Chapter 11

344. _In motion_: i. _Evolution of Heat._--The current produced by magneto-electric induction can heat a wire in the manner of ordinary electricity. At the British Association of Science at Oxford, in June of the present year, I had the pleasure, in conjunction with Mr. Harris, Professor Daniell, Mr. Duncan, and others, of making an experiment, for which the great magnet in the museum, Mr. Harris's new electrometer (287.), and the magneto-electric coil described in my first paper (34.), were put in requisition. The latter had been modified in the manner I have elsewhere described[A] so as to produce an electric spark when its contact with the magnet was made or broken. The terminations of the spiral, adjusted so as to have their contact with each other broken when the spark was to pass, were connected with the wire in the electrometer, and it was found that each time the magnetic contact was made and broken, expansion of the air within the instrument occurred, indicating an increase, at the moment, of the temperature of the wire.

[A] Phil, Mag. and Annals, 1832, vol. xi. p. 405.

315. ii. _Magnetism._--These currents were discovered by their magnetic power.

346. iii. _Chemical decomposition._--I have made many endeavours to effect chemical decomposition by magneto-electricity, but unavailingly. In July last I received an anonymous letter (which has since been published[A],) describing a magneto-electric apparatus, by which the decomposition of water was effected. As the term "guarded points" is used, I suppose the apparatus to have been Wollaston's (327. &c.), in which case the results did not indicate polar electro-chemical decomposition. Signor Botto has recently published certain results which he has obtained[B]; but they are, as at present described, inconclusive. The apparatus he used was apparently that of Dr. Wollaston, which gives only fallacious indications (327. &c.). As magneto-electricity can produce sparks, it would be able to show the effects proper to this apparatus. The apparatus of M. Pixii already referred to (343.) has however, in the hands of himself[C] and M. Hachctte[D], given decisive chemical results, so as to complete this link in the chain of evidence. Water was decomposed by it, and the oxygen and hydrogen obtained in separate tubes according to the law governing volta-electric and machine-electric decomposition.

[A] Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. and Journ., 1832, vol. i. p. 161.

[B] Ibid. 1832. vol. i. p. 441.

[C] Annales de Chimie, li, p. 77.

[D] Ibid. li. p. 72

347. iv. _Physiological effects._--A frog was convulsed in the earliest experiments on these currents (56.). The sensation upon the tongue, and the flash before the eyes, which I at first obtained only in a feeble degree (56.), have been since exalted by more powerful apparatus, so as to become even disagreeable.

348. v. _Spark._--The feeble spark which I first obtained with these currents (32.), has been varied and strengthened by Signori Nobili and Antinori, and others, so as to leave no doubt as to its identity with the common electric spark.

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IV. _Thermo-Electricity._

349. With regard to thermo-electricity, (that beautiful form of electricity discovered by Seebeck,) the very conditions under which it is excited are such as to give no ground for expecting that it can be raised like common electricity to any high degree of tension; the effects, therefore, due to that state are not to be expected. The sum of evidence respecting its analogy to the electricities already described, is, I believe, as follows:--_Tension._ The attractions and repulsions due to a certain degree of tension have not been observed. _In currents_: i. _Evolution of Heat._ I am not aware that its power of raising temperature has been observed. ii. _Magnetism._ It was discovered, and is best recognised, by its magnetic powers. iii. _Chemical decomposition_ has not been effected by it. iv. _Physiological effects._ Nobili has shown[A] that these currents are able to cause contractions in the limbs of a frog. v. _Spark._ The spark has not yet been seen.

[A] Bibliothèque Universelle, xxxvii. 15.

350. Only those effects are weak or deficient which depend upon a certain high degree of intensity; and if common electricity be reduced in that quality to a similar degree with the thermo-electricity, it can produce no effects beyond the latter.

* * * * *

V. _Animal Electricity._

351. After an examination of the experiments of Walsh[A] Ingenhousz[B], Cavendish[C], Sir H. Davy[D], and Dr. Davy[E], no doubt remains on my mind as to the identity of the electricity of the torpedo with common and voltaic electricity; and I presume that so little will remain on the minds of others as to justify my refraining from entering at length into the philosophical proofs of that identity. The doubts raised by Sir H. Davy have been removed by his brother Dr. Davy; the results of the latter being the reverse of those of the former. At present the sum of evidence is as follows:--

[A] Philosophical Transactions, 1773, p. 461.

[B] Ibid. 1775, p. 1.

[C] Ibid. 1776, p. 196.

[D] Ibid. 1829, p. 15.

[E] Ibid. 1832, p. 259.

352. _Tension._--No sensible attractions or repulsions due to tension have been observed.

353. _In motion_: i. Evolution of Heat; not yet observed; I have little or no doubt that Harris's electrometer would show it (287. 359.).

354. ii. _Magnetism._--Perfectly distinct. According to Dr. Davy[A], the current deflected the needle and made magnets under the same law, as to direction, which governs currents of ordinary and voltaic electricity.

[A] Philosophical Transactions, 1832, p. 260.

355. iii. _Chemical decomposition._--Also distinct; and though Dr. Davy used an apparatus of similar construction with that of Dr. Wollaston (327.), still no error in the present case is involved, for the decompositions were polar, and in their nature truly electro-chemical. By the direction of the magnet it was found that the under surface of the fish was negative, and the upper positive; and in the chemical decompositions, silver and lead were precipitated on the wire connected with the under surface, and not on the other; and when these wires were either steel or silver, in solution of common salt, gas (hydrogen?) rose from the negative wire, but none from the positive.

356. Another reason for the decomposition being electrochemical is, that a Wollaston's apparatus constructed with _wires_, coated by sealing-wax, would most probably not have decomposed water, even in its own peculiar way, unless the electricity had risen high enough in intensity to produce sparks in some part of the circuit; whereas the torpedo was not able to produce sensible sparks. A third reason is, that the purer the water in Wollaston's apparatus, the more abundant is the decomposition; and I have found that a machine and wire points which succeeded perfectly well with distilled water, failed altogether when the water was rendered a good conductor by sulphate of soda, common salt, or other saline bodies. But in Dr. Davy's experiments with the torpedo, _strong_ solutions of salt, nitrate of silver, and superacetate of lead were used successfully, and there is no doubt with more success than weaker ones.

357. iv. _Physiological effects._--These are so characteristic, that by them the peculiar powers of the torpedo and gymnotus are principally recognised.

358. v. _Spark._--The electric spark has not yet been obtained, or at least I think not; but perhaps I had better refer to the evidence on this point. Humboldt, speaking of results obtained by M. Fahlberg, of Sweden, says, "This philosopher has seen an electric spark, as Walsh and Ingenhousz had done before him in London, by placing the gymnotus in the air, and interrupting the conducting chain by two gold leaves pasted upon glass, and a line distant from each other[A]." I cannot, however, find any record of such an observation by either Walsh or Ingenhousz, and do not know where to refer to that by M. Fahlberg. M. Humboldt could not himself perceive any luminous effect.

[A] Edinburgh Phil. Journal, ii. p. 249.

Again, Sir John Leslie, in his dissertation on the progress of mathematical and physical science, prefixed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Edinb. 1830, p. 622, says, "From a healthy specimen" of the _Silurus electricus,_ meaning rather the _gymnotus_, "exhibited in London, vivid sparks were drawn in a darkened room"; but he does not say he saw them himself, nor state who did see them; nor can I find any account of such a phenomenon; so that the statement is doubtful[A].

[A] Mr. Brayley, who referred me to those statements, and has extensive knowledge of recorded facts, is unacquainted with any further account relating to them.

359. In concluding this summary of the powers of torpedinal electricity, I cannot refrain from pointing out the enormous absolute quantity of electricity which the animal must put in circulation at each effort. It is doubtful whether any common electrical machine has as yet been able to supply electricity sufficient in a reasonable time to cause true electro-chemical decomposition of water (330. 339.), yet the current from the torpedo has done it. The same high proportion is shown by the magnetic effects (296. 371.). These circumstances indicate that the torpedo has power (in the way probably that Cavendish describes,) to continue the evolution for a sensible time, so that its successive discharges rather resemble those of a voltaic arrangement, intermitting in its action, than those of a Leyden apparatus, charged and discharged many times in succession. In reality, however, there is _no philosophical difference_ between these two cases.

360. The _general conclusion_ which must, I think, be drawn from this collection of facts is, that _electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical in its nature_. The phenomena in the five kinds or species quoted, differ, not in their character but only in degree; and in that respect vary in proportion to the variable circumstances of _quantity_ and _intensity_[A] which can at pleasure be made to change in almost any one of the kinds of electricity, as much as it does between one kind and another.

[A] The term _quantity_ in electricity is perhaps sufficiently definite as to sense; the term _intensity_ is more difficult to define strictly. I am using the terms in their ordinary and accepted meaning.

Table of the experimental Effects common to the Electricities derived from different Sources[A].

