Part 4

Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Hebräische Sprachlehre für Anfänger_ (1792); _Aramäische od. Chaldäische u. Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger_(1793); _Arabische Sprachlehre_ (1796); _Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (1799); _Chaldäische Chrestomathie_ (1800); _Arabische Chrestomathie_ (1802); _Lexicon arabico-latinum chrestomathiae accommodatum_ (1802); an edition of the Hebrew Bible (1806); _Grammatica linguae hebraicae_ (1809); a critical commentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament (_Vaticinia prophetarum de Jesu Messia_, 1815). In 1821 a collection of _Nachträge_ appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical subjects. The English translation of the _Archaeologia_ by T. C. Upham (1840) has passed through several editions.

JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist, and writer on art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of June 1813. After the completion of his university studies at Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he travelled for three years in France and Italy; in 1839 he became privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842 professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at Greifswald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he accepted the chair of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived in 1851 for having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at Göttingen, on the 9th of September 1869.

The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeological: _Palamedes_ (1836); _Telephos u. Troilos_ (1841); _Die Gemälde des Polygnot_ (1841); _Pentheus u. die Mänaden_ (1841); _Paris u. Oinone_ (1844); _Die hellenische Kunst_ (1846); _Peitho, die Göttin der Überredung_ (1847); _Über einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils_ (1849); _Die Ficoronische Cista_ (1852); _Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum_ (3rd ed., 1901); _Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf Vasenbildern_ (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal, Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus (1845); Florus (1852); Cicero's _Brutus_ (4th ed., 1877); and _Orator_ (3rd ed., 1869); the _Periochae_ of Livy (1853); the _Psyche et Cupido_ of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867; 3rd ed. by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: _Üeber Mendelssohn's Paulus_ (1842); _Biographie Mozarts_, a work of extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music (3rd ed. by H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend, 1891); _Ludwig Uhland_ (1863); _Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik_ (1866); _Biographische Aufsätze_ (1866). His _Griechische Bilderchroniken_ was published after his death, by his nephew A. Michaelis, who has written an exhaustive biography in _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, xiii.; see also J. Vahlen, _Otto Jahn_ (1870); C. Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_.

JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated _sháhán_ dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The town of Jahrum, situated about 90 m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by a mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It has a population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the other half outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of the surrounding districts, has six caravanserais and a post office.

JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in India. They are found in every province of upper Hindustan, in the cities along the Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are more numerous to the west--in Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper part of the Malabar coast--and are also scattered throughout the whole of the southern peninsula. They are mostly traders, and live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their community gives them a social importance greater than would result from their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are returned as being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent series of temples and shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven wonders of India, is perhaps the most striking outward sign of their wealth and importance.

The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent of India of those schools of thought which grew out of the active philosophical speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry that prevailed in the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and 6th centuries before the Christian era. For many centuries Jainism was so overshadowed by that stupendous movement, born at the same time and in the same place, which we call Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors had absorbed the mass of the community, became thereby corrupted from its pristine purity and gradually died away, the smaller school of the Jains, less diametrically opposed to the victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans, survived, and in some degree took its place.

Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by Vaddhamana, better known by his epithet of Maha-vira (the great hero), who was a contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha. But the Jains, like the Buddhists, believe that the same system had previously been proclaimed through countless ages by each one of a succession of earlier teachers. The Jains count twenty-four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or Tirthankaras, that is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It is from this word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-four Jinas contains a germ of truth. Maha-vira was not an originator; he merely carried on, with but slight changes, a system which existed before his time, and which probably owes its most distinguishing features to a teacher named Parswa, who ranks in the succession of Jinas as the predecessor of Maha-vira. Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology, to have been born two hundred years before Maha-vira (that is, about 760 B.C.); but the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this statement is that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than Maha-vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. The curious will find in them many reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the antiquary must notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in order to recognize the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise identical, in the different Jain temples.

