CHAPTER IX.
THE PROGRESS OF EDUCATION.
In reviewing the educational progress which our country has made during the later Middle Ages, our starting point must be the consideration of the ideals which at various times dominated education, and created a supply of, and a demand for, facilities for education.
The ideal behind the schools first established in this country was essentially religious. The early missionaries clearly realised that the Christian religion could not exist side by side with ignorance. It was necessary that provision should be made to enable converts effectively to participate in the divine service offered by the church; it was imperative that Latin should be taught to those who wished properly to understand the teaching of the church and to those who were desirous of being admitted to office in the church. Latin was the native language of the Christian missionaries; the services of the church were conducted in that tongue; and medieval ecclesiastical literature was written in the Latin language. More than this, Latin was the universal language of the civilised world of the time and, it must be remembered, there was no standard language in this country which could act as a substitute. It was in response to this ideal of the Church, the ideal which required that facilities for religious education should be within the reach of all, that the Church set herself to see that in every parish, in every town, in every city, a school should be found.
The progress of the Christian religion entailed a progress in morality. Progress in morality necessarily involved progress in civilisation. With the growth of civilisation, there developed gradually an interest in the things of the mind as well as the things of the body. Thus it came about that education began to possess a value for its own sake, apart from its service in connection with religious progress.
But the ideal of education, as necessary for moral perfection, never ceased to be the ideal behind the establishment of church schools. From the earliest date three things have been considered necessary for religious education: there must be a training in habits of worship and devotion, the mind must be stored with adequate and systematised knowledge of the doctrine of the Church to serve as a guide to conduct, and there must be held before the mind of the pupil the ideal character of Christ, human and divine.
Hence we note that the curriculum of the schools evolved in response to this ideal. It consisted, as we have seen, of song and grammar: song, because of its value in the training of habits of worship and devotion; grammar, because it put the scholar in possession of the key to unlock the store of knowledge which the Church possessed.
Gradually another ideal came into existence. People began to realise that these church schools were useful for "bread and butter" purposes. Just as the ideal which we have first outlined and which created the supply of schools was the highest possible, so the motive which exercised an important influence upon the demand for schools was the lowest possible. Yet, it must be confessed that the "bread and butter" motive proved to be a most powerful one in stimulating the demand for schools. Throughout the history of the human race self-interest has always been a powerful stimulant to action. Under normal circumstances and in the great majority of cases, as soon as a man freely realises that a certain course will be of service to him, he proceeds to take the necessary action.
These two ideals were in operation, side by side, during the period from the eleventh century to the close of the Middle Ages. The authorities of the church, believing in the value of education as an agency for the elevation of the human character sought to provide schools; the principle of self-interest, in many cases, led children to attend these schools.
Towards the latter part of the period we are now concerned with, a new ideal and a new agency gradually manifested itself. The new ideal arose out of the perception of the value of education. Education began to be conceived of as a preparation for a life in this world as well as a life in eternity; now "learning and manners" begin to be combined just as previously "religion and letters" were linked together. Thus we read that the school at Wisbech was founded that children might be instructed in "godly and vertuos lerninge,"[740] and the school at Tewkesbury "for the bringynge up of the saide youths in knowlege of vertue and good learninge."[741]
With this realisation of a social ideal for education, schools began to be provided by civic societies and by merchants who had gained a fortune for themselves. The social ideal arose out of the value of religious education, hence the curriculum was not affected. There was a change in the agency through which the school was provided, there was a change in the mode of governing the schools, there was a change in the relationship of the teacher to the church, but there was no change in the curriculum. Inspired originally by a religious ideal, it was now known to serve a social purpose.
Among the early merchant founders of schools may be mentioned William Sevenoaks, a grocer of London, who founded Sevenoaks Grammar School in 1432, Edmund Flower, citizen and merchant tailor of London, the founder of Cuckfield Grammar School in 1521, Richard Collyer, mercer, who founded Horsham School, Sussex, in 1532, and William Dyer, mercer, who founded a school at Houghton Regis in 1515.
Bearing these general principles in mind, we find that the main events connected with the progress of education during the later Middle Ages may conveniently be considered under three headings.
1. Circumstances which influenced the demand for schools.
2. Lollardism and Education.
3. Educational Legislation.
(1) The circumstances which influenced the demand for schools arose out of the existing social conditions. The Church, as a profession, offered considerable attraction to the able but penniless youth. Many of the outstanding churchmen of the Middle Ages were men who had come from a comparatively lowly origin. Thus William of Wykeham was the son of a yeoman whose ancestors for generations had "ploughed the same lands, knelt at the same altar, and paid due customs and service to the lord of the manor." Henry Chicheley, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, famous as the founder of All Soul's College, was also the son of a yeoman. William Waynflete, afterwards Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor of England, was of lowly origin and at one time occupied the comparatively humble position of grammar master at Eton College at a salary of L10 a year.
But apart from the great prizes of the church available to those of outstanding ability, there were also a large number of openings possible to the man who had availed himself of the educational facilities offered by the church schools and had there mastered the elements of grammar. He might proceed from the parochial church schools to the school of a collegiate church, and possibly he might make his way to the university and ultimately obtain ordination to the priesthood.
The financial advantages of the education offered by the church became obvious after the Norman Conquest, and arose out of an undesigned circumstance. Prior to the Conquest, the parishes of this country were under the spiritual care of Saxon rectors who were generally well-born and whose position was well-endowed. The Norman Conquest ultimately resulted in these men being deprived of their cures and being replaced by ill-paid vicars or parochial chaplains. The chief factors which brought about this condition of things were impropriations, papal provisors, pluralities, and the custom, which gradually grew up, of appointing to livings men who had only been admitted to minor orders in the church.
The practice of impropriation was an indirect result of the revival of the monastic principle. The custom of endowing a newly founded monastery with the patronage of existing churches gradually came into being. When a vacancy occurred, the monastery as patrons of the benefice bestowed it upon themselves as a corporation, and drew the stipend attached to it, appointing a "vicar" to perform the requisite spiritual duties, and allowing the vicar only a comparatively insignificant share of the temporalities of the benefice. The position of the incumbent was consequently considerably degraded both in dignity and in emolument.
The custom of papal provisors dates from the thirteenth century when the popes began to assume a power of nominating to vacant benefices. In this way foreigners were appointed to many of the most lucrative of the English benefices. Naturally they never came near their parishes, but contented themselves with the appointment of an ill-paid parochial chaplain to discharge the necessary duties. This custom was put an end to by the Statute of Praemunire (1392).
We must also note that the system of pluralities was carried on in the Middle Ages to an extent which seems to us almost incredible to-day. One man might hold several valuable livings which he never went near, whilst a clerk, who was frequently paid a miserable wage, was expected to do the work. Equally vicious was the custom of appointing to benefices men who had only been admitted to minor clerical orders. "A glance at the lists of incumbents of parishes in any good county history will reveal the fact that rectors of parishes were often only deacons, sub-deacons, or acolytes. It is clear that in many of these cases--probably in the majority of them--the men had taken minor orders only to qualify themselves for holding the temporalities of a benefice and never proceeded to the priesthood at all."[742] Just as in the other cases we have mentioned, these men drew the revenues of the living and then appointed a deputy at a small salary to be responsible for the duty.
Whilst the spiritual effects of this policy were disastrous, the policy itself resulted in education becoming an object of desire to men in the lower social grades, as they saw in education an opportunity of escape from their existing circumstances. It does not follow that these men made either incapable or undesirable priests. One of the most charming pictures drawn by Chaucer is that of the poor parson of the town, but his social position is indicated by the fact that "with him there was a ploughman, was his brother."
The number of possible ecclesiastical appointments does not end with vicars and parochial chaplains. In addition there were the numerous chantries, which existed in connection with so very many churches in the country, and for each of which one or two priests would be required. Then again the gilds to which we have already referred usually maintained one or more chaplains. In these ways employment would probably be found for a large number of priests. "There were at the Reformation, ten gilds in Windham in Norfolk, seven at Hingham, seventeen at Yarmouth. Moreover, a gild like a chantry, had sometimes more than one gild priest. Leland tells us that the gild of St. John's in St. Botolph's Church, Boston, had ten priests 'living in a fayre house at the west end of the parish churchyard.' In St. Mary's Church, Lichfield, was a gild which had five priests."[743]
Besides all these regular appointments, there were a large number of priests who earned fees by taking "temporary engagements" to say masses for the souls of the departed. Thus Archbishop Islip in his "Constitutions" speaks of this class as those who "through covetousness and love of ease, not content with reasonable salaries, demand excessive pay for their labours and receive it."[744] Chaucer introduces one of these characters into his _Canon Yeoman's Tale_:--
"In London was a priest an annueller, That therein dwelled hadde many a year Which was so pleasant and so serviceable Unto the wife there as he was at table That she would suffer him no thing to pay For board ne clothing went he never so gay And spending silver had he right ynoit."
Employment for qualified men was also available in connection with the establishments of great nobles. The household books which are available usually contain a record relating to a "maister of gramer." In addition to grammar masters, these establishments often afforded opportunities for employment for a number of priests. The "Household Book of the Earl of Northumberland" gives us information which enables us to see that he maintained a dean, ten other priests, and six children, who formed a choir for his private chapel.[745]
It was not only noblemen of high standing who numbered chaplains on their establishment. Knights and gentlemen and even wealthy tradesmen and yeomen also had their domestic chaplains. Sir Thomas More writes: "there was such a rabel (of priests) that every mean man must have a priest to wait upon his wife, which no man almost lacketh now."[746]
We have thus demonstrated that there existed a considerable demand for men who had received a certain amount of education, and that as a result the demand for schools was stimulated. The account we have given in the preceding part of this work shows that a supply of schools was forthcoming to meet this demand. We have confined ourselves here to treating of the demand for men of education in connection with ecclesiastical positions, but it would also have been possible to show that men of education were also needed in connection with commerce and law.
(2) Turning next to the second of the three headings we have indicated, we note that Lollardism is the general term applied to the political and theological doctrines associated with the name of John Wycliffe. His main ideas are embodied in his _De Civili Domino_ and _De Domino Divino_. The chief subject discussed in these works is the nature of the relationship between a ruler and his subjects and between divine and civil lordship. His conception of this relationship is based on a feudal view of society, and he continually borrows illustrations of the relationship of divine to civil lordship from the connection between feudal lord and vassal. It was his application of this doctrine to questions touching temporal property that brought him under the imputation of heresy because he taught that "ecclesiastical persons or corporations had no indefeasible right to temporalities which might be taken away in case of misuse."[747] This theory cut across the doctrine of the supremacy of the spiritual power. The State, according to Wycliffe, possessed the power of determining the function of the Church, and when the Church either extended the sphere of its legitimate operations or misused the revenues entrusted to it for spiritual purposes, then it was the duty of the State to take such action as might be necessary for the reformation of the Church.
Poole points out[748] that the main principle contained in the writings of Wycliffe is the recognition of the significance of the individual whom Wycliffe regarded as directly responsible to God, and to no one else. Wycliffe divorced the Church from any necessary connection with the State and conceived of it simply as a spiritual idea and as consisting of individuals in a certain relation to God. It is to the uniqueness of Wycliffe's idea of individualism that Poole considers the claim of Wycliffe to rank as the "precursor of the Protestant reformation" to be due.
The doctrines associated with Wycliffe seem to have made great progress among the teachers of the time. This is not a matter for surprise. Facilities for education were abundant and education was free. Either by means of begging, or by exhibitions, or through social interest, a student might be maintained without expense to himself until his course was completed. What happened then? Owing to the system of patronage prevailing in the Church, the clerk found that all the lucrative positions were usually given to men who on account of their social connections could command influence, regardless of their merits or demerits. This is brought out clearly when we consider the presentees to benefices by patrons whom Bishop Grosseteste refused to institute. One presentee was refused by the bishop because he was a "boy still in Ovid";[749] another on the ground that the young man was practically illiterate;[750] in answer to a request of the papal legate, to institute a son of Earl Ferrers to a living, the bishop asks to be excused; when pressed, he suggests that the son of Earl Ferrers should simply draw the revenues of the living and appoint a vicar to discharge the spiritual duties.[751]
It is not a matter of wonder that the views of Wycliffe found ready supporters among those of the clergy who were of a low social origin. They considered themselves qualified for ecclesiastical positions which they had little hope of ever filling; hence they drifted to the teaching profession, and in their bitterness of feeling would use the opportunity they possessed to propagate among their scholars the new ideas they had acquired.
It is on an hypothesis of the kind which we have outlined that it is possible to interpret the legislation against Lollard teachers which was enacted in the fifteenth century. In 1400, an Act was passed which provided that:--
"None of such sect and wicked doctrines and opinions shall make any conventicles, or in any wise hold or exercise schools."[752]
Any offender against this Act or anyone who in any