CHAPTER XLVII.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANGIOSPERMS.

Relation of Species, Genus, Family, Order, etc.

=929. Species.=—It is not necessary for one to be a botanist in order to recognize, during a stroll in the woods where the trillium is flowering, that there are many individual plants very like each other. They may vary in size, and the parts may differ a little in form. When the flowers first open they are usually white, and in age they generally become pinkish. In some individuals they are pinkish when they first open. Even with these variations, which are trifling in comparison with the points of close agreement, we recognize the individuals to be of the _same kind_, just as we recognize the corn plants, grown from the seed of an ear of corn, as of the same kind. Individuals of the same kind, in this sense, form a _species_. The white wake-robin, then, is a species.

But there are other trilliums which differ greatly from this one. The purple trillium (T. erectum) shown in fig. 495 is very different from it. So are a number of others. But the purple trillium is a species. It is made up of individuals variable, yet very like one another, more so than any one of them is like the white wake-robin.

=930. Genus.=—Yet if we study all parts of the plant, the perennial rootstock, the annual shoot, and the parts of the flower, we find a great resemblance. In this respect we find that there are several species which possess the same general characters. In other words, there is a relationship between these different species, a relationship which includes more than the individuals of one kind. It includes several kinds. Obviously, then, this is a relationship with broader limits, and of a higher grade, than that of the individuals of a species. The grade next higher than species we call _genus_. Trillium, then, is a genus. Briefly the characters of the genus trillium are as follows:

=931. Genus trillium.=—Perianth of six parts: sepals 3, herbaceous, persistent; petals colored. Stamens 6 (in two whorls), anthers opening inward. Ovary 3-loculed, 3-6-angled; stigmas 3, slender, spreading. Herbs with a stout perennial rootstock, with fleshy, scale-like leaves, from which the low annual shoot arises, bearing a terminal flower and 3 large netted-veined leaves in a whorl.

_Note._—In speaking of the genus the present usage is to say trillium, but two words are usually employed in speaking of the species, as Trillium grandiflorum, T. erectum, etc.

=932. Genus erythronium.=—The yellow adder-tongue, or dogtooth violet (Erythronium americanum), shown in fig. 496, is quite different from any species of trillium. It differs more from any of the species of trillium than they do from each other. The perianth is of six parts, light yellow, often spotted near the base. Stamens are 6. The ovary is obovate, tapering at the base, 3-valved, seeds rather numerous, and the style is elongated. The flower stem, or scape, arises from a scaly bulb deep in the soil, and is sheathed by two elliptical-lanceolate, mottled leaves. The smaller plants have no flower and but one leaf, while the bulb is nearer the surface. Each year new bulbs are formed at the end of runners from a parent bulb. These runners penetrate each year deeper into the soil. The deeper bulbs bear the flower stems.

=933. Genus lilium.=—While the lily differs from either the trillium or erythronium, yet we recognize a relationship when we compare the perianth of six colored parts, the 6 stamens, and the 3-sided and long 3-loculed ovary.

=934. Family Liliaceæ.=—The relationship between genera, as between trillium, erythronium, and lilium, brings us to a still higher order of relationship, where the limits are broader than in the genus. Genera which are thus related make up the _family_. In the case of these genera the family has been named after the lily, and is the lily family, or _Liliaceæ_.

=935. Order, class, group.=—In like manner the lily family, the iris family, the amaryllis family, and others which show characters of close relationship are united into an _order_ which has broader limits than the family. This order is the lily order, or order _Liliales_. The various orders unite to make up the _class_, and the classes unite to form a _group_.

=936. Variations in usage of the terms class, order, etc.=—Thus, according to the system of classification adopted by some, the angiosperms form a _group_. The group angiosperms is then divided into two _classes_, the _monocotyledones_ and _dicotyledones_. (It should be remembered that all systematists do not agree in assigning the same grade and limits to the classes, subclasses, etc. For example, some treat of the angiosperms as a class, and the monocotyledons and dicotyledons as subclasses; while others would divide the monocotyledons and dicotyledons into classes, instead of treating each one as a class or as a subclass. Systematists differ also in usage as to the termination of the ordinal name; for example, some use the word _Liliales_ for _Liliifloræ_, in writing of the order.)

=937. Monocotyledones.=—In the monocotyledons there is a single cotyledon on the embryo; the leaves are parallel-veined; the parts of the flower are usually in threes; endosperm is usually present in the seed; the vascular bundles are usually closed, and are scattered irregularly through the stem as shown by a cross-section of the stem of a palm (fig. 497), or by the arrangement of the bundles in the corn stem (fig. 57). Thus a single character is not sufficient to show relationship in the class (nor is it in orders, nor in many of the lower grades), but one must use the sum of several important characters.

=938. Dicotyledones.=—In the dicotyledons there are two cotyledons on the embryo; the venation of the leaves is reticulate; the endosperm is usually absent in the seed; the parts of the flower are frequently in fives; the vascular bundles of the stem are generally open and arranged in rings around the stem, as shown in the cross-section of the oak (fig. 497). There are exceptions to all the above characters, and the sum of the characters must be considered, just as in the case of the monocotyledons.

=939. Taxonomy.=—This grouping of plants into species, genera, families, etc., according to characters and relationships is _classification_, or _taxonomy_.

To take Trillium grandiflorum for example, its position in the system, if all the principal subdivisions should be included in the outline, would be indicated as follows:

Group, Angiosperms. Class, Monocotyledones. Order, Liliales. Family, Liliaceæ. Genus, Trillium. Species, grandiflorum.

In the same way the position of the toothwort would be indicated as follows:

Group, Angiosperms. Class, Dicotyledones. Order, Papaverales. Family, Cruciferæ. Genus, Dentaria. Species, diphylla.

But in giving the technical name of the plant only two of these names are used, the genus and species, so that for the toothwort we say _Dentaria diphylla_, and for the white wake-robin we say _Trillium grandiflorum_.

=940. Kingdom and Subkingdom.=—Organic beings form altogether two kingdoms, the Animal Kingdom and the Plant Kingdom. The Plant Kingdom is then divided into a number of subkingdoms as follows: 1st, Subkingdom Thallophyta, the thallus plants, including the Algæ and Fungi; 2d, Subkingdom Bryophyta, the moss-like plants, including the Liverworts and Mosses; 3d, Subkingdom Pteridophyta, the fern-like plants, including Ferns, Lycopods, Equisetum, Isoetes, etc.; 4th, Subkingdom Spermatophyta, the seed plants, including Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Subkingdoms are divided into groups of lower order down to the classes. So there are subclasses, subfamilies or tribes, subgenera, and even subspecies. But taking the principal taxonomic divisions from the greater to the lesser rank, the order would be as follows:

Plant Kingdom. Subkingdom, Spermatophyta. Group (not used in a definite sense). Class, Gymnospermæ. Order, Pinales. Family, Pinaceæ. Genus, Pinus. Species, strobus, or, in full, Pinus strobus, the white pine.

Group Angiospermæ.

I. CLASS MONOCOTYLEDONES.

=941. Order Pandanales.=—Aquatic or marsh plants. The cattail flags (Typha) and the bur-reeds (Sparganium), each representing a family. The name of the order is taken from the tropical genus Pandanus (the screw-pine often grown in greenhouses).

=942. Order Naiadales.=—Aquatic or marsh herbs. Three families are mentioned here.

The pondweed family (Naiadaceæ), named after one genus, Naias. The largest genus is Potamogeton, the species of which are known as pondweeds. Ruppia occidentalis occurs in saline ponds in Nebraska, and R. maritima along the seacoast and in saline districts in the interior.

The water-plantain family (Alismaceæ) includes the water-plantain (Alisma) and the arrow-leaves (Sagittaria).

The tape-grass family (Vallisneriaceæ) includes the tape-grass, or eel-grass (the curious Vallisneria spiralis).

=943. Order Graminales.=—Two families.

The grass family (Gramineæ), the grasses and grains.

The sedge family (Cyperaceæ), the sedges.

=944. Order Palmales=, with one family, Palmaceæ, includes the palms, abundant in the tropics and extending into Florida. Cultivated in greenhouses.

=945. Order Arales.=

The arum family (Araceæ). Flowers in a fleshy spadix. Examples: Indian turnip (Arisæma), sweet-flag (Acorus), skunk-cabbage (Spathyema).

The duckweed family (Lemnaceæ). (Examples: Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia. See paragraphs 51-53.)

=946. Order Xyridales=, from the genus Xyris, the yellow-eyed grass family (Xyridaceæ). Species mostly tropical, but a few in North America. Other examples are the pipewort family (Eriocaulaceæ, example, Eriocaulon septangulare), the pineapple family (Bromeliaceæ, example, the pineapple cultivated in Florida); the Florida moss or hanging moss (Tillandsia usneoides); the spiderwort family (Commelinaceæ), including the spiderwort (Tradescantia, several species in North America); the pickerel-weed family (Pontederiaceæ), including the genus Pontederia in borders of ponds and streams.