The Jains are divided into two great parties--the _Digambaras_, or Sky-clad Ones, and the _Svetambaras_, or the White-robed Ones. The latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubtfully, as far back as the 5th century after Christ; the former are almost certainly the same as the Niganthas, who are referred to in numerous passages of the Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must therefore be at least as old as the 6th century B.C. In many of these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as contemporaneous with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the Jñatrika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, as the same person as the Vaddhamana Maha-vira of the Jain books. This remarkable confirmation, from the scriptures of a rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date of Maha-vira. The Niganthas are referred to in one of Asoka's edicts (_Corpus Inscriptionum_, Plate xx.). Unfortunately the account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta given in the Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's teachings given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre.

_Jain Literature._--The Jain scriptures themselves, though based on earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the 5th century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are called the forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mula-sutras and two other books. Devaddhi Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a position very similar to that occupied among the Buddhists by Buddhaghosa, collected the then existing traditions and teachings of the sect into these forty-five Agamas. Like the Buddhist scriptures, the earlier Jain books are written in a dialect of their own, the so-called Jaina Prakrit; and it was not till between A.D. 1000 and 1100 that the Jains adopted Sanskrit as their literary language. Considerable progress has been made in the publication and elucidation of these original authorities. But a great deal remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the possession of the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the foundation of the existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to the time of Bhadrabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still older literature, on which the revision then made was based, the so-called _Purvas_, have been lost. And the existing canonical books, while preserving a great deal that was probably derived from them, contain much later material. The problem remains to sort out the older from the later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith and its subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for the general, social, industrial, religious and political history of India. Professor Weber gave a fairly full and carefully-drawn-up analysis of the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of the second volume of his _Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin_, published in 1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his _Indische Studien_. An English translation of these last was published first in the _Indian Antiquary_, and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his _Report on the Search for Sanskrit MSS._, Bombay, 1883. Only a small beginning has been made in editing and translating these works. The best _précis_ of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more important features in it. And in the choice of what should be included the _précis_-writer will often omit the points some subsequent investigator may most especially want. All the older works ought therefore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed. The Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition of their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the _Kalpa Sutra_, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order; but this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has also edited and translated the _Ayaranya Sutta_ of the Svetambara Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The older part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets out more especially the Jain doctrine of _tapas_ or self-mortification, in contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism. The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. Dr Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the rules of conduct for laymen, the _Uvasaga Dasao_.[1] Professor Leumann edited another of the older works, the _Aupapatika Sutra_, and a fourth, entitled the _Dasa-vaikalika Satra_, both of them published by the German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more, the _Uttaradhyayana_ and the _Sutra Kritanga_.[2] Finally Dr Barnett has translated two others in vol. xvii. of the _Oriental Translation Fund_ (new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of these interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the European scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the oldest literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of the sect in the _Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for 1898. Several scholars--notably Bhagvanlal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and Hofrath Bühler[3]--have treated of the remarkable archaeological discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the Christian era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated parts of India.

_Jainism._--The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of Maha-vira and of his earliest followers was their practice of going quite naked, whence the term _Digambara_. Against this custom, Gotama, the Buddha, especially warned his followers; and it is referred to in the well-known Greek phrase, _Gymnosophist_, used already by Megasthenes, which applies very aptly to the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which means "free from bonds," may not be without allusions to this curious belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to freedom from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues of the Jinas in the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous size, are still always quite naked; but the Jains themselves have abandoned the practice, the Digambaras being sky-clad at meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being always completely clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the recluses or _Yatis_, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out this practice. The Jain laity--the _Sravakas_, or disciples--do not adopt it.

The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essential respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The two orders, Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first, independent, but directly opposed the one to the other. In philosophy the Jains are the most thorough-going supporters of the old animistic position. Nearly everything, according to them, has a soul within its outward visible shape--not only men and animals, but also all plants, and even particles of earth, and of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The Buddhist theory, as is well known, is put together without the hypothesis of "soul" at all. The word the Jains use for soul is _jiva_, which means life; and there is much analogy between many of the expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and atoms are all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They regard good and evil and space as ultimate substances which come into direct contact with the minute souls in everything. And their best-known position in regard to the points most discussed in philosophy is _Syad-vada_, the doctrine that you may say "Yes" and at the same time "No" to everything. You can affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point of view, and at the same time deny it from another; or, at different times and in different connexions, you may one day affirm it and another day deny it. This position both leads to vagueness of thought and explains why Jainism has had so little influence over other schools of philosophy in India. On the other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of asceticism (_tapas_) as they were compromising in their views of philosophy. Any injury done to the "souls" being one of the worst of iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed, the most austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash his teeth, for fear of injuring living things. "Subdue the body, chastise thyself, weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood." It was by suppressing, through such self-torture, the influence on his soul of all sensations that the Jain could obtain salvation. It is related of the founder himself, the Maha-vira, that after twelve years' penance he thus obtained Nirvana (Jacobi, _Jaina Sutras_, i. 201) before he entered upon his career as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died at Pava, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit of continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other hand, obtained Nirvana in his 35th year, under the Bo tree, after he had abandoned penance; and through the rest of his life he spoke of penance as quite useless from his point of view.

