part iii., 1906); see also Winstedt, _Cosmos Indicopleustes_ (1910).

[7] From translator's preface to the English version by Mr Dugdale (1733), entitled _A Complete System of General Geography_, revised by Dr Peter Shaw (London, 1756).

[8] Printed in _Schriften zur physischen Geographie_, vol. vi. of Schubert's edition of the collected works of Kant (Leipzig, 1839). First published with notes by Rink in 1802.

[9] _History of Civilization_, vol. i. (1857).

[10] See H.J. Mackinder in _British Association Report_ (Ipswich), 1895, p. 738, for a summary of German opinion, which has been expressed by many writers in a somewhat voluminous literature.

[11] H. Wagner's year-book, _Geographische Jahrbuch_, published at Gotha, is the best systematic record of the progress of geography in all departments; and Haack's _Geographen Kalender_, also published annually at Gotha, gives complete lists of the geographical societies and geographers of the world.

[12] This phrase is old, appearing in one of the earliest English works on geography, William Cuningham's _Cosmographical Glasse conteinyng the pleasant Principles of Cosmographie, Geographie, Hydrographie or Navigation_ (London, 1559).

[13] See also S. Gunther, _Handbuch der mathematischen Geographie_ (Stuttgart, 1890).

[14] "On the Height of the Land and the Depth of the Ocean," _Scot. Geog. Mag._ iv. (1888), p. 1. Estimates had been made previously by Humboldt, De Lapparent, H. Wagner, and subsequently by Penck and Heiderich, and for the oceans by Karstens.

[15] _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxv. (1889), p. 17.

[16] _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xvii. (1890) p. 185.

[17] _Comptes rendus Acad. Sci._ (Paris, 1890), vol. iii. p. 994.

[18] "Areal und mittlere Erhebung der Landflachen sowie der Erdkruste" in Gerland's _Beitrage zur Geophysik_, ii. (1895) p. 667. See also _Nature_, 54 (1896), p. 112.

[19] _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxxv. (1889) p. 19.

[20] The areas of the continental shelf and lowlands are approximately equal, and it is an interesting circumstance that, taken as a whole, the actual coast-line comes just midway on the most nearly level belt of the earth's surface, excepting the ocean floor. The configuration of the continental slope has been treated in detail by Nansen in _Scientific Results of Norwegian North Polar Expedition_, vol. iv. (1904), where full references to the literature of the subject will be found.

[21] _British Association Report_ (Edinburgh, 1892), p. 699.

[22] _Das Antlitz der Erde_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1885, 1888, 1901). Translated under the editorship of E. de Margerie, with much additional matter, as _La Face de la terre_, vols. i. and ii. (Paris, 1897, 1900), and into English by Dr Hertha Sollas as _The Face of the Earth_, vols. i. and ii. (Oxford, 1904, 1906).

[23] Elie de Beaumont, _Notice sur les systemes de montagnes_ (3 vols., Paris, 1852).

[24] _Vestiges of the Molten Globe_ (London, 1875).

[25] See J.W. Gregory, "The Plan of the Earth and its Causes," _Geog. Journal_, xiii. (1899) p. 225; Lord Avebury, _ibid._ xv. (1900) p. 46; Marcel Bertrand, "Deformation tetraedrique de la terre et deplacement du pole," _Comptes rendus Acad. Sci._ (Paris, 1900), vol. cxxx. p. 449; and A. de Lapparent, _ibid._ p. 614.

[26] See A.E.H. Love, "Gravitational Stability of the Earth," _Phil. Trans._ ser. A. vol. ccvii. (1907) p. 171.

[27] _Rumpf_, in German, the language in which this distinction was first made.

[28] _Lehrbuch der Geographie_ (Hanover and Leipzig, 1900), Bd. i. S. 245, 249.

[29] See, for example, F.G. Hahn's _Insel-Studien_ (Leipzig, 1883).

[30] See _Geographical Journal_, xxii. (1903) pp. 191-194.

[31] The most important works on the classification of land forms are F. von Richthofen, _Fuhrer fur Forschungsreisende_ (Berlin, 1886); G. de la Noe and E. de Margerie, _Les Formes du terrain_ (Paris, 1888); and above all A. Penck, _Morphologie der Erdoberflache_ (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1894). Compare also A. de Lapparent, _Lecons de geographie physique_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1898), and W.M. Davis, _Physical Geography_ (Boston, 1899).

[32] "Geomorphologie als genetische Wissenschaft," in _Report of Sixth International Geog. Congress_ (London, 1895), p. 735 (English Abstract, p. 748).

[33] On this subject see J. Geikie, _Earth Sculpture_ (London, 1898); J.E. Marr, _The Scientific Study of Scenery_ (London, 1900); Sir A. Geikie, _The Scenery and Geology of Scotland_ (London, 2nd ed., 1887); Lord Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock), _The Scenery of Switzerland_ (London, 1896) and _The Scenery of England_ (London, 1902).

[34] Some geographers distinguish a mountain from a hill by origin; thus Professor Seeley says "a mountain implies elevation and a hill implies denudation, but the external forms of both are often identical." _Report VI. Int. Geog. Congress_ (London, 1895), p. 751.

[35] "Mountains," in _Scot. Geog. Mag._ ii. (1896) p. 145.

[36] _Fuhrer fur Forschungsreisende_, pp. 652-685.

[37] See, for a summary of river-action, A. Phillipson, _Studien uber Wasserscheiden_ (Leipzig, 1886); also I.C. Russell, _River Development_, (London, 1898) (published as _The Rivers of North America_, New York, 1898).

[38] W.M. Davis, "The Geographical Cycle," _Geog. Journ._ xiv. (1899) p. 484.

[39] A. Penck, "Potamology as a Branch of Physical Geography," _Geog. Journ._ x. (1897) p. 619.

[40] See, for instance, E. Wisotzki, _Hauptfluss und Nebenfluss_ (Stettin, 1889). For practical studies see official reports on the Mississippi, Rhine, Seine, Elbe and other great rivers.

[41] F.A. Forel, _Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine Limnologie_ (Stuttgart, 1901); F.A. Forel, "La Limnologie, branche de la geographie," _Report VI. Int. Geog. Congress_ (London, 1895), p. 593; also _Le Leman_ (2 vols., Lausanne, 1892, 1894); H. Lullies, "Studien uber Seen," _Jubilaumsschrift der Albertus-Universitat_ (Konigsberg, 1894); and G.R. Credner, "Die Reliktenseen," _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, Erganzungshefte 86 and 89 (Gotha., 1887, 1888).

[42] J. Murray, "Drainage Areas of the Continents," _Scot. Geog. Mag._ ii. (1886) p. 548.

[43] Wagner, _Lehrbuch der Geographie_ (1900), i. 586.

[44] For details, see A.R. Wallace, _Geographical Distribution of Animals and Island Life_; A. Heilprin, _Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals_ (1887); O. Drude, _Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie_; A. Engler, _Entwickelungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt_; also Beddard, _Zoogeography_ (Cambridge, 1895); and Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_ (London, 1899).

[45] See particularly A. de Lapparent, _Traite de geologie_ (4th ed., Paris, 1900).

[46] Estimate for 1900. H. Wagner, _Lehrbuch der Geographie_, i. P. 658.

[47] Estimate for year not stated. A.H. Keane in _International Geography_, p. 108.

[48] In _Proc. R. G. S._ xiii. (1891) p. 27.

[49] On the influence of land on people see Shaler, _Nature and Man in America_ (New York and London, 1892); and Ellen C. Semple's _American History and its Geographic Conditions_ (Boston, 1903).

[50] See maps of density of population in Bartholomew's great large-scale atlases, _Atlas of Scotland_ and _Atlas of England_.

[51] For the history of territorial changes in Europe, see Freeman, _Historical Geography of Europe_, edited by Bury (Oxford), 1903; and for the official definition of existing boundaries, see Hertslet, _The Map of Europe by Treaty_ (4 vols., London, 1875, 1891); _The Map of Africa by Treaty_ (3 vols., London, 1896). Also Lord Curzon's Oxford address on _Frontiers_ (1907).

[52] For numerous special instances of the determining causes of town sites, see G.G. Chisholm, "On the Distribution of Towns and Villages in England," _Geographical Journal_ (1897), ix. 76, x. 511.

[53] The whole subject of anthropogeography is treated in a masterly way by F. Ratzel in his _Anthropogeographie_ (Stuttgart, vol. i. 2nd ed., 1899, vol. ii. 1891), and in his _Politische Geographie_ (Leipzig, 1897). The special question of the reaction of man on his environment is handled by G.P. Marsh in _Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as modified by Human Action_ (London, 1864).

[54] For commercial geography see G.G. Chisholm, _Manual of Commercial Geography_ (1890).

GEOID (from Gr. [Greek: ge], the earth), an imaginary surface employed by geodesists which has the property that every element of it is perpendicular to the plumb-line where that line cuts it. Compared with the "spheroid of reference" the surface of the geoid is in general depressed over the oceans and raised over the great land masses. (See EARTH, FIGURE OF THE.)

GEOK-TEPE, a former fortress of the Turkomans, in Russian Transcaspia, in the oasis of Akhal-tekke, on the Transcaspian railway, 28 m. N.W. of Askabad. It consisted of a walled enclosure 1-3/4 m. in circuit, the wall being 18 ft. high and 20 to 30 ft. thick. In December 1880 the place was attacked by 6000 Russians under General Skobelev, and after a siege of twenty-three days was carried by storm, although the defenders numbered 25,000. A monument and a small museum commemorate the event.

GEOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: ge], the earth, and [Greek: logos], science), the science which investigates the physical history of the earth. Its object is to trace the structural progress of our planet from the earliest beginnings of its separate existence, through its various stages of growth, down to the present condition of things. It seeks to determine the manner in which the evolution of the earth's great surface features has been effected. It unravels the complicated processes by which each continent has been built up. It follows, even into detail, the varied sculpture of mountain and valley, crag and ravine. Nor does it confine itself merely to changes in the inorganic world. Geology shows that the present races of plants and animals are the descendants of other and very different races which once peopled the earth. It teaches that there has been a progressive development of the inhabitants, as well as one of the globe on which they have dwelt; that each successive period in the earth's history, since the introduction of living things, has been marked by characteristic types of the animal and vegetable kingdoms; and that, however imperfectly the remains of these organisms have been preserved or may be deciphered, materials exist for a history of life upon the planet. The geographical distribution of existing faunas and floras is often made clear and intelligible by geological evidence; and in the same way light is thrown upon some of the remoter phases in the history of man himself. A subject so comprehensive as this must require a wide and varied basis of evidence. It is one of the characteristics of geology to gather evidence from sources which at first sight seem far removed from its scope, and to seek aid from almost every other leading branch of science. Thus, in dealing with the earliest conditions of the planet, the geologist must fully avail himself of the labours of the astronomer. Whatever is ascertainable by telescope, spectroscope or chemical analysis, regarding the constitution of other heavenly bodies, has a geological bearing. The experiments of the physicist, undertaken to determine conditions of matter and of energy, may sometimes be taken as the starting-points of geological investigation. The work of the chemical laboratory forms the foundation of a vast and increasing mass of geological inquiry. To the botanist, the zoologist, even to the unscientific, if observant, traveller by land or sea, the geologist turns for information and assistance.

But while thus culling freely from the dominions of other sciences, geology claims as its peculiar territory the rocky framework of the globe. In the materials composing that framework, their composition and arrangement, the processes of their formation, the changes which they have undergone, and the terrestrial revolutions to which they bear witness, lie the main data of geological history. It is the task of the geologist to group these elements in such a way that they may be made to yield up their evidence as to the march of events in the evolution of the planet. He finds that they have in large measure arranged themselves in chronological sequence,--the oldest lying at the bottom and the newest at the top. Relics of an ancient sea-floor are overlain by traces of a vanished land-surface; these are in turn covered by the deposits of a former lake, above which once more appear proofs of the return of the sea. Among these rocky records lie the lavas and ashes of long-extinct volcanoes. The ripple left upon the shore, the cracks formed by the sun's heat upon the muddy bottom of a dried-up pool, the very imprint of the drops of a passing rainshower, have all been accurately preserved, and yield their evidence as to geographical conditions often widely different from those which exist where such markings are now found.

But it is mainly by the remains of plants and animals imbedded in the rocks that the geologist is guided in unravelling the chronological succession of geological changes. He has found that a certain order of appearance characterizes these organic remains, that each great group of rocks is marked by its own special types of life, and that these types can be recognized, and the rocks in which they occur can be correlated even in distant countries, and where no other means of comparison would be possible. At one moment he has to deal with the bones of some large mammal scattered through a deposit of superficial gravel, at another time with the minute foraminifers and ostracods of an upraised sea-bottom. Corals and crinoids crowded and crushed into a massive limestone where they lived and died, ferns and terrestrial plants matted together into a bed of coal where they originally grew, the scattered shells of a submarine sand-bank, the snails and lizards which lived and died within a hollow-tree, the insects which have been imprisoned within the exuding resin of old forests, the footprints of birds and quadrupeds, the trails of worms left upon former shores--these, and innumerable other pieces of evidence, enable the geologist to realize in some measure what the faunas and floras of successive periods have been, and what geographical changes the site of every land has undergone.

It is evident that to deal successfully with these varied materials, a considerable acquaintance with different branches of science is needful. Especially necessary is a tolerably wide knowledge of the processes now at work in changing the surface of the earth, and of at least those forms of plant and animal life whose remains are apt to be preserved in geological deposits, or which in their structure and habitat enable us to realize what their forerunners were. It has often been insisted that the present is the key to the past; and in a wide sense this assertion is eminently true. Only in proportion as we understand the present, where everything is open on all sides to the fullest investigation, can we expect to decipher the past, where so much is obscure, imperfectly preserved or not preserved at all. A study of the existing economy of nature ought thus to be the foundation of the geologist's training.

While, however, the present condition of things is thus employed, we must obviously be on our guard against the danger of unconsciously assuming that the phase of nature's operations which we now witness has been the same in all past time, that geological changes have always or generally taken place in former ages in the manner and on the scale which we behold to-day, and that at the present time all the great geological processes, which have produced changes in the past eras of the earth's history, are still existent and active. As a working hypothesis we may suppose that the nature of geological processes has remained constant from the beginning; but we cannot postulate that the action of these processes has never varied in energy. The few centuries wherein man has been observing nature obviously form much too brief an interval by which to measure the intensity of geological action in all past time. For aught we can tell the present is an era of quietude and slow change, compared with some of the eras which have preceded it. Nor perhaps can we be quite sure that, when we have explored every geological process now in progress, we have exhausted all the causes of change which, even in comparatively recent times, have been at work.

In dealing with the geological record, as the accessible solid part of the globe is called, we cannot too vividly realize that at the best it forms but an imperfect chronicle. Geological history cannot be compiled from a full and continuous series of documents. From the very nature of its origin the record is necessarily fragmentary, and it has been further mutilated and obscured by the revolutions of successive ages. And even where the chronicle of events is continuous, it is of very unequal value in different places. In one case, for example, it may present us with an unbroken succession of deposits many thousands of feet in thickness, from which, however, only a few meagre facts as to geological history can be gleaned. In another instance it brings before us, within the compass of a few yards, the evidence of a most varied and complicated series of changes in physical geography, as well as an abundant and interesting suite of organic remains. These and other characteristics of the geological record become more apparent and intelligible as we proceed in the study of the science.

_Classification._--For systematic treatment the subject may be conveniently arranged in the following parts:--

1. _The Historical Development of Geological Science._--Here a brief outline will be given of the gradual growth of geological conceptions from the days of the Greeks and Romans down to modern times, tracing the separate progress of the more important branches of inquiry and noting some of the stages which in each case have led up to the present condition of the science.

2. _The Cosmical Aspects of Geology._--This section embraces the evidence supplied by astronomy and physics regarding the form and motions of the earth, the composition of the planets and sun, and the probable history of the solar system. The subjects dealt with under this head are chiefly treated in separate articles.

3. _Geognosy._--An inquiry into the materials of the earth's substance. This division, which deals with the parts of the earth, its envelopes of air and water, its solid crust and the probable condition of its interior, especially treats of the more important minerals of the crust, and the chief rocks of which that crust is built up. Geognosy thus lays a foundation of knowledge regarding the nature of the materials constituting the mass of the globe, and prepares the way for an investigation of the processes by which these materials are produced and altered.

4. _Dynamical Geology_ studies the nature and working of the various geological processes whereby the rocks of the earth's crust are formed and metamorphosed, and by which changes are effected upon the distribution of sea and land, and upon the forms of terrestrial surfaces. Such an inquiry necessitates a careful examination of the existing geological economy of nature, and forms a fitting introduction to an inquiry into the geological changes of former periods.

5. _Geotectonic or Structural Geology_ has for its object the architecture of the earth's crust. It embraces an inquiry into the manner in which the various materials composing this crust have been arranged. It shows that some have been formed in beds or strata of sediment on the floor of the sea, that others have been built up by the slow aggregation of organic forms, that others have been poured out in a molten condition or in showers of loose dust from subterranean sources. It further reveals that, though originally laid down in almost horizontal beds, the rocks have subsequently been crumpled, contorted and dislocated, that they have been incessantly worn down, and have often been depressed and buried beneath later accumulations.

6. _Palaeontological Geology._--This branch of the subject, starting from the evidence supplied by the organic forms which are found preserved in the crust of the earth, includes such questions as the relations between extinct and living types, the laws which appear to have governed the distribution of life in time and in space, the relative importance of different genera of animals in geological inquiry, the nature and use of the evidence from organic remains regarding former conditions of physical geography. Some of these problems belong also to zoology and botany, and are more fully discussed in the articles PALAEONTOLOGY and PALAEOBOTANY.

7. _Stratigraphical Geology._--This section might be called geological history. It works out the chronological succession of the great formations of the earth's crust, and endeavours to trace the sequence of events of which they contain the record. More particularly, it determines the order of succession of the various plants and animals which in past time have peopled the earth, and thus ascertains what has been the grand march of life upon this planet.

8. _Physiographical Geology_, proceeding from the basis of fact laid down by stratigraphical geology regarding former geographical changes, embraces an inquiry into the origin and history of the features of the earth's surface--continental ridges and ocean basins, plains, valleys and mountains. It explains the causes on which local differences of scenery depend, and shows under what very different circumstances, and at what widely separated intervals, the hills and mountains, even of a single country, have been produced.

Most of the detail embraced in these several sections is relegated to separate articles, to which references are here inserted. The following pages thus deal mainly with the general principles and historical development of the science:--