Part 1

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE FLORENCE: "... while the new structures erected in their place, especially those in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine architecture." 'Piazza' amended from 'Piaza'.

ARTICLE FLORIDA: "Not until the last decade of the 17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the settlements beyond the east coast." 'Not' amended from 'no'.

ARTICLE FLOWER: "The exine is a firm membrane, which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it." 'exine' amended from 'extine'.

ARTICLE FOG: "... the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps not fairly included." 'rarefaction' amended from 'rarefraction'.

ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "Association football is indeed, from the standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in its infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of the eleven players into full relief throughout the game." 'throughout' amended from 'throughtout'.

ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "This means that one or more of his fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any opponent who tries to tackle him." 'tries' amended from 'trys'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME X, SLICE V

Fleury, Claude to Foraker

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

FLEURY, CLAUDE FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE FLIEDNER, THEODOR FLYING BUTTRESS FLIGHT and FLYING FLYING COLUMN FLINCK, GOVERT "FLYING DUTCHMAN," FLINDERS, MATTHEW FLYING-FISH FLINSBERG FLYING-FOX FLINT, AUSTIN FLYING-SQUIRREL FLINT, ROBERT FLYSCH FLINT, TIMOTHY FOCA FLINT (Michigan, U.S.A.) FOCHABERS FLINT (county of North Wales) FOCSHANI FLINT (town of North Wales) FOCUS FLINT (crystalline substance) FOG FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO FLOAT FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND FLOCK FOGGIA FLODDEN FOHN FLODOARD FOHR FLOE FOIL FLOOD, HENRY FOIL-FENCING FLOOD FOIX, PAUL DE FLOOD PLAIN FOIX FLOOR FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES FLOORCLOTH FOLD FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS FOLENGO, TEOFILO FLOR, ROGER DI FOLEY, JOHN HENRY FLORA FOLEY, SIR THOMAS FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR FOLI, ALLAN JAMES FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN FOLIGNO FLORENCE OF WORCESTER FOLIO FLORENCE (Alabama, U.S.A.) FOLIUM FLORENCE (capital of Tuscany) FOLKES, MARTIN FLORES (Atlantic Ocean island) FOLKESTONE FLORES (East Indies island) FOLKLAND FLOREZ, ENRIQUE FOLKLORE FLORIAN, SAINT FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE FOLLEN, KARL FLORIANOPOLIS FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB FLORIDA FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE FOND DU LAC FLORIDOR FONDI FLORIN FONNI FLORIO, GIOVANNI FONSAGRADA FLORIS, FRANS FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA FLORUS FONSECA, BAY OF FLORUS, JULIUS FONT FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH ADOLF VON FONTAINEBLEAU FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE FLOUNDER FONTANA, DOMENICO FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE FONTANA, LAVINIA FLOURENS, GUSTAVE FONTANA, PROSPERO FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE FONTANE, THEODOR FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY FONTANES, LOUIS FLOWER FONTENAY-LE-COMTE FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE FLOYD, JOHN FONTENOY FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN FONTEVRAULT FLOYER, SIR JOHN FOOD FLUDD, ROBERT FOOD PRESERVATION FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT FOOL FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED FOOLS, FEAST OF FLUKE FOOLSCAP FLUME FOOL'S PARSLEY FLUMINI MAGGIORE FOOT FLUORANTHENE FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE FLUORENE FOOTBALL FLUORESCEIN FOOTE, ANDREW HULL FLUORESCENCE FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK FLUORINE FOOTE, SAMUEL FLUOR-SPAR FOOTMAN FLUSHING (New York, U.S.A.) FOOTSCRAY FLUSHING (Zeeland, Holland) FOOT-STALL FLUTE FOPPA, VINCENZO FLUX FORAGE FLY FORAIN, J. L. FLYCATCHER FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON

FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian, was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for the bar, he was educated at the aristocratic college of Clermont (now that of Louis-le-Grand). In 1658 he was nominated an advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for nine years followed the legal profession. But he had long been of a religious disposition, and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had been some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as tutor of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king next entrusted to him the education of the count of Vermandois, one of his natural sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received for his services the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rhodez. In 1689 he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of Berry, and thus became intimately associated with Fenelon, their chief tutor. In 1696 he was elected to fill the place of La Bruyere in the French Academy; and on the completion of the education of the young princes the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned, with rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu. About this time he began his great work, the first of the kind in France, and one for which he had been collecting materials for thirty years--the _Histoire ecclesiastique_. Fleury's evident intention was to write a history of the church for all classes of society; but at the time in which his great work appeared it was less religion than theology that absorbed the attention of the clergy and the educated public; and his work accordingly appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader, dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine, of discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood and the imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success. The first edition, printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was followed by many others, among which may be mentioned that of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692, and that of Nismes, in 25 vols. 8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury only comes down to the year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre and Goujet down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of Fleury and its supplement, the general table of contents, published by Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful. Translations have been made of the entire work into Latin, German and Italian. The Latin translation, published at Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo, carries the work down to 1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor to the young king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans said, he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was equalled by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness of his conduct.

Fleury left many works besides his _Histoire ecclesiastique_. The following deserve special mention:--_Histoire du droit francois_ (1674, 12mo); _Moeurs des Israelites_ (1681, 12mo); _Moeurs des Chretiens_ (1682, 12mo); _Traite du choix et de la methode des etudes_ (1686, 2 vols. 12mo); _Les Devoirs des maitres et des domestiques_ (1688, 12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one volume at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned his _Catechisme historique_ (1679) and the _Institution du droit ecclesiastique_ (1687).

See C. Ernst Simonetti, _Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers in dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury_ (Gottingen, 1746, 4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, _Notice sur C. Fleury, considere comme historien de l'eglise_ (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg, _Geschichte des Christentums, i._

FLIEDNER, THEODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant divine, was born on the 21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near Wiesbaden), the small village in which his father was pastor. He studied theology at the universities of Giessen and Gottingen, and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and at the age of twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine, a few miles below Dusseldorf. To help his people and to provide an endowment for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822 through part of Germany, and then in 1823 to Holland and England. He met with considerable success, and had opportunities of observing what was being done towards prison reform; in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad state. The prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms, badly fed, and left in complete idleness. No one dreamed of instructing them, or of collecting statistics to form the basis of useful legislation on the subject. Fliedner, at first singly, undertook the work. He applied for permission to be imprisoned for some time, in order that he might look at prison life from the inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to hold fortnightly services in the Dusseldorf prison, and to visit the inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded themselves together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first Prison Society of Germany (_Rheinisch-Westfalischer Gefangnisverein_) was founded. In 1833 Fliedner opened in his own parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for discharged female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited his interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be best served by an organized body of specially trained women. Accordingly in 1836 he began the first deaconess house, and the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their ordination vows the deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the poor, the sick and the young; but their engagements were not final--they might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose. In addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an infant school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses (1836), an orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842), and an asylum for female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted at the foundation and in the management of similar institutions, not only in Germany, but in various parts of Europe.

In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851 he travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East--the object of his journeys being to found "mother houses," which were to be not merely training schools for deaconesses, but also centres whence other training establishments might arise. He established a deaconess house in Jerusalem, and after his return assisted by counsel and money in the erection of establishments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and Bucharest. Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house of refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other institutions soon arose) and the "house of evening rest" for retired deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received the degree of doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in recognition rather of his practical activity than of his theological attainments. He died on the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind him over 100 stations attended by 430 deaconesses; and these by 1876 had increased to 150 with an attendance of 600.

Fliedner's son FRITZ FLIEDNER (1845-1901), after studying in Halle and Tubingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in Madrid. He followed in his father's footsteps by founding several philanthropic institutions in Spain. He was also the author of a number of books, amongst which was an autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen_ (1901).

Theodor Fliedner's writings are almost entirely of a practical character. He edited a periodical, _Der Armen und Kranken Freund,_ which contained information regarding the various institutions, and also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides purely educational and devotional works, he wrote _Buch der Martyrer_ (1852); _Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang. Liebesanstalten zu Kaiserswerth_ (1856); _Nachricht uber das Diakonissen-Werk in der Christ. Kirche_ (5th ed., 1867); _Die evangel. Martyrer Ungarns und Siebenburgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach Jerusalem und Constantinopel_. All were published at Kaiserswerth. There is a translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London, 1867). See also G. Fliedner, _Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines Lebens und Wirkens_ (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work _Kaiserswerth Deaconesses_ (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's _Deaconesses_ (London, 1862); _The Service of the Poor_, by E.C. Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson's _Praying and Working_ (London, 1865).

FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of modern times, there are few possessing a wider or more enduring interest than that of aerial navigation (see also AERONAUTICS). To fly has always been an object of ambition with man; nor will this occasion surprise when we remember the marvellous freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with non-volant animals. The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme difficulty. To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, at first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this feat. These creatures, however varied in form and structure, all fly according to one and the same principle; and this is a significant fact, as it tends to show that the air must be attacked in a particular way to ensure flight. It behoves us then at the outset to scrutinize very carefully the general configuration of flying animals, and in particular the size, shape and movements of their flying organs.

Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from balloons, with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously compared; and a flying machine constructed upon proper principles can have nothing in common with either of those creations. The ship floats upon water and the balloon upon air; but the ship differs from the balloon, and the ship and the balloon differ from the flying creature and flying machine. The water and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature and flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported by the water and requires merely to be propelled; a flying creature and a flying machine constructed on the living type require to be both supported and propelled. This arises from the fact that water is much denser than air, and because water supports on its surface substances which fall through air. While water and air are both fluid media, they are to be distinguished from each other in the following particulars. Water is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible; air, on the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and compressible. If water be struck with violence, the recoil obtained is great when compared with the recoil obtained from air similarly treated. In water we get a maximum recoil with a minimum of displacement; in air, on the contrary, we obtain a minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. Water and air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form _movable fulcra_ to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet these peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying animals (whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made not of rigid but of elastic materials. The travelling organs, moreover, increase in size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid to be acted upon. The difference in size of the travelling organs of animals becomes very marked when the land animals are contrasted with the aquatic, and the aquatic with the aerial, as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.

The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds. A bird when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately in a backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil. The water supports the bird, and the feet simply propel. In this case the bird is lighter than the water, and the long axis of the body is horizontal (a of fig. 4). When the bird dives, or flies under water, the long axis of the body is inclined obliquely downwards and forwards, and the bird forces itself into and beneath the water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both. In diving or sub-aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, the wings downwards and _backwards_ (b of fig. 4). In aerial flying everything is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards and backwards, but downwards and _forwards_ (c of fig. 4). These changes in the direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming, diving and flying, and in the direction of the stroke of the wings in sub-aquatic and aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird is heavier than the air and lighter than the water.

The physical properties of water and air explain in a great measure how the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how the latter differs from the flying creature and flying machine constructed on the natural type. The sailing ship is, as it were, immersed in two oceans, viz. an ocean of water and an ocean of air--the former being greatly heavier and denser than the latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and the ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes the hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water, which, as explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the ship is in motion it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by the rudder alone, or by both combined. A balloon differs from a sailing ship in being immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean of air. It resembles the ship in floating upon the air, as the ship floats upon the water; in other words, the balloon is lighter than the air, as the ship is lighter than the water. But here all analogy ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being immersed in two fluids having different densities, can be steered and made to tack about in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in the case of the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The balloon in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its horizontal movements, which ought to be the more important, are accidental movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt to steer a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence of oars, sails and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by currents of air. The balloon has no hold upon the air, and this consequently cannot be employed as a _fulcrum_ for regulating its course. The balloon, because of its vast size and from its being lighter than the air, is completely at the mercy of the wind. It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the wind for the time being, and the direction of the wind in every instance determines the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree of certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another, and hence the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as likely as not, carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a mere lifting machine and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying machine. It resembles the flying creature only in this, that it is immersed in the ocean of air in which it sustains itself. The mode of suspension is wholly different. The balloon floats because it is lighter than the air; the flying creature floats because it extracts from the air, by the vigorous downward action of its wings, a certain amount of upward recoil. The balloon is passive; the flying creature is active. The balloon is controlled by the wind; the flying creature controls the wind. The balloon in the absence of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical line; the flying creature can fly in a horizontal plane in any given direction. The balloon is inefficient because of its levity; the flying creature is efficient because of its weight.

Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to flight. Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air. The inertia of the mass of the flying creature enables it to control and direct its movements in the air. Many are of opinion that flight is a mere matter of levity and power. This is quite a mistake. No machine, however light and powerful, will ever fly whose travelling surfaces are not properly fashioned and properly applied to the air.