There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a great deal of information on various points in the introductions to the works referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best authority on the history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction between the Maha-vira and the Buddha: "Maha-vira was rather of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the genius which Buddha undoubtedly had.... The Buddha's philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, whilst that of Maha-vira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a sum of opinions (_pannattis_) on various subjects, no fundamental ideas being there to uphold the mass of metaphysical matter. Besides this ... it is the ethical element that gives to the Buddhist writings their superiority over those of the Jains. Maha-vira treated ethics as corollary and subordinate to his metaphysics, with which he was chiefly concerned."

ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES.--Bhadrabahu's _Kalpa Sutra_, the recognized and popular manual of the Svetambara Jains, edited with English introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hemacandra's "Yoga S'astram," edited by Windisch, in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morg. Ges._ for 1874; "Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the _Indische Studien_, vol. xv.; _Ein Fragment der Bhagavati_, by Professor Weber; _Mémoires de l'Académie de Berlin_ (1866); _Nirayavaliya Sutta_, edited by Dr Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, 1879); _Over de godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas_, by Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); _Beiträge zur Grammatik des Jaina-prakrit_, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); Colebrooke's _Essays_, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account of the Jain Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in Fergusson and Burgess's _Cave Temples in India_ (London, 1880).

See also Hopkins' _Religions of India_ (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, and J. G. Bühler _On the Indian Sect of the Jainas_, edited by J. Burgess (London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Published in the _Bibliotheca Indica_, Calcutta, 1888.

[2] These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and ii. of his _Jaina Sutras_, published in the _Sacred Books of the East_ (1884, 1895).

[3] The _Hatthi Gumpha_ and three other inscriptions at Cuttack (Leyden, 1885); _Sravana Belgola_ inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889); _Vienna Oriental Journal_, vols. ii.-v.; _Epigraphia Indica_, vols. i-vii.

JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city and native state of India in the Rajputana agency. The city is a prosperous place of comparatively recent date. It derives its name from the famous Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it in 1728. It is built of pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is remarkable for the width and regularity of its streets. It is the only city in India that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided by cross streets into six equal portions. The main streets are 111 ft. wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The regularity of plan, and the straight streets with the houses all built after the same pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the East, while the painted mud walls of the houses give it the meretricious air of stage scenery. The huge palace of the maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another noteworthy building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are in metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded in 1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community of native bankers. The city has three colleges and several hospitals. Pop. (1901), 160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur was Amber.

The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city, has a total area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658,666, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade. The estimated revenue is £430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert of Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more or less covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel. Towards the S. and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is largely manufactured and exported from the Sambhar lake, which is worked by the government of India under an arrangement with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It yields salt of a very high quality. The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi.

The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs, claiming descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state is said to have been founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is said to have absorbed or driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house furnished to the Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai Singh, commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja, whose name appears in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan; and Jai Singh II., or Sawai Jai Singh, the famous mathematician and astronomer, and the founder of Jaipur city. Towards the end of the 18th century the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of Jaipur. By the end of the century the state was in great confusion, distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions of the Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur and Jodhpur had brought both states to the verge of ruin, and Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting the country. By a treaty in 1818 the protection of the British was extended to Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In 1835 there was a serious disturbance in the city, after which the British government took measures to insist upon order and to reform the administration as well as to support its effective action; and the state has gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the Mutiny of 1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way that lay in his power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.V.O., was born in 1861, and succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art. He was one of the princes who visited England at the time of King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was he who started and endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to 20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the "Indian People's Famine Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns.