Part 16

The Nikko Mountains.

Even more picturesque, though less lofty, than the Alps of Japan, are the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest of the Tokugawa _shoguns_. The highest of these are Shirane-san (7422 ft.), Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyohô-zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago (7546 ft.). They are clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere they echo the voices of waterfalls and rivulets.

Mountains of the North.

In the north of the main island there are no peaks of remarkable height. The best known are Chiokai-zan, called "Akita-Fuji" (the Fuji of the Akita province), a volcano 7077 ft. high, which was active as late as 1861; Ganju-san (6791 ft.), called also "Nambu-Fuji" or Iwate-zan, remarkable for the beauty of its logarithmic curves; Iwaki-san (5230 ft.), known as Tsugaru-Fuji, and said by some to be even more imposing than Fuji itself; and the twin mountains Gassan (6447 ft.) and Haguro-san (5600 ft.). A little farther south, enclosing the fertile plain of Aizu (Aizu-taira, as it is called) several important peaks are found, among them being Iide-san (6332 ft.); Azuma-yama (7733 ft.), which, after a long interval of quiescence, has given many evidences of volcanic activity during recent years; Nasu-dake (6296 ft.), an active volcano; and Bandai-san (6037 ft.). A terrible interest attaches to the last-named mountain, for, after having remained quiet so long as to lull the inhabitants of the neighbouring district into complete security, it suddenly burst into fierce activity on the 15th of July 1888, discharging a vast avalanche of earth and rock, which dashed down its slopes like an inundation, burying four hamlets, partially destroying seven villages, killing 461 people and devastating an area of 27 sq. m.

Mountains of Kozuke, Kai and Shinano.

In the province of Kozuke, which belongs to the central part of the main island, the noteworthy mountains are Asama-yama (8136 ft.), one of the best known and most violently active volcanoes of Japan; Akagi-san, a circular range of peaks surrounding the basin of an old crater and rising to a height of 6210 ft.; the Haruna group, celebrated for scenic beauties, and Myogi-san, a cluster of pinnacles which, though not rising higher than 3880 ft., offer scenery which dispels the delusion that nature as represented in the classical pictures (_bunjingwa_) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's imagination. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and separating two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there lies a range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese Alps spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are Shirane-san--with three summits, Nodori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,200 ft.) and Kaigane (10,330 ft.)--and Hoozan (9550 ft.). It will be observed that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of belt across the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west with the Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with Fuji-yama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ft.) and Odai-gaharazan (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama (5951 ft.) in Hoki.

Mountains of Shikoku.

The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable magnitude. The highest is Ishizuchi-zan (7727 ft.), but there are several peaks varying from 3000 to 6000 ft.

Mountains of Kiushiu.

Kiushiu, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unzen-take (called also Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865 ft. high. More notable is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumamoto; for, though the highest of its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft., it boasts the largest crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft. high and a basin from 10 to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an active volcano, but its eruptions during recent years have been confined to ashes and dust. Only two other mountains in Kiushiu need be mentioned--a volcano (3743 ft.) on the island Sakura-jima, in the extreme south; and Kirishima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of Hiuga, a mountain specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its eastern peak (Takachiho-dake) the god Ninigi descended as the forerunner of the first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu.

Volcanoes.

Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges, namely, that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima. Fuji is the most remarkable volcanic peak. The Japanese regard it as a sacred mountain, and numbers of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer. From 500 to 600 ft. is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are neither sulphuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it would seem that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But experience in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater may at any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period of Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last having been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks were shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo (Tokyo), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava. Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:--

Name of Volcano. Height in feet. Remarks.

Tarumai (Yezo) 2969. Forms southern wall of a large ancient crater now occupied by a lake (Shikotsu). A little steam still issues from several smaller cones on the summit of the ridge, as well as from one, called Eniwa, on the northern side.

Noboribetsu (Yezo) 1148. In a state of continuous activity, with frequent detonations and rumblings. The crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall. The northern part is occupied by a steaming lake, while the southern part contains numerous solfataras and boiling springs.

Komagatake (Yezo) 3822. The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty pinnacle on the western side, contains a low new cone with numerous steaming rifts and vents. In a serious eruption in 1856 the S.E. flank of the mountain and the country side in that direction were denuded of trees.

Esan 2067. A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end of the Tsugaru Strait: a finely formed cone surrounded on three sides by the sea, the crater breached on the land side. The central vent displays considerable activity, while the rocky walls are stained with red, yellow and white deposits from numerous minor vents.

Agatsuma (Iwaki) 5230. Erupted in 1903 and killed two geologists.

Bandai-san (Iwashiro) 6037. Erupted in 1888 after a long period of quiescence. The outbreak was preceded by an earthquake of some severity, after which about 20 explosions took place. A huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried the Nagase Valley with its villages and inhabitants, and devastated an area of over 27 sq. m. The number of lives lost was 461; four hamlets were completely entombed with their inhabitants and cattle; seven villages were partially wrecked; forests were levelled or the trees entirely denuded of bark; rivers were blocked up, and lakes were formed. The lip of the fracture is now marked by a line of steaming vents.

Azuma-yama (Fukushima) 7733. Long considered extinct, but has erupted several times since 1893, the last explosion having been in 1900, when 82 sulphur-diggers were killed or injured; ashes were thrown to a distance of 5 m., accumulating in places to a depth of 5 ft.; and a crater 300 ft. in diameter, and as many in depth, was formed on the E. side of the mountain. This crater is still active. The summit-crater is occupied by a beautiful lake. On the Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises a large parasitic cone, extinct.

Nasu (Tochigi) 6296. Has both a summit and a lateral crater, which are apparently connected and perpetually emitting steam. At or about the main vents are numerous solfataras. The whole of the upper part of the cone consists of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a thermal spring, where baths have existed since the 7th century.

Shirane (Nikko) 7422. The only remaining active vent of the once highly volcanic Nikko district. Eruption in 1889.

Shirane (Kai) 10,330. Eruption in 1905, when the main crater was enlarged to a length of 3000 ft. It is divided into three parts, separated by walls, and each containing a lake, of which the middle one emits steam and the two others are cold. The central lake, during the periods of eruption (which are frequent), displays a geyser-like activity. These lakes contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron and alum.

Unzen (Hizen) 4865. A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara stage, extinct at the summit, but displaying considerable activity at its base in the form of numerous fumaroles and boiling sulphur springs.

Aso-take (Higo) 5545. Remarkable for the largest crater in the world. It measures 10 m. by 15, and rises almost symmetrically to a height of about 2000 ft., with only one break through which the river Shira flows. The centre is occupied by a mass of peaks, on the W. flank of which lies the modern active crater. Two of the five compartments into which it is divided by walls of deeply striated volcanic ash are constantly emitting steam, while a new vent displaying great activity has been opened at the base of the cone on the south side. Eruptions have been recorded since the earliest days of Japanese history. In 1884 the ejected dust and ashes devastated farmlands through large areas. An outbreak in 1894 produced numerous rifts in the inner walls from which steam and smoke have issued ever since.

Kaimon (Kagoshima Bay) 3041. One of the most beautiful volcanoes of Japan, known as the Satsuma-Fuji. The symmetry of the cone is marred by a convexity on the seaward (S.) side. This volcano is all but extinct.

Sakura-jima (Kagomshima Bay) 3743. An island-volcano, with several parasitic cones (extinct), on the N. and E. sides. At the summit are two deep craters, the southern of which emits steam. Grass grows, however, to the very edges of the crater. The island is celebrated for thermal springs, oranges and _daikon_ (radishes), which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 lb.

Kiri-shima (Kagoshima Bay) 5538. A volcanic range of which Takachiho, the only active cone, forms the terminal (S.E.) peak. The crater, situated on the S.W. side of the volcano, lies some 500 ft. below the summit-peak. It is of remarkably regular formation, and the floor is pierced by a number of huge fumaroles whence issue immense volumes of steam.

Izuno Oshima (Vries Island) (Izu) 2461. The volcano on this island is called Mihara. There is a double crater, the outer being almost complete. The diameter of the outer crater, within which rises the modern cone to a height of 500 ft. above the surrounding floor, is about 2 m.; while the present crater, which displays incessant activity, has itself a diameter of ¼ m.

Asama (Ise) 8136. The largest active volcano in Japan. An eruption in 1783, with a deluge of lava, destroyed an extensive forest and overwhelmed several villages. The present cone is the third, portions of two concentric crater rings remaining. The present crater is remarkable for the absolute perpendicularity of its walls, and has an immense depth--from 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, ¾ m. in circumference, with sides honeycombed and burned to a red hue.

Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce-Mitford's valuable work (see _Geog. Jour._, Feb. 1908, &c.).

_Earthquakes._--Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work, for the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appreciably rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding subsidence is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of petty vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instruments. But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an exceptional abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897--that is to say, the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording purposes was available--she was visited by no fewer than 17,750 shocks, being an average of something over 3½ daily. The frequency of these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the minor vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing weak cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the three centuries before 1897 there were 108 earthquakes sufficiently disastrous to merit historical mention. If the calculation be carried farther back--as has been done by the seismic disaster investigation committee of Japan, a body of scientists constantly engaged in studying these phenomena under government auspices,--it is found that, since the country's history began to be written in the 8th century A.D., there have been 2006 major disturbances; but inasmuch as 1489 of these occurred before the beginning of the Tokugawa administration (early in the 17th century, and therefore in an era when methods of recording were comparatively defective), exact details are naturally lacking. The story, so far as it is known, may be gathered from the following table:--

Date A.D. Region. Houses Deaths. destroyed. 684 Southern part of Tosa -- -- (1) 869 Mutsu -- -- (2) 1361 Kioto -- -- 1498 Tokaido -- 2,000(3) 1569 Bungo -- 700 1596 Kioto -- 2,000 1605 (31/1) Pacific Coast -- 5,000 1611 (27/9) Aizu -- 3,700 1614 (2/12) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,700 1662 (16/6) Kioto 5,500 500 1666 (2/2) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,500 1694 (19/12) Ugo 2,760 390 1703 (30/12) Tokyo 20,162 5,233 1707 (28/10) Pacific Coast of Kiushiu and Shikoku 29,000 4,900 1751 (20/5) Echigo 9,100 1,700 1766 (8/3) Hirosaki 7,500 1,335 1792 (10/2) Hizen and Higo 12,000 15,000 1828 (18/2) Echigo 11,750 1,443 1844 (8/5) Echigo 34,000 12,000 1854 (6/7) Yamato, Iga, Ise 5,000 2,400 1854 (23/12) Tokaido (Shikoku) 60,000 3,000 1855 (11/11) Yedo, (Tokyo) 50,000 6,700 1891 (28/10) Mino, Owari 222,501 7,273 1894 (22/10) Shonai 8,403 726 1896 (15/6) Sanriku 13,073 27,122 1896 (31/8) Ugo, Rikuchu 8,996 209 1906 (12/2) Formosa 5,556 1,228

(1) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea. (2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people. (3) Hamana lagoon formed.

In the capital (Tokyo) the average yearly number of shocks throughout the 26 years ending in 1906 was 96, exclusive of minor vibrations, but during the 50 years then ending there were only two severe shocks (1884 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible for any damage to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese islands is more liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a wide area. Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks occurring in the Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea--the Tuscarora Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity--and they are accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would seem that of late years Tajima, Hida, Kozuke and some other regions in central Japan have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi (in which province Tokyo is situated) and Sagami have been most subject to disturbance.

_Plains._--Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive plains. The northern island--Yezo--contains seven, and there are as many more in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of flat lands of minor dimensions. The principal are given in the following table:--

Name. Situation. Area. Remarks.

Tokachi plain Yezo. 744,000 acres. -- Ishikari " " 480,000 " -- Kushiro " " 1,229,000 " -- Nemuro " " 320,000 " -- Kitami " " 230,000 " -- Hidaka " " 200,000 " -- Teshio " " 180,000 " -- Echigo " Main Island. Unascertained. -- Sendai " " " -- Kwanto " " " In this plain lie the capital, Tokyo, and the town of Yokohama. It supports about 6 millions of people. Mino-Owari " " " Has 1½ million inhabitants. Kinai " " " Has the cities of Osaka, Kioto and Kobe, and 2½ million people. Tsukushi " Kiushiu. " The chief coalfield of Japan.

_Rivers._--Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in the world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by canals and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards varies within wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in summer and while the snows of winter are melting in spring, great volumes of water sweep down from the mountains, these broad rivers dwindle at other times to petty rivulets trickling among a waste of pebbles and boulders. Nor are there any long rivers, and all are so broken by shallows and rapids that navigation is generally impossible except by means of flat-bottomed boats drawing only a few inches. The chief rivers are given in the following table:--

Length in miles. Source. Mouth.

Ishikari-gawa 275 Ishikari-dake Otaru. Shinano-gawa 215 Kimpu-san Niigata. Teshio-gawa 192 Teshio-take Sea of Japan. Tone-gawa 177 Monju-zan, Kozuke Choshi (Shimosa). Mogami-gawa 151 Dainichi-dake(Uzen) Sakata. Yoshino-gawa 149 Yahazu-yama (Tosa) Tokushima (Awa). Kitakami-gawa 146 Nakayama-dake Ishinomaki (Rikuchiu) (Rikuzen). Tenriu-gawa 136 Suwako (Shinano) Totomi Bay. Go-gawa or Iwa-megawa 122 Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay. Abukuma-gawa 122 Asahi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay. Tokachi-gawa 120 Tokachi-dake Tokachi Bay. Sendai-gawa 112 Kunimi-zan (Hiuga) Kumizaki (Satsuma). Oi-gawa 112 Shirane-san (Kai) Suruga Bay. Kiso-gawa 112 Kiso-zan (Shinano) Bay of Isenumi. Arakawa 104 Chichibu-yama Tokyo Bay. Naga-gawa 102 Nasu-yama (Shimotsuke) Naka-no-minato (Huachi).

_Lakes and Waterfalls._--Japan has many lakes, remarkable for the beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some are contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys; others have been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers until exits were found over cliffs or through gorges. Some of these lakes have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that category belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shoji, of Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake Chiuzenji, which is 4375 ft. above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 93 fathoms, and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft. high. The Shoji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neighbourhood abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height of 2428 ft.; Inawashiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a height of 328 ft. The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with eight views of special loveliness (_Omi-no-hakkei_). Lake Suwa, in Shinano, which is emptied by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height of 2624 ft. In the vicinity of many of these mountain lakes thermal springs, with remarkable curative properties, are to be found. (F. By.)