=947. Order Liliales.=—Some of the families are as follows:

The rush family (Juncaceæ, example, Juncus), with many species, plants of usually swamp habit.

The lily family (Liliaceæ, examples: Lilium, Allium = Onion, Erythronium, Yucca).

The iris family (Iridaceæ, examples: Iris, the blue-flag, fleur-de-lis, etc.).

The lily-of-the-valley family (Convallariaceæ, examples: lily-of-the-valley, Trillium, etc.)

The amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceæ, examples: Narcissus, the daffodil; Cooperia, in southwestern United States).

=948. Order Scitaminales.=—This order includes the large showy cultivated Canna of the canna family.

=949. Order Orchidales.= Example, the orchid family (Orchidaceæ) with Cypripedium, Orchis, etc.

II. CLASS DICOTYLEDONES.

SERIES 1. CHORIPETALÆ. Petals wanting (Apetalæ, or Archichlamydæ of some authors), or present and distinct from one another (Polypetalæ, or Metachlamydæ).

=950. Order Casuarinales=, confined to tropical seacoasts (example, Casuarina).

=951. Order Piperales= includes the lizard’s-tail family (Saururaceæ), Saururus cernuus, lizard’s-tail, in the eastern United States.

=952. Order Salicales.=—Shrubs or trees, flowers in aments. Includes the willows and poplars (Salix and Populus of the willow family, Salicaceæ).

=953. Order Myricales.=—Shrubs or small trees. Includes the sweet-gale (Myrica gale) in wet places in northern United States and British North America, Myrica cerifera forming thickets on sand dunes along the Atlantic coast, and the sweet-fern (Comptonia peregrina = C. asplenifolia) in the eastern United States in dry soil of hillsides.

=954. Order Leitneriales.=—Shrubs or trees. Includes the cork-wood, Leitneria floridana (Leitneriaceæ).

=955. Order Juglandales.=—Trees, staminate flowers in aments. The walnut family (Juglandaceæ, examples: walnut, butternut, etc. Juglans; hickory, Hicoria = Carya).

=956. Order Fagales.=—Trees and shrubs. Flowers in aments, or the pistillate ones with an involucre which forms a cup in fruit, as in the acorn of the oak.

The birch family (Betulaceæ, examples: Betula, birch; Corylus, hazelnut; Alnus, alder, etc.).

The beech family (Fagaceæ = Cupuliferæ, examples: Fagus, beech; Castanea, chestnut; Quercus, oak).

=957. Order Urticales.=—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Examples: the elm family (Ulmaceæ), the mulberry family (Moraceæ), and the nettle family (Urticaceæ).

=958. Order Santalales=, herbs or shrubs, mostly parasitic.

The mistletoe family (Loranthaceæ), with the American mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens), parasitic on deciduous trees in the South Atlantic, Central, and Gulf States (N. J. to Ind. Ter.).

The sandalwood family (Santalaceæ, example, the bastard toad-flax, Comandra umbellata), widely distributed in North America.

=959. Order Aristolochiales.=—Herbs or vines with heart-shaped or kidney-shaped leaves. The birthwort family (Aristolochiaceæ, example, Aristolochia serpentaria, the Virginia snake-root, eastern United States; wild ginger, or heart-leaf, Asarum canadense, eastern North America.)

=960. Order Polygonales.=—Examples: the buckwheat family (Polygonaceæ), including buckwheat (Fagopyrum), and numerous species of Polygonum, known as smartweed, water-pepper, tear-thumb, bindweed, knotweed, prince’s-feather, etc.

=961. Order Chenopodiales.=—Herbs. There are several families; one of the largest is the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceæ). The genus Chenopodium includes many species, known as goosefoot, lamb’s-quarters, etc. Here belong also the Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) and the saltwort (S. kali). The former is sometimes a troublesome weed in the central and western United States, naturalized from Europe. The latter occurs along the Atlantic coast on seabeaches. Atriplex occurs in salty or alkaline soil, also the glasswort (Salicornia herbacea), the bugseed (Corispermum). The pokeweed family (Phytolaccaceæ), the Amaranth family (Amaranthaceæ), the purslane family (Portulacaceæ, including the purslane or “pursley,” Portulaca oleracea, and the spring-beauty, Claytonia virginica), and the pink family (Caryophyllaceæ), belong here.

=962. Order Ranales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Examples are:

The water-lily family (Nymphæaceæ), with the yellow water-lily (Nymphæa advena = Nuphar advena) and the white water-lily (Castalia odorata = Nymphæa odorata).

The magnolia family (Magnoliaceæ), including the magnolias (Magnolia) and the tulip-tree (Liriodendron). The crowfoot family (Ranunculaceæ), with the buttercups, hepatica, clematis, etc.

=963. Order Papaverales.=—Mostly herbs. Examples are:

The poppy family (Papaveraceæ), including the opium or garden poppy (Papaver somniferum), the blood-root (Sanguinaria canadensis), the Dutchman’s-breeches (Bicuculla cucullaria = Dicentra cucullaria), squirrel’s-corn (Bicuculla canadensis = D. canadensis).

The mustard family (Cruciferæ), including the toothwort (Dentaria), shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris = Capsella bursa-pastoris), the cabbage, turnip, etc.

=964. Order Sarraceniales.=—Insectivorous plants.

The pitcher-plant family (Sarraceniaceæ). Examples: Sarracenia purpurea, the pitcher-plant, in peat-bogs, northern and eastern North America.

The sundew family (Droseraceæ). Examples: Drosera rotundifolia, and other sundews.

=965. Order Rosales.=—Herbs, shrubs or trees. Seventeen families are given in the eastern United States. Examples:

The riverweed family (Podostemaceæ), containing the riverweed (Podostemon).

The saxifrage family (Saxifragaceæ), containing a number of species. Example, Saxifraga virginiensis.

The gooseberry family (Grossulariaceæ), including the wild and the cultivated gooseberry.

The witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceæ), including the witch-hazel (Hamamelis), in eastern North America, and the sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua).

The plane-tree family (Platanaceæ), with the plane-tree, or buttonwood (Platanus occidentalis), eastern North America. (Other species occur in western United States.)

The rose family (Rosaceæ), including roses, spiræas, raspberries, strawberries, the shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora fruticosa), etc.

The apple family (Pomaceæ), including the apple, mountain-ash, pear, June-berry (or shadbush, also service-berry), the hawthorns (Cratægus).

The plum family (Drupaceæ), including the cherries, plums, peaches, etc.

The pea family (Papilionaceæ), including the pea, bean, clover, vetch, lupine, etc., a very large family.

=966. Order Geraniales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Nine families in the eastern United States. Examples:

The geranium family (Geraniaceæ), with the cranesbill (Geranium maculatum) and others.

The wood-sorrel family (Oxalidaceæ), with the wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) and others.

The flax family (Linaceæ). Example, flax (Linum vulgaris).

The spurge family (Euphorbiaceæ). Plants with a milky juice, and curious, degenerate flowers. Examples: the castor-oil plant (Ricinus), the spurges (many species of Euphorbia).

=967. Order Sapindales.=—Mostly trees or shrubs. Twelve families in the eastern United States. Example:

The sumac family (Anacardiaceæ), containing the sumacs in the genus Rhus. Examples: the poison-ivy (R. radicans), a climbing vine, in thickets and along fences, in eastern United States. Sometimes trained over porches. The poison-oak (R. toxicodendron), a low shrub. Poison-sumac or poison-alder (R. vernix = R. venenata), sometimes called “thunderwood,” or dogwood, is a large shrub or small tree, very poisonous. The smoke-tree (Cotinus cotinoides) belongs to the same family, and is often planted as an ornamental tree. The maple family (Aceraceæ), including the maples (Acer).

The buckeye family (Hippocastanaceæ), including the horse-chestnut (Æsculus hippocastanum), much planted as a shade tree along streets. Also there are several species of buckeye in the same genus.

The jewelweed family (Balsaminaceæ), including the touch-me-not (Impatiens biflora and aurea) in moist places. The garden balsam (Imp. balsamea) also belongs here.

=968. Order Rhamnales.=—Shrubs, vines, or small trees. There are two families, the buckthorn (Rhamnaceæ), the grape family (Vitaceæ), including the grapes (Vitis), the American ivy (Parthenocissus quinquefolia = Ampelopsis quinquefolia), in woods and thickets, eastern North America, and much planted as a trailer over porches. The Japanese ivy (P. tricuspidata = A. veitchii) used as a trailer on the sides of buildings belongs here.

=969. Order Malvales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees.

The linden family (Tiliaceæ). Example, the basswood or American linden (Tilia americana.)

The mallow family (Malvaceæ), including the hollyhock, the mallows, rose of Sharon (Hibiscus), etc.

=970. Order Parietales=, with seven families in the eastern United States. The St. John’s wort (Hypericum) and the violets each represent a family. The violets (Violaceæ) are well-known flowers.

=971. Order Opuntiales.=—These include the cacti (Cactaceæ), chiefly growing in the dry or desert regions of America.

=972. Order Thymeleales=, with two families and few species.

=973. Order Myrtales.=—Land, marsh, or aquatic plants. The most conspicuous are in the evening primrose family (Onagraceæ), including the fireweeds, or willow herbs (Epilobium), and the evening primrose (Onagra biennis = Œnothera biennis).

=974. Order Umbellales.=—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, flowers in umbels.

The ginseng family (Araliaceæ). This includes the spikenards and sarsaparillas in the genus Aralia, and the ginseng (or “sang”), Panax quinquefolium.

The carrot family (Umbelliferæ). This family includes the wild carrot (Daucus carota), the poison-hemlock (Cicuta), the cultivated carrot and parsnip, and a large number of other genera and species.

The dogwood family (Cornaceæ). The flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), abundant in eastern North America, is an example.

SERIES 2. GAMOPETALÆ (= Sympetalæ or Metachlamydæ). Petals partly or wholly united, rarely separate or wanting.

=975. Order Ericales.=—There are six families in eastern United States. Examples:

The wintergreen family (Pyrolaceæ), including the shin-leaf (Pyrola elliptica).

The Indian-pipe family (Monotropaceæ), with the Indian-pipe (Monotropa uniflora) and other humus saprophytes. (See paragraphs 182-191.)

The heath family (Ericaceæ). Examples: Labrador tea (Ledum), in bogs and swamps in northern North America. The azaleas, with several species widely distributed, are beautiful flowering shrubs, and many varieties are cultivated. The rhododendrons are larger with larger flower clusters, also beautiful flowering shrubs. R. maximum in the Alleghany Mountains and vicinity, from Nova Scotia to Ohio and Georgia. R. catawbiense, usually at somewhat higher elevations, Virginia to Georgia. The mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and other species rival the rhododendrons and azaleas in beauty. The trailing arbutus (Epigæa repens) in sandy or rocky woods is a well-known small trailing shrub in eastern North America. The sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum) is a tree with white racemes of flowers in August, and scarlet leaves in autumn. The spring or creeping wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) is a small shrub with aromatic leaves, and bright red spicy berries.

The huckleberry family (Vaccinaceæ) includes the huckleberries (example, Gaylussacia resinosa, the black or high-bush huckleberry, eastern United States), the mountain cranberry (Vitis-Idæa vitisidæa = Vaccinium vitisidæa) in the northern hemisphere; the bilberries and blueberries (of genus Vaccinium); the cranberries (examples: the large American cranberry, Oxycoccus macrocarpus and the European cranberry, Oxycoccus oxycoccus, in cold bogs of northern North America, the latter also in Europe and Asia).

=976. Order Primulales.=—Two families here. The primrose family (Primulaceæ) contains the loosestrifes (Steironema), star-flower (Trientalis), etc.

=977. Order Ebenales.=—Of the four families, the ebony family (Ebenaceæ) contains the well-known persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the storax family (Styracaceæ) with the silverbell, or snowdrop tree (Mohrodendron carolinum).

=978. Order Gentianales.=—Herbs, shrubs, vines, or trees. Six families in the United States.

The olive family (Oleaceæ) includes the common lilac (Syringa), the ash trees (Fraxinus), the privet (Ligustrum).

The gentian family (Gentianaceæ) among other genera includes the gentians (Gentiana).

The milkweed family (Asclepiadaceæ) contains plants mostly with a milky juice. Asclepias with many species is one of the most prominent genera.

=979. Order Polemoniales.=—Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs and trees. Fifteen families in the eastern United States.

The morning glory family (Convolvulaceæ) includes the bindweeds (Convolvulus), the morning glory (Ipomæa), etc.

The dodder family (Cuscutaceæ) includes the dodders, or “love-vines.” There are nearly thirty species in the United States. The stems are slender and twine around other plants upon which they are parasitic (see paragraph 179).

The phlox family (Polemoniaceæ). The most prominent genus is Phlox. Over forty species occur in North America.

The borage family (Boraginaceæ) includes the heliotrope (Heliotropium), the hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum), the forget-me-not (Myosotis), and others.

The vervain family (verbenaceæ) contains the verbenas.

The mint family (Labiatæ) contains the mints (Mentha), skull-cap (Scutellaria), dead-nettles (Lamium).

The potato family (Solanaceæ) includes the ground-cherry (Physalis), the nightshades (Solanum), the tomato (Lycopersicon), tobacco (Nicotiana).

The figwort family (Scrophulariaceæ) includes the common mullein (Verbascum), the monkey-flower (Mimulus), the toad-flax (Linaria), turtle’s-head (Chelone), and many other genera and species.

The bladderwort family (Lentibulariaceæ) includes the curious bog or aquatic plants with finely dissected leaves, and with bladders in which insects are caught (Utricularia).

The trumpet-creeper family (Bignoniaceæ) includes the trumpet-creeper (Bignonia), the catalpa tree, and others.

=980. Order Plantaginales= with one family (Plantaginaceæ) includes the plantains (Plantago).

=981. Order Rubiales= with three families is represented by the madder family (Rubiaceæ) with the bluets (Houstonia), the button-bush (Cephalanthus), the partridge-berry (Mitchella), the bedstraws (Galium), etc.

The honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceæ) with the elder (Sambucus), the arrowwoods and cranberry trees (Viburnum), the honeysuckles (Lonicera), etc.

=982. Order Valerianales= with two families includes the teasel family (Dipsacaceæ). Example, Fuller’s teasel (Dipsacus).

=983. Order Campanulales= with five families, the corolla usually gamopetalous.

The gourd family (Cucurbitaceæ) includes the pumpkin, squash, melon, and a few feral species. Example, the star-cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), in moist places in eastern and middle United States.

The bell-flower family (Campanulaceæ) includes the hare-bells or bell-flowers (Campanula), the lobelias (example, Lobelia cardinalis, the cardinal-flower), etc.

The chicory family (Cichoriaceæ) includes the chicory or succory (Cichorium intybus, known also as blue-sailors), the oyster-plant or salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius), the dandelion (Taraxacum taraxacum = T. densleonis), the lettuce (Lactuca), the hawkweed (Hieraceum), and others.

The ragweed family (Ambrosiaceæ) includes the ragweeds (Ambrosia), the cockle-bur (Xanthium), and others.

The thistle family (Compositæ) includes the thistle (Carduus), asters (Aster), goldenrods (Solidago), sunflowers (Helianthus), eupatoriums or joepye-weeds, thoroughworts (Eupatorium), cone-flowers or black-eyed Susans (Rudbeckia), tickseed (Coreopsis), bur-marigold or beggar-ticks or devil’s-bootjack (Bidens), chrysanthemums, etc.

INDEX.

Absorption, 13, 22-28 Aceraceæ, 497 Acorn, 451 Acorus, 493 Æcidiomycetes, 218 Æcidiospore, 189 Æsculus hippocastanum, 498 Agaricaceæ, 199, 219 Agaricus arvensis, 206 Agaricus campestris, 200-207 Akene, 451 Albumen, 98 Albuminous, 98, 108 Alder, 495 Algæ, 136-176 Algæ, absorption by, 22 Alismaceæ, 493 Alpine formation, 474 Alpine plant societies, 483 Amanita phalloides, 207, 208 Amaranth, 495 Amaryllidaceæ, 494 Aments, 429 American mistletoe, 495 Ampelopsis, 498 Ancylistales, 215 Andreales, 249 Andrœcium, 319, 419 Anemophilous, 435 Angiosperms, morphology of, 318-348; classification, 487 Antheridiophore, 227 Antheridium, 144, 149, 155, 176, 223, 228, 240, 245, 246, 266, 287, 433 Anthesis, 429 Anthoceros, 240, 241 Anthocerotales, 242 Anthocerotes, 242 Apogamy, 346 Apogeotropic (ap″o-ge″o-trop´ic), 126 Apogeotropism (ap″o-ge-ot′ro-pism), 126 Apple, 456, 497 Apple family, 497 Aquatic formations, 475 Aquatic plant societies, 486 Araceæ, 493 Archegonia (ar-che-go′ni-a), 223, 229, 233, 241, 244-246, 267, 288, 291, 307, 308 Archegoniophore, 229 Archegonium, 433 Archesporium (ar″che-spo´ri-um), 235 Archidiales, 249 Arctic formation, 481 Aril, 457 Arisæma, 493 Arisæma triphyllum, 442, 443 Aristolochiales, 495 Arrow leaf, 492 Arum family, 493 Asclepias, 500 Asclepias cornuti, 462 Ascomycetes (as-co-my-ce′tes), 195-198, 216-218 Ascus, 190, 213 Ash of plants, 79, 80 Ash tree, 500 Aspidium acrostichoides, 253, 257 Assimilation, 67, 109 Aster, 502 Atriplex, 495 Auriculariales, 218 Autotrophic plants, 85 Azalea, 499 Azolla, 296

Bacteria, 164, 165 Bacteria, nitrite and nitrate, 83 Bacteriales, 164, 165 Bacteroid, 93 Bangiales, 175 Basidiomycetes (ba-sid″i-o-my-ce′tes), 199-208, 218 Basidium, 201, 213 Bast, 50-52 Batrachospermum, 171-173, 175 Bazzania, 25 Beard-grasses, 480 Bedstraws, 501 Beechnut, 452 Beet, osmose in, 15, 16, 17, 18 Begonia, 407 Bellflower, 501 Berry, 454, 455, 456 Betulaceæ, 495 Bicuculla, 496 Bidens, 458 Bignonia, 501 Bilberries, 500 Biotic factors, 466 Birch, 495 Bird’s-nest fungi, 220 Blackberry, 454 Black fungi, 198 Bladderwort, 501 Blasia, 164, 236 Bloodroot, 496 Bluets, 436, 437, 501 Boletus, 209 Boletus edulis, 209 Boraginaceæ, 500 Botrychium, 295 Botrydiaceæ, 162 Botrydium granulatum, 146, 162 Broom-sedge, 480 Brown algæ, 167-170 Bryales, 349 Buckeye family, 498 Buckthorn, 498 Buckwheat, 495 Buds, winter condition of, 374-377 Buffalo-grass, 480 Bug seed, 495 Bulb, 372 Bunch-grasses, 480 Butternut, 452, 494 Buttonbush, 501 Buttonwood, 497

Cacti, 395, 498 Callithamnion, 173 Calyptrogen, 361 Cambium, 50, 52, 358, 363 Campanula rotundifolia, 442, 444, 510 Campanulales, 501 Canna, 445-449, 494 Capsella bursa-pastoris, 496 Capsule, 453 Carbohydrate, 71, 75, 80, 90 Carbon dioxide, 62-67, 110-113 Cardinal-flower, 501 Carpogonium, 172, 176 Carrot family, 499 Caryophyllaceæ, 496 Caryopsis, 451 Cassia marilandica, 402 Cassiope, 395 Castalia odorata, 496 Castor-oil plant, 497 Catalpa, 501 Catkin, 428 Cattail-flag, 492 Caulidium, 371 Cedar apples, 194 Cell, 3; artificial 20 Cell-sap, 3, 40 Ceratopteris thalictroides, 296 Chætophora, 151, 162 Chætophoraceæ, 162 Chara, 176 Charales, 176 Chemical condition of soil, 466 Chemosynthetic assimilation, 109 Chenopodiales, 495 Chenopods, 495 Chestnut, 452, 494 Chicory family, 502 Chlamydomonas, 159, 160 Chlamydospores, 180 Chloral hydrate, 65, 87 Chlorophyceæ, 158 Chlorophyll, 2, 67, 72 Chloroplast, 68, 69, 71 Christmas fern, 251-253 Chromoplast, 71 Chromosomes, 342-345 Chroococcaceæe, 163 Chrysanthemum, 502 Chytridiales, 215 Cichoriaceæ, 502 Cichorium intybus, 502 Clavaria botrytes, 212 Clavariaceæ, 210, 219 Claytonia virginica, 496 Cleistogamous, 435 Clematis virginiana, 462, 463, 496 Climatic factors, 466 Climatic formations, 470 Clostridium pasteurianum, 93 Clover, 497 Club mosses, 284, 289 Coccogonales, 163 Cocklebur, 502 Cold wastes, 474 Coleochætaceæ, 162 Coleochæte, 153-156, 226 Collenchyma, 356, 363 Comandra, 495 Compass plants, 409 Compositæ, 502 Comptonia asplenifolia, 494 Cone-fruit, 456 Confervoideæ, 162 Coniferæ, 316 Conjugation, 137, 141, 160, 162, 179 Convallariaceæ, 494 Cooperia, 494 Cordyceps, 218 Coreopsis, 502 Cork, 357, 363 Corm, 373 Cortex, 50 Corymb, 427 Cotyledon, 99-101 Cranberry, 500 Cratægus, 497 Crowfoot family, 496 Cruciferæ, 496 Cryptonemiales, 175 Cucurbitaceæ, 501 Culture formations, 470, 475 Cultures, water, 28, 29 Cup fungi, 199 Cupuliferæ, 495 Cuscuta, 83, 500 Cushion type of vegetation, 483 Cuticle, 43 Cyanophyceæ, 163 Cyatheaceæ, 295 Cycadales, 316 Cycas, 311, 312, 457 Cyclosis, 9, 10 Cyclosporales, 171 Cyme, 430, 432 Cyperaceæ, 493 Cypripedium, 443, 447, 494 Cystocarp, 174 Cystopteris bulbifera, 260 Cystopus, 215 Cytase, 92, 108 Cytisus, 445 Cytoplasm (cy′to-plasm), 5

Dacryomycetales, 219 Dahlia, 108 Dandelion, 502 Dasiphora fruticosa, 497 Daucus carota, 499 Dehiscence, 453 Dentaria, 322-324 Dentaria diphylla, 496 Dermatogen, 359 Desert formation, 473 Desert societies, 480 Desmodium, 458 Desmodium gyrans, 399 Diadelphous (di″a-del′phous), 425 Diageotropism (di″a-ge-ot′ro-pism), 126 Diaheliotropic (di″a-he″li-o-trop′ic), 127 Diaheliotropism (di″a-he″li-ot′ro-pism), 127 Diastase, 77, 78, 108, 116 Diatoms, 166 Dichogamous (di-chog′a-mous), 437, 442 Dicentra, 496 Dicotyledons, 494 Dictyophora, 219 Diffusion, 13-20 Digestion, 107, 108, 109 Dimorphism of ferns, 273-280 Diœcious, 435 Dionæa muscipula, 133 Dipodascus, 216 Dipsacus, 501 Discomycetes, 217 Dodder, 83, 84, 500 Dogwood, 499 Dothidiales, 218 Downy mildews, 185 Drosera rotundifolia, 133, 496 Drupaceæ, 497 Drupe, 454 Duckweeds, 26, 28 Dudresnaya, 175 Dunes, 484

Ebenales, 500 Ecological factors, 464 Ecology (sometimes written œcology), 464 Ectocarpus, 167 Edaphic formations, 475 Elaphomyces, 217, 218 Elder, 501 Elm family, 495 Elodea, 61-63 Embryo of ferns, 269-272 Embryo sac, 326-328 Empusa, 215 Endocarp, 450 Endomyces, 216 Endosperm, 103, 105, 107, 306, 309; nucleus, 327, 329-334 Entomophthorales, 215 Enzyme, 92, 98, 116, 117 Epidermal system, 358 Epidermis, 358, 359, 363 Epigæa repens, 499 Epigynous, 425 Epilobium, 498 Epinastic (ep-i-nas′tic), 129 Epinasty (ep′i-nas-ty), 129 Epipactis, 444, 447 Epiphegus, 84 Epiphytes, 416 Equisetales, 296 Equisetineæ, 296 Equisetum, 280-283 Ericaceæ, 499 Ericales, 499 Erythronium, 493 Etiolated plants (e′ti-o-la″ted), 68 Euascomycetes, 217 Eubasidiomycetes, 219 Eupatorium, 403, 502 Euphorbiaceæ, 497 Eurotium oryzæ, 78 Evening primrose family, 498 Exalbuminous, 108 Exoascus, 217 Exobasidiales, 219 Exocarp, 450

Fagales, 494 Fehling’s solution, 75, 76 Ferment, 98, 108, 116 Ferns, 251-279, 292, 457; classification of, 295 Fertilization, 307, 308, 328, 329, 140, 145, 169, 172, 174, 197, 421 Fibrovascular bundles, 49-54 Figwort family, 501 Filicales, 295 Filicineæ, 295 Fittonia, 404 Flagellates, 83, 165 Flax, 497 Flower cluster, 419 Flower, form of, 422; parts of, 419; union of parts, 424 Flowers, arrangements of, 426; kinds of, 421 Follicle, 453 Forest, formations 471; societies, 477 Forests, relation to rainfall, 479 Fresh-water societies, 486 Frond, 352 Fruit, 450-457; parts of, 450 Frullania, 25, 236 Fucus, 168-170 Fungi, absorption by, 22; classification of, 213-222; nutrition of, 86-90; respiration in, 115

Gametangium (gam″et-an′gi-um), 140 Gamete (gam′ete), 138, 139 Gametophore (gam′et-o-phore), 230, 248 Gametophyte (gam′et-o-phyte), 225, 226, 244, 245, 250, 262, 270, 283, 292, 294, 305, 314, 317, 336-339, 340-348, 434 Gamopetalous (gam″o-pet′a-lous), 424 Gamosepalous (gam-o-sep′a-lous), 424 Gas in plants, 60-64 Gasteromycetes, 219 Gemmæ, 179, 235 General formations, 470 Gentian, 500 Geotropism (ge-ot′ro-pism), 125-127, 410 Geraniaceæ, 497 Geraniales, 497 Geranium family, 497 Germ, 459 Gigartinales, 175 Gingko, 313-315, 457 Gingkoales, 316 Ginseng, 499 Glasswort, 495 Gleicheniaceæ, 295 Glucose, 108. See sugar. Gnetales, 316 Gonidia, 118, 143, 172, 174, 178-184 Gonidiangium (go″nid-an′gi-um), 178 Gonidium, 213 Gooseberry, 496 Goosefoot family, 495 Gracilaria, 173, 174, 175 Graminales, 492 Gramineæ, 492 Grape, 498 Grass family, 492 Grassland formation, 471 Green algæ, 158 Growth, 118-124, 380 Gulfweed, 170 Gymnosperms, 311, 456 Gymnosporangium, 194 Gynœcium, 320, 419, 451, 452 Gyrocephalus, 219

Halophytes, 468 Harpochytrium, 214, 215 Haustorium, 87, 88 Hawkweed, 502 Hawthorn, 497 Hazelnut, 452, 495 Head, 428 Heart-leaf, 495 Heath family, 499 Heliotrope, 500 Heliotropism (he-li-ot′ro-pism), 127-131, 133, 397 Helvellales, 217 Hemiascomycetes, 216 Hemibasidiomycetes, 218 Hepaticæ, 242 Heterospory (het″er-os′po-ry), 434 Heterothallic, 180 Heterotrophic plants, 85 Hickory, 494 Hickory-nut, 452 Hilum, 101, 102 Hippocastanaceæ, 498 Holdfasts, 418 Hollyhock, 498 Homothallic, 180 Honeysuckle, 501 Hormogonales, 163 Horse-chestnut, 498 Horsetails, 280-283 Houstonia cœrulea, 437 Huckleberry, 499 Humus saprophytes, 85, 91 Hybridization, 338 Hydnaceæ, 210, 219 Hydnum coralloides, 210 Hydnum repandum, 211 Hydrocarbon, 75 Hydrodictyaceæ, 161 Hydrophytes, 468 Hydropterales, 295 Hydrotropism (hy-drot′ro′pism), 133, 134, 412 Hygrophytes, 468 Hymeniales, 219 Hymenogastrales, 219 Hymenomycetes, 219 Hymenomycetineæ, 219 Hymenophyllaceæ, 295 Hypericum, 498 Hypocotyl (hy′po-co″tyl), 101 Hypocreales, 217 Hypogenous, 425 Hyponastic (hy-po-nas′tic), 129 Hyponasty (hy′po-nas-ty), 129 Hysteriales, 217

Impatiens, 498 Impatiens fulva, 460 Indian-pipe, 499 Indian turnip, 493 Indusium, 252 Inflorescence, 426 Insectivorous plants, 133, 496 Integument, 304 Intramolecular respiration, 113, 114 Inulase, 108 Inulin, 108, 417 Iodine, 65 Ipomœa, 500 Iridaceæ, 493 Iris, 493 Irritability, 125-135 Isoetales, 296 Isoetes, 289-291, 292 Isoetineæ, 296 Ivy, 498

Jack-in-the-pulpit, 373 Jewelweed, 498 Juglandales, 494 June-berry, 497 Jungermanniales, 242

Kalmia latifolia, 444 Karyokinesis, 341-344 Kelps, 168 Kingdom, 492

Labiatæ, 423, 501 Laboulbeniales, 218 Labrador tea, 499 Lactuca canadensis, 460 Lactuca scariola, 409, 460, 461 Lagenidium, 214, 215 Laminaria, 168, 169 Lamium, 424, 501 Larch, 367 Laurel, 499 Leaf patterns, 404 Leathesia difformis, 168 Leaves, form and arrangement, 383-391; function of, 387; protective modifications of, 392; protective positions, 395; reduction of surface, 394; relation to light, 397; structure of, 40-43, 131, 391, 393 Legumes, 92, 93, 453 Leguminosæ (= Papilionaceæ), 396, 399 Leitneria floridana, 494 Leitneriales, 494 Lemanea, 171, 173, 175, 492 Lemna, 418 Lemna trisulca, 26, 27 Lenticel, 357, 358 Lepiota naucina, 208 Lettuce, 502 Leucoplast, 71 Lichens, 86, 93-95, 220, 221 Light, 465 Liliaceæ, 490, 493 Liliales, 490, 493 Lilium, 489-493 Linaria vulgaris, 501 Linden, 498 Linum vulgaris, 497 Lipase, 108 Liquidambar, 496 Liriodendron, 496 Live-forever, 394 Liverworts, 222-239; absorption by, 23-25; classification of, 242 Lobelia, 501 Lupinus perennis, 353 Lycoperdales, 220 Lycopodiaceæ, 296 Lycopodiales, 296 Lycopodiineæ, 296 Lycopodium, 284-286

Macrosporangium, 94, 302, 304, 311, 312, 321 Macrospore, 287, 290, 326-328, 434 Magnolia, 496 Mallow family, 498 Malvales, 498 Maple family, 497 Marchantia, 24, 226-236 Marchantiales, 242 Marine plant societies, 486 Marratiales, 295 Marsilia, 370 Marsiliaceæ, 296 Matoniaceæ, 295 Medicago denticulata, 92 Medulla, 50 Members of the flower, 335 Members of the plant, 349-353 Meristem, 359 Mesocarp, 450 Mesophytes, 467 Microsporangia, 294, 299 Microspore, 287, 290, 299, 312, 435 Microsporophylls, 299, 320, 420 Milkweed family, 500 Mimosa, 132, 396 Mimulus, 501 Mint family, 501 Mistletoe, 84, 495 Mitchella, 501 Mixotrophic plants, 85 Mnium, 243-246 Molds, nutrition of, 86-90 Molds, water, 181 Monadelphous, 424 Monoblepharidales, 215 Monoblepharis, 215 Monocotyledons, 490, 492 Monœcious, 435 Monotropa uniflora, 499 Morchella, 198, 199 Morel, 198, 199 Morning-glories, 500 Mosaics, 405 Mosses, 243-248, 457; absorption by, 25; classification of, 248 Mucor, 6, 7, 15, 118, 119, 177-180, 215 Mucorales, 215 Mulberry, 495 Mullein, 366, 394, 501 Mushrooms, 199-208 Mustard family, 496 Mutation, 338 Mutualism, 95 Mycelium, 6, 86-90 Mycetozoa, 213, 214 Mycorhiza, 86, 91, 92, 217 Myosotis, 500 Myrica cerifera, 494 Myrica gale, 494 Myricales, 494 Myriophyllum, 403 Myrtales, 498 Myxobacteriales, 165 Myxomycetes, 83, 213, 214

Naiadaceæ, 492 Naiadales, 492 Naias, 492 Nemalion, 171, 172, 175 Nemalionales, 175 Nettle, 495 Nicotiana, 501 Nidulariales, 220 Nitella, 8, 9, 176 Nitrobacter, 83 Nitrogen, 92, 93 Nitromonas, 83 Nostocaceæ, 164 Nucellus, 304 Nucleus, 3, 4; morphology of, 340-345 Nuphar advena, 496 Nutation, 123, 124 Nymphæa odorata, 496

Oak, 495 Oak family, 495 Œdogoniaceæ, 162 Œdogonium, 147-151, 350 Œnothera biennis, 498 Œnothera gigas, 338 Œnothera lamarkiana, 338 Olpidium, 214, 215 Onagar biennis, 498 Onagraceæ, 498 Onoclea sensibilis, 254, 273-278 Oogonium, 144, 150, 155 Oomycetes, 214, 215 Ophioglossales, 295 Ophioglossum, 295 Opuntiales, 498 Orchidaceæ, 494 Orchidales, 494 Orchids, 442 Oscillatoriaceæ, 163 Osmosis, 13-20 Osmundaceæ, 295 Ostrich fern, 279 Ovule, 302, 321, 334, 421 Oxalis, 497 Oxycoccus, 500 Oxydendrum arboreum, 501 Oxygen, 63, 110-113