Table headings

A: Physiological Effects B: Magnetic Deflection. C: Magnets made. D: Spark. E: Heating Power. F: True chemical Action. G: Attraction and Repulsion. H: Discharge by Hot Air. _________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___| | | | | | | | | | | | 1. Voltaic electricity | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___| | | | | | | | | | | | 2. Common electricity | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___| | | | | | | | | | | | 3. Magneto-Electricity | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___| | | | | | | | | | | | 4. Thermo-Electricity | X | X | + | + | + | + | | | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___| | | | | | | | | | | | 5. Animal Electricity | X | X | X | + | + | X | | | |_________________________|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|

[A] Many of the spaces in this table originally left blank may now be filled. Thus with _thermo-electricity_, Botto made magnets and obtained polar chemical decomposition: Antinori produced the spark; and if it has not been done before, Mr. Watkins has recently heated a wire in Harris's thermo-electrometer. In respect to _animal electricity_, Matteucci and Linari have obtained the spark from the torpedo, and I have recently procured it from the gymnotus: Dr. Davy has observed the heating power of the current from the torpedo. I have therefore filled up these spaces with crosses, in a different position to the others originally in the table. There remain but five spaces unmarked, two under _attraction_ and _repulsion_, and three under _discharge by hot air_; and though these effects have not yet been obtained, it is a necessary conclusion that they must be possible, since the _spark_ corresponding to them has been procured. For when a discharge across cold air can occur, that intensity which is the only essential additional requisite for the other effects must be present.--_Dec. 13 1838._

§ 8. _Relation by Measure of common and voltaic Electricity._[A]

[A] In further illustration of this subject see 855-873 in Series VII.--_Dec. 1838._

361. Believing the point of identity to be satisfactorily established, I next endeavoured to obtain a common measure, or a known relation as to quantity, of the electricity excited by a machine, and that from a voltaic pile; for the purpose not only of confirming their identity (378.), but also of demonstrating certain general principles (366, 377, &c.), and creating an extension of the means of investigating and applying the chemical powers of this wonderful and subtile agent.

362. The first point to be determined was, whether the same absolute quantity of ordinary electricity, sent through a galvanometer, under different circumstances, would cause the same deflection of the needle. An arbitrary scale was therefore attached to the galvanometer, each division of which was equal to about 4°, and the instrument arranged as in former experiments (296.). The machine (290.), battery (291.), and other parts of the apparatus were brought into good order, and retained for the time as nearly as possible in the same condition. The experiments were alternated so as to indicate any change in the condition of the apparatus and supply the necessary corrections.

363. Seven of the battery jars were removed, and eight retained for present use. It was found that about forty turns would fully charge the eight jars. They were then charged by thirty turns of the machine, and discharged through the galvanometer, a thick wet string, about ten inches long, being included in the circuit. The needle was immediately deflected five divisions and a half, on the one side of the zero, and in vibrating passed as nearly as possible through five divisions and a half on the other side.

364. The other seven jars were then added to the eight, and the whole fifteen charged by thirty turns of the machine. The Henley's electrometer stood not quite half as high as before; but when the discharge was made through the galvanometer, previously at rest, the needle immediately vibrated, passing _exactly_ to the same division as in the former instance. These experiments with eight and with fifteen jars were repeated several times alternately with the same results.

365. Other experiments were then made, in which all the battery was used, and its charge (being fifty turns of the machine,) sent through the galvanometer: but it was modified by being passed sometimes through a mere wet thread, sometimes through thirty-eight inches of thin string wetted by distilled water, and sometimes through a string of twelve times the thickness, only twelve inches in length, and soaked in dilute acid (298.). With the thick string the charge passed at once; with the thin string it occupied a sensible time, and with the thread it required two or three seconds before the electrometer fell entirely down. The current therefore must have varied extremely in intensity in these different cases, and yet the deflection of the needle was sensibly the same in all of them. If any difference occurred, it was that the thin string and thread caused greatest deflection; and if there is any lateral transmission, as M. Colladon says, through the silk in the galvanometer coil, it ought to have been so, because then the intensity is lower and the lateral transmission less.

366. Hence it would appear that _if the same absolute quantity of electricity pass through the galvanometer, whatever may be its intensity, the dejecting force upon the magnetic needle is the same._

367. The battery of fifteen jars was then charged by sixty revolutions of the machine, and discharged, as before, through the galvanometer. The deflection of the needle was now as nearly as possible to the eleventh division, but the graduation was not accurate enough for me to assert that the arc was exactly double the former arc; to the eye it appeared to be so. The probability is, that _the deflecting force of an electric current is directly proportional to the absolute quantity of electricity passed_, at whatever intensity that electricity may be[A].

[A] The great and general value of the galvanometer, as an actual measure of the electricity passing through it, either continuously or interruptedly, must be evident from a consideration of these two conclusions. As constructed by Professor Ritchie with glass threads (see Philosophical Transactions, 1830, p. 218, and Quarterly Journal of Science, New Series, vol. i. p.29.), it apparently seems to leave nothing unsupplied in its own department.

368. Dr. Ritchie has shown that in a case where the intensity of the electricity remained the same, the deflection of the magnetic needle was directly as the quantity of electricity passed through the galvanometer[A]. Mr. Harris has shown that the _heating_ power of common electricity on metallic wires is the same for the same quantity of electricity whatever its intensity might have previously been[B].

[A] Quarterly Journal of Science, New Series, vol. i. p. 33.

[B] Plymouth Transactions, page 22.

369. The next point was to obtain a _voltaic_ arrangement producing an effect equal to that just described (367.). A platina and a zinc wire were passed through the same hole of a draw-plate, being then one eighteenth of an inch in diameter; these were fastened to a support, so that their lower ends projected, were parallel, and five sixteenths of an inch apart. The upper ends were well-connected with the galvanometer wires. Some acid was diluted, and, after various preliminary experiments, that adopted as a standard which consisted of one drop strong sulphuric acid in four ounces distilled water. Finally, the time was noted which the needle required in swinging either from right to left or left to right: it was equal to seventeen beats of my watch, the latter giving one hundred and fifty in a minute. The object of these preparations was to arrange a voltaic apparatus, which, by immersion in a given acid for a given time, much less than that required by the needle to swing in one direction, should give equal deflection to the instrument with the discharge of ordinary electricity from the battery (363. 364.); and a new part of the zinc wire having been brought into position with the platina, the comparative experiments were made.

370. On plunging the zinc and platina wires five eighths of an inch deep into the acid, and retaining them there for eight beats of the watch, (after which they were quickly withdrawn,) the needle was deflected, and continued to advance in the same direction some time after the voltaic apparatus had been removed from the acid. It attained the five-and-a-half division, and then returned swinging an equal distance on the other side. This experiment was repeated many times, and always with the same result.

371. Hence, as an approximation, and judging from _magnetic force_ only at present (376.), it would appear that two wires, one of platina and one of zinc, each one eighteenth of an inch in diameter, placed five sixteenths of an inch apart and immersed to the depth of five eighths of an inch in acid, consisting of one drop oil of vitriol and four ounces distilled water, at a temperature about 60°, and connected at the other extremities by a copper wire eighteen feet long and one eighteenth of an inch thick (being the wire of the galvanometer coils), yield as much electricity in eight beats of my watch, or in 8/150ths of a minute, as the electrical battery charged by thirty turns of the large machine, in excellent order (363. 364.). Notwithstanding this apparently enormous disproportion, the results are perfectly in harmony with those effects which are known to be produced by variations in the intensity and quantity of the electric fluid.

372. In order to procure a reference to _chemical action_, the wires were now retained immersed in the acid to the depth of five eighths of an inch, and the needle, when stationary, observed; it stood, as nearly as the unassisted eye could decide, at 5-1/3 division. Hence a permanent deflection to that extent might be considered as indicating a constant voltaic current, which in eight beats of my watch (369.) could supply as much electricity as the electrical battery charged by thirty turns of the machine.

373. The following arrangements and results are selected from many that were made and obtained relative to chemical action. A platina wire one twelfth of an inch in diameter, weighing two hundred and sixty grains, had the extremity rendered plain, so as to offer a definite surface equal to a circle of the same diameter as the wire; it was then connected in turn with the conductor of the machine, or with the voltaic apparatus (369.), so as always to form the positive pole, and at the same time retain a perpendicular position, that it might rest, with its whole weight, upon the test paper to be employed. The test paper itself was supported upon a platina spatula, connected either with the discharging train (292.), or with the negative wire of the voltaic apparatus, and it consisted of four thicknesses, moistened at all times to an equal degree in a standard solution of hydriodate of potassa (316.).

374. When the platina wire was connected with the prime conductor of the machine, and the spatula with the discharging train, ten turns of the machine had such decomposing power as to produce a pale round spot of iodine of the diameter of the wire; twenty turns made a much darker mark, and thirty turns made a dark brown spot penetrating to the second thickness of the paper. The difference in effect produced by two or three turns, more or less, could be distinguished with facility.

375. The wire and spatula were then connected with the voltaic apparatus (369.), the galvanometer being also included in the arrangement; and, a stronger acid having been prepared, consisting of nitric acid and water, the voltaic apparatus was immersed so far as to give a permanent deflection of the needle to the 5-1/3 division (372.), the fourfold moistened paper intervening as before[A]. Then by shifting the end of the wire from place to place upon the test paper, the effect of the current for five, six, seven, or any number of the beats of the watch (369.) was observed, and compared with that of the machine. After alternating and repeating the experiments of comparison many times, it was constantly found that this standard current of voltaic electricity, continued for eight beats of the watch, was equal, in chemical effect, to thirty turns of the machine; twenty-eight revolutions of the machine were sensibly too few.

[A] Of course the heightened power of the voltaic battery was necessary to compensate for the bad conductor now interposed.