Thus for this greater reason the character and quality of foods thus preserved should be wholly above suspicion, and no adulteration or sophistication of any kind should be practiced therewith. The manufacturer is quite as much interested as the consumer in placing the whole output of sterilized foods on a plane above suspicion.