Palisade cells, 41, 43 Palmaceæ, 493 Palmales, 493 Palms, 408 Pandanales, 492 Pandanus, 492 Pandorina, 160, 350 Panicle, 427 Papaverales, 496 Papilionaceæ, 423, 497 Parasites, 83, 84, 86 Parasitic fungi, nutrition of, 86-90 Parenchyma, 50, 356, 363 Parietales, 498 Parkeriaceæ, 296 Parmelia, 96 Parthenogenesis, 184 Partridge-berry, 501 Pea, 497 Pea family, 497 Pear, 456 Pediastrum, 161 Pellia, 164 Pellonia, 405 Peltigera, 94, 95 Pepo, 456 Pericycle, 360 Peridineæ, 166 Perigynous, 425 Perisperm, 331, 332 Perisporiales, 217 Peronospora, 183, 215 Peronosporales, 215 Persimmon, 500 Pezizales, 217 Phacidiales, 217 Phæophyceæ, 167 Phæosporales, 171 Phallales, 219 Phloem, 50-52, 360, 361, 363 Phlox family, 500 Phoradendron flavescens, 495 Photosynthesis, 67, 68, 70, 117 Phycomycetes (Phy″co-my-ce′tes), 214, 215 Phyllidium, 371 Phylloclades, 373, 395 Phyllotaxy, 375, 384 Physical condition of soil, 465 Physical factors, 465 Phytolaccaceæ, 495 Phytomyxa leguminosarum, 92 Phytophthora, 182, 184, 215 Pickerel-weed, 493 Pilularia, 296 Pinales, 216 Pine, white, 297-310 Piperales, 494 Pitcher-plant, 496 Pith, 50 Plant food, sources of, 81 Plant formations, 496 Plant substance, analysis of, 79, 80 Plantaginales, 501 Plantago, 501 Plasmolysis (plas-mol′y-sis), 19 Plasmopara, 183, 215 Plectascales, 217 Plectobasidiales, 220 Pleurococcaceæ, 161 Pleurococcus, 161 Plum family, 497 Plumule, 99 Podostemon, 496 Poison-hemlock, 499 Poison-ivy, 497 Poison-oak, 497 Poisonous mushrooms, 207, 208 Poison-sumac, 497 Pokeweed, 495 Polemoneales, 500 Pollen grain, 299, 305 Pollination, 303, 304, 420, 430, 433-449 Pollinium, 420 Polygonales, 495 Polygonum, 495 Polypodiaceæ, 296 Polyporaceæ, 209, 219 Polyporus, 209, 210 Polyporus mollis, 92 Polyporus sulphureus, 209 Pomaceæ, 497 Pondweeds, 492 Poppy, 496 Porella, 237 Portulaca, 495 Potamogeton, 492 Potato, 501 Powdery mildews, 195-198, 217 Primrose, 498, 500 Primula, 438 Primulales, 500 Procarp, 172, 174, 175 Progeotropism (pro″ge-ot′ro-pism), 126 Promycelium (pro″my-ce′li-um), 192 Proterandrous, 441, 442 Proterandry, 444 Proterogenous, 441, 442 Proterogeny, 440 Prothallium, 265, 287, 288, 291, 292, 304, 305, 311, 325, 328, 335, 433, 434 Protoascales, 216 Protoascomycetes, 216 Protobasidiomycetes, 218 Protococcoideæ, 158, 162 Protodiscales, 217 Protomyces, 216 Protonema (pro″to-ne′ma), 248, 264 Protoplasm, 1-12, 42-43, 342; movement of, 7-11 Psilotaceæ, 296 Pteridophytes, 295, 434 Pteris cretica, 346 Puccinia, 187 Puff-balls, 220 Pumpkin, 501 Purslane, 495 Pyrenoid, 2, 3 Pyrenomycetes, 217 Pyrola, 499 Pyxidium, 453

Quercus, 495 Quillworts, 289-291 Quince, 456

Raceme, 427 Radicle, 99 Ragweed, 502 Rainy-season flora, 481 Ranales, 496 Ranunculaceæ, 496 Raspberry, 454, 455 Red algæ, 171, 174; uses of, 175 Reproduction, 137, 143, 149, 154, 155, 179, 185, 186 Respiration, 110-116, 117 Rhamnales, 498 Rhizoids, 24-26 Rhizome, 354 Rhizomorph (rhi′zo-morph), 89 Rhizophidium, 214, 215 Rhizopus, 177-180, 215 Rhododendron, 499 Rhodomeniales, 175 Rhodophyceæ, 171 Rhus radicans, 416, 497 Riccia, 23, 164, 222-226 Ricinus, 497 Riverweed, 496 Root, function of, 410-418 Root hairs, absorption by, 19, 30, 32 Root hairs, action on soil, 82 Root pressure, 33, 34, 45 Root, structure of, 30, 361, 362 Root-tubercles, 92 Roots, kinds of, 415 Rosaceæ, 497 Rosales, 496 Rose family, 497 Rosette, 405 Rosette plants, 483 Rubiales, 501 Rudbeckia, 502 Rusts, 187-194

Salicaceæ, 494 Salix, 494 Salsify, 502 Salviniaceæ, 296 Samara, 451 Sandalwood, 495 Sanguinaria, 496 Santalales, 495 Sap, rise of, 53, 54 Sapindales, 497 Saprolegnia, 181-184 Saprolegniales, 215 Saprophytes, 83-85 Sargassum, 170 Sarraceniales, 496 Sarsaparilla, 499 Saxifrage, 496 Schizæaceæ, 295 Schizocarp, 451 Schizomycetes, 164 Schizophyceæ, 163 Sclerenchyma, 356-357, 361, 363 Scouring rush, 282 Screw-pine, 409, 492 Scrophulariaceæ, 501 Sedge family, 492 Seed, dispersal of, 458-463 Seed plants, 338 Seed, structure of, 98, 102 Seedlings, 97-107 Seeds, 330-334 Selaginella, 286-288, 292 Selaginellaceæ, 296 Sensitive fern, 273 Sensitive plants, 132, 396, 399 Sexual organs, 144, 147 Shadbush, 497 Shepherd’s-purse, 496 Shoot, floral, 419, 432 Shoots, 353-355; types of, 361-373; winter condition of, 374-377 Sieve tissue, 358, 363 Sieve tubes, 52, 53 Silique, 453 Silk-cotton tree, 417 Silver bell, 500 Siphoneæ, 146, 162 Skunk’s cabbage, 439-442 Slime molds, 83 Smoke-tree, 497 Societies, 475 Solanum, 501 Solidago, 502 Sourwood, 499 Spadix, 428 Spartium, 446 Spathyema fœtida, 438, 493 Spermagonia, 190 Spermatophytes, 338 Sphacelaria, 168 Sphærella lacustris, 158, 159 Sphærella nivalis, 158, 350 Sphæriales, 218 Sphagnales, 248 Sphagnum, 164 Spiderwort, 11, 493 Spike, 428 Spirodela polyrhiza, 27 Spirogyra, 1-5, 13, 14, 60, 72, 136-140, 350 Sporangia, 178-182 Sporangium, 253-258, 281, 290 Spores, 225, 256-258, 263, 264, 281 Sporocarp, 173 Sporogonium (spo″ro-go′ni-um), 224, 231, 233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 241, 246, 247, 248 Sporophyll, 274, 281, 292 Sporophyte (spo′ro-phyte), 225, 226, 232, 234, 237-239, 241, 242, 250, 261, 268, 270, 283, 292, 294, 314, 315, 317, 336-339, 340-348 434 Spurge family, 497 Squash, 501 Staminodium, 446 Starch, formation of, 68, 70-74; changed to sugar, 77, 78; translocation of, 73; digestion of, 75 Stems, types of, 365-373 Stems, woody, structure of, 381-382 Stoma (pl. stomata) (sto′ma-ta), 42-44, 46 Strawberry, 455, 497 Sugar, test for, 75, 76 Sumac, 497 Sundew, 133, 496 Sunflower, 399-401, 502 Sweet gum, 496 Symbiosis, 85, 86, 92-95 Synergids (syn´er-gids), 327, 330 Syngenœsious, 424 Synthetic assimilation, 67

Tape-grass, 493 Taraxacum densleonis, 502 Teasel, 501 Telegraph-plant, 399 Teleutospore, 188 Temperature, 134, 135, 465 Tetrasporaceæ, 161 Tetraspores, 173, 174 Thallophytes, 352 Thallus, 352 Thelephoraceæ, 219 Thistle family, 502 Thunderwood, 497 Thyrsus, 427 Tilia, 498 Tillandsia, 493 Tissue, tensions of, 57-59 Tissues, classification of, 363, 364; kinds of, 356-359; organization of, 356-362 Toad-flax, 501 Tomato, 501 Tradescantia, 493 Tragopogon, 502 Trailing arbutus, 499 Trametes pini, 90 Transpiration, 35-46 Tremellales, 218, 219 Triadelphous, 425 Trillium, 318-322, 494 Trumpet-creeper, 501 Tuberales, 217 Tubers, 373 Tundra, 481 Turgescence, 14, 15 Turgor, 20; restoration of, 56, 57 Typha, 493

Ulmaceæ, 495 Ulmus americana, 495 Ulothrix, 162 Ulotrichaceæ, 162 Ulvaceæ, 162 Umbel, 428 Umbellales, 498 Uredinales, 218 Uredineæ, 187-194, 218 Uredospore, 189 Uromyces caryophyllinus, 87 Urticales, 495 Ustilaginales, 218 Ustilagineæ, 218 Utricularia, 501

Vaccinium, 499 Vacuoles, 7, 8 Valerianales, 501 Vallisneria spiralis, 493 Variation, 338 Vascular tissue, 358, 363 Vaucheria, 142-146 Vaucheriaceæ, 162 Vegetation types, 464 Venus fly-trap, 133 Verbascum, 501 Verbena, 501 Vessels, 52, 53 Vetch, 92, 497 Viburnum, 501 Vicia sativa, 459 Viola cucullata, 436 Violaceæ, 498 Virgin’s bower, 462, 463 Viscum album, 84 Vitaceæ, 498 Volvocaceæ, 158

Walnut, 452, 494 Water, 465; flow of, in plants, 53, 54 Water-lilies, 496 Water-plantain, 493 White pine, 396 Wild carrot, 499 Willow family, 494 Wind, 471 Wintergreen, 499; leaf of, 43 Witch-hazel, 496 Wolffia, 28 Woodland formation, 470

Xerophytes, 467 Xylem, 50, 52, 360, 361, 363 Xylogen, 92 Xyridales, 493

Yeast, 216; fermentation of, 115, 116 Yucca, 480, 493

Zamia, 313, 316, 457 Zoogonidia, 143, 149, 178-184 Zoospore, 149, 154 Zygomycetes, 215 Zygospore, 2, 138-140, 157, 160, 179, 180 Zygote (zy′gote), 138, 179

TWO NOTABLE NATURE BOOKS.

FERNS

A Manual for the Northeastern States. By C. E. WATERS, Ph.D. (Johns Hopkins). With Analytical Keys Based on the Stalks. _With over 200 illustrations_ from original drawings and photographs. 362 pp. Square 8vo. Boxed. $3.00 _net_. (By mail, $3.34.)

A popular, but thoroughly scientific book, including all the ferns in the region covered by Britton’s Manual. Much information is also given concerning reproduction and classification, fern photography, etc.

PROF. L. M. UNDERWOOD, OF COLUMBIA: “It is really more scientific than one would expect from a work of a somewhat popular nature. The photographs are very fine, very carefully selected and will add much to the text. I do not see how they could be much finer.”

THE PLANT WORLD: “This book is likely to prove the leading popular work on ferns. The majority of the illustrations are from original photographs; in respect to this feature, it can be confidently asserted that _no finer examples of fern photography have ever been produced_.... May be expected to prove of permanent scientific value, as well as to satisfy a want which existing treatises have but imperfectly filled.”

MUSHROOMS

Edible, Poisonous Mushrooms, etc. By Prof. GEO. F. ATKINSON, of Cornell.

With recipes for cooking by Mrs. S. T. RORER, and the chemistry and toxicology of mushrooms, by J. F. CLARK. With 230 illustrations from photographs, including fifteen colored plates. 320pp. 8vo. $3.00 _net_ (by mail, $3.23).

Among the additions in this second edition are ten new plates, chapters on the “Uses of Mushrooms,” and on the “Cultivation of Mushrooms,” illustrated by several flash-light photographs.

EDUCATIONAL REVIEW: “It would be difficult to conceive of a more attractive and useful book, nor one that is destined to exert a greater influence in the study of an important class of plants that have been overlooked and avoided simply because of ignorance of their qualities, and the want of a suitable book of low price. In addition to its general attractiveness and the beauty of its illustrations, it is written in a style well calculated to win the merest tyro or the most accomplished student of the fungi.... These clear photographs and the plain descriptions make the book especially valuable for the amateur fungus hunter in picking out the edible from the poisonous species of the most common kinds.”

THE PLANT WORLD: “This is, without doubt, the most important and valuable work of its kind that has appeared in this country in recent years.... No student, either amateur or professional, can afford to be without it.”

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. (xii, ’03). CHICAGO.

=BRITTON’S MANUAL OF THE FLORA OF THE NORTHERN STATES AND CANADA.=

By Director N. L. BRITTON of the New York Botanical Garden. 1080 pp. 8vo. $2.25, net.

A comprehensive manual of over a thousand pages, containing about 4,500 descriptions, probably one-third more than any other. It is designed to meet modern requirements and outline modern conceptions of the science. It is based on _An Illustrated Flora_, prepared by Prof. Britton in co-operation with Judge Addison Brown. The text has been revised and brought up to date, and much of novelty has been added. All illustrations are omitted, but specific reference has been made to all of the 4,162 figures in the _Illustrated Flora_.

“It is the most complete and reliable work that ever appeared in the form of a flora of this region, and for the first time we have a manual in which the plant descriptions are drawn from the plants themselves, and do not represent compiled descriptions made by the early writers.”—Prof. D. M. Underwood of Columbia.

“This work will at once take its place as the standard manual of the region that it covers. It is far superior to any other work of its class ever published in America.”—Prof. Conway MacMillan of University of Minnesota.

“This book must at once find its way into the schools and colleges, to which it may be commended for the students in systematic botany.”—Prof. Chas. E. Bessey in “Science.”

“It is nothing if it is not compact; it is nothing if it is not up to date; it is nothing if it is not the work of a master. What more can be said, save that the more it is used the greater the appreciation by the plant-lovers in the region which it covers.”—Prof. Byron D. Halsted of Rutgers College.

“The work is well done; and as it is the only volume which gives in a way suitable for students the present state of the science, it cannot fail to take its place as a standard work.”—Prof. George Macloskie of Princeton.

“I regard the book as one that we cannot do without and one that will henceforth take its place as a necessary means of determination of the plant species within its range.”—Prof. V. M. Spalding of University of Michigan.

“An exceedingly valuable contribution to our botanical literature.... It is convenient to handle, and the low price will help to give it a large circulation.”—Prof. T. J. Burrill of the University of Illinois.

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VIII, ’05

CHAMPLIN’S YOUNG FOLKS’ Cyclopædia of Natural History

By J. D. CHAMPLIN and F. A. LUCAS

With over 800 illustrations. 725 pp. $2.50

A whole “nature library” about animals prepared by experts. Scientific facts are presented in simple language, and are enlivened by anecdotes, personal experiences, and references to history, art, and literature.

The illustrations are not only superior as animal pictures, but are genuinely illustrative, since they show the creature in its natural surroundings and characteristic action.

Extinct animals are fully treated, because these strange forms are fascinating to children, and because they illustrate the derivation of such familiar living animals as birds, horses, and dogs.

“A full menagerie of all sorts of animals, with a multitude of pictures.... A wonderful exhibition, and the story of each individual is interesting and calculated to stimulate the youthful mind in research.... Pictures carefully reproduced, so that they represent the creatures in their real forms and proportions.”—_Brooklyn Eagle._

CHAMPLIN’S YOUNG FOLKS’ Cyclopædia of Literature and Art

With 270 illustrations. 604 pp. 8vo. $2.50

Brief accounts of the great books, buildings, statues, pictures, operas, symphonies, etc.

“Few poems, plays, novels, pictures, statues, or fictitious characters that children—or most of their parents—of our day are likely to inquire about will be missed here.... Mr. Champlin’s judgment seems unusually sound—will be welcome and useful.”—_Nation._

“Every schoolboy should have it on his study table.... The range of the volume is very wide, for besides those items of classical knowledge which constitute the average school encyclopædia, we have brief descriptions given of modern books, poems, inventions, pictures, and persons about which the lad of the period should be acquainted.... The pictures in the volume are varied and truly illustrative. Old pictures and sculpture are presented in the usual line of drawings, but modern scenes and buildings are pictured through excellent half-tone reproductions of photographs.”—_N. Y. Times Saturday Review._

Earlier Volumes of Champlin’s Young Folks’ Cyclopædia. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. $2.50 each.

COMMON THINGS. PERSONS and PLACES. GAMES and SPORTS.

⁂ _12-page circular, with sample pages of Champlin’s Young Folks’ Cyclopædias and his other books, free._

HENRY HOLT & CO. =29 West 23d Street, New York= =378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago=

VIII, ’06

AMERICAN SCIENCE SERIES

_All prices are_ NET _unless marked_ RETAIL. _Details of the books will be found in Henry Holt & Co.’s Educational Catalogue, free on application._

=Physics.= By Prof. GEORGE F. BARKER, University of Pennsylvania. _Advanced Course._ 902 pp. 8vo. $3.50

=Chemistry.= By Prest. IRA REMSEN, Johns Hopkins University. Chemistry. _Advanced Course._ 850 pp. 8vo. 2.80 College Chemistry, xx + 669 pp. 8vo. 2.00 Chemistry. _Briefer Course._ (_New Edition_, 1901.) 435 pp. 12mo. 1.10 Chemistry. _Elementary Course._ 272 pp. 12mo. 80c. Laboratory Manual (_to Elementary Course_). 196 pp. 12mo. 40c. Chemical Experiments. By Prof. REMSEN and Dr. W. W. RANDALL. (_For Briefer Course._) _No_ blank pages for notes. 158 pp. 12mo. 50c.

=Astronomy.= By Prof. SIMON NEWCOMB of Johns Hopkins and EDWARD S. HOLDEN, late Director of the Lick Observatory, California. _Advanced Course._ 512 pp. 8vo. 2.00 The same. _Briefer Course._ 352 pp. 12mo. 1.12 The same. _Elementary Course._ By E. S. HOLDEN, 446 pp. 12mo. 1.20

=Geology.= By Profs. THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN and ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, Univ. of Chicago. Vol. I., 684 pp., $4.00. Vol. II. [_In press._]

=General Biology.= By Prof. W. T. SEDGWICK, Mass. Institute of Technology, and Prof. E. B. WILSON, Columbia Univ. _Revised and Enlarged._ 231pp. 8vo. 1.75

=Botany.= By Prof. C. E. BESSEY, Univ. of Nebraska. _Advanced Course._ 611 pp. 8vo. 2.20 The same. _Briefer Course._ 356 pp. 1.12

=Zoology.= By Prof. A. S. PACKARD, Jr., Brown University. _Advanced Course._ 722 pp. 8vo. 2.40 The same. _Briefer Course._ 338 pp. 1.12 The same. _Elementary Course._ 290 pp. 12mo. 80c.

=The Human Body.= By H. NEWELL MARTIN, sometime professor in the Johns Hopkins University. _Advanced Course._ 685 pp. 8vo. (Copies without chapter on Reproduction sent when specially ordered.) 2.50 The same. _Briefer Course._ (_Entirely new edition, revised by Prof. G. Wells Fitz of Harvard._) 408 pp. 12mo. 1.20 The same. _Elementary Course._ 261 pp. 12mo. 75c. The Human Body and the Effects of Narcotics. 261 pp. 12mo. 1.20

=Psychology.= By Prof. WILLIAM JAMES of Harvard. _Advanced Course._ 689 + 704 pp. 8vo. 2vols. 4.80 The same. _Briefer Course._ 478 pp. 12mo. 1.60

=Ethics.= By Profs. JOHN DEWEY and JAMES H. TUFTS, Chicago University. (_In preparation._)

=Political Economy.= By the late President FRANCIS A. WALKER, Mass. Institute of Technology. _Advanced Course._ 537 pp. 8vo. 2.00 The same. _Briefer Course._ 415 pp. 12mo. 1.20 The same. _Elementary Course._ 423 pp. 12mo. 1.00

=Finance.= By Prof. HENRY CARTER ADAMS, University of Michigan. _Advanced Course._ 573 pp. 8vo. 3.50

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CHEMISTRY

Cairns’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis Revised and enlarged by Dr. E. WALLER. 417 pp. 8vo. $2.00, _net_.

Cohen’s Physical Chemistry for Biologists Translated by Dr. MARTIN FISCHER, Chicago University. 343 pp. 12mo, $1.75, _net_.

Congdon’s Qualitative Analysis By Prof. ERNEST A. CONGDON, Drexel Institute. 64 pp. _Interleaved._ 8vo. 60c., _net_.

Nicholson and Avery’s Exercises in Chemistry With Outlines for the Study of Chemistry. To accompany any elementary text. By Prof. H. H. NICHOLSON, University of Nebraska, and Prof. SAMUEL AVERY, University of Idaho. 413 pp. 12mo. 60c., _net_.

Noyes’s (A. A.) General Principles of Physical Science An Introduction to the Study of the Principles of Chemistry. By Prof. A. A. NOYES, Mass. Institute of Technology. 160 pp. 8vo. $1.50, _net_.

Noyes’s (W. A.) Organic Chemistry By Prof. WM. A. NOYES, Rose Polytechnic Institute. 534 pp. 12mo. $1.50, _net_.

Qualitative Analysis (Elementary) x + 91 pp. 8vo. 80c., _net_.

Remsen’s Chemistries By Pres. IRA REMSEN, Johns Hopkins. (_American Science Series._) =Inorganic Chemistry= (_Advanced_). XXII + 853 pp. 8vo. $2.80, _net_. =College Chemistry= XX + 689 pp. 8vo. $2.00, _net_. =Introduction to Chemistry= (_Briefer_). XIX + 435 pp. 12mo. $1.12, _net_.

This book is used in hundreds of schools and colleges in this country. It has passed through several editions in England, and has been translated into German (being the elementary text-book in the University of Leipsic), French, and Italian.

=Remsen and Randall’s Experiments= (_for the “Introduction”_). 50c., _net_. =Elements of Chemistry= (_Elementary_). X + 272 pp. 12mo. 80c., _net_. =Laboratory Manual= (_for the “Elements”_). 40c., _net_.

Torrey’s Elementary Chemistry By JOSEPH TORREY, Jr., Harvard. 437 pp. 12mo. $1.25, _net_.

White’s Qualitative Analysis By Prof. JOHN WHITE, Univ. of Nebraska. 96 pp. 8vo. 80c., _net_.

Woodhull and Van Arsdale’s Chemical Experiments By Prof. JOHN F. WOODHULL and M. B. VAN ARSDALE, Teachers’ College, New York City. 136 pp. 12mo. 60c., _net_. Extremely simple experiments in the chemistry of daily life.

HENRY HOLT & CO. =29 West 23d Street, New York= =378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago= VIII, ’05

CHAMBERLIN & SALISBURY’S

GEOLOGY

By THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN and ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, Professors in the University of Chicago. (_American Science Series._) 2 vols. 8vo. _Vol. I. Geological Processes and their Results._ XIX + 654 pp. $4.00. _Vol. II. Earth History._ [_In preparation._]

This is a notable scientific work by two of the highest authorities on the subject in the United States, and yet written in a style so simple that it can be clearly understood by the intelligent reader who has had little previous training in the subject.

=Chas. D. Walcott=, _Director of U. S. Geological Survey_:—I am impressed with the admirable plan of the work and with the thorough manner in which geological principles and processes and their results have been presented. The text is written in an entertaining style and is supplemented by admirable illustrations, so that the student cannot fail to obtain a clear idea of the nature and work of geological agencies, of the present status of the science, and of the spirit which actuates the working geologist.

=Henry S. Williams=, _Professor in Yale University_.—I believe it is the best treatise on this part of the subject which we have seen in America.

=R. S. Woodward=, _Professor in Columbia University_:—It is admirable for its science, admirable for its literary perfection, and admirable for its unequalled illustrations.

=T. C. Hopkins=, _Professor in Syracuse University_:—It gives us the most advanced thought on all the great questions of dynamical and structural geology to be found in geological literature.

=H. Foster Bain=, _U. S. Geological Survey_:—The book is pre-eminently a teaching book and I have no doubt that it will at once become the standard American text-book on geology.

=William N. Rice=, _Professor in Wesleyan University_:—The book is full of new ideas. It is one of the indispensable books for the library of every working geologist and every one who wishes to be an up-to-date teacher of geology.

=T. A. Jaggar, Jr.=, _Assistant Professor in Harvard University_:—The book appears to be an excellent statement of modern American geology, with abundant new illustrative material, based upon the most recent work of government and other surveys. It is especially satisfactory to have in hand a geological volume which does not attempt to cover the whole field. Modern geology is much too large a subject to be condensed into a single volume.

HENRY HOLT & CO. =29 West 23d Street, New York= =378 Wabash Avenue, Chicago= VIII, ’05

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

UNITS. THE MOST COMMONLY USED DIVISIONS AND MULTIPLES.

{ _Centimeter_ (cm), 1/100 meter; _Millimeter_ (mm), { 1/1000 meter; _Micron_ (μ), 1/1000 millimeter. THE METER, for { The micron is the unit in micrometry. LENGTH { _Kilometer_, 1000 meters; used in measuring roads and { other long distances.

{ _Milligram_ (mg), 1/1000 gram. THE GRAM, for { _Kilogram_, 1000 grams, used for ordinary masses, like WEIGHT { groceries, etc.

THE LITER, for { _Cubic Centimeter_ (cc), 1/1000 liter. This is more CAPACITY { common than the correct form, Milliliter.

_Divisions_ of the _units_ are indicated by Latin prefixes: _deci_, 1/10; _centi_, 1/100; _milli_, 1/1000.

_Multiples_ are designated by Greek prefixes: _deka_, 10 times; _hecto_, 100 times; _kilo_, 1000 times; _myria_, 10,000 times.

TABLE OF METRIC AND ENGLISH MEASURES.

METER = 100 centimeters, 1000 millimeters, 1,000,000 microns, 39.3704 inches.

Millimeter (mm) = 1000 microns, 1/10 millimeter, 1/1000 meter, 1/25 inch, approximately.

MICRON (μ) (unit of measure in micrometry) = 1/1000 mm, 1/1000000 meter (0.000039 inch), 1/25000 inch, approximately.

Inch (in.) = 25.399772 mm (25.4 mm, approx.).

LITER = 1000 milliliters or 1000 cubic centimeters, 1 quart (approx.).

Cubic centimeter (cc or cctm) = 1/1000 liter.

Fluid ounce (8 fluidrachms) = 29.578 cc (30 cc, approx.).

GRAM = 15.432 grains.

Kilogram (kilo) = 2.204 avoirdupois pounds (2⅕ pounds, approx.).

Ounce Avoirdupois (437½ grains) = 28.349 grams } (30 grams, Ounce Troy or Apothecaries’ (480 grains) = 31.103 grams } approx.).

TEMPERATURE.

To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit: (C. × ⁹/₅) + 32 = F. For example, to find the equivalent of 10° Centigrade, C. = 10°, (10° × ⁹/₅) + 32 = 50° F.

To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade: (F. - 32°) × ⁵/₉ = C. For example, to reduce 50° Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = 50°, and (50° - 32°) × ⁵/₉ = 10° C.; or - 40° Fahrenheit to Centigrade, F. = - 40°, (- 40° - 32°) = - 72°, whence - 72° × ⁵/₉; = - 40° C.

—_From “The Microscope” (by S. H. Gage) by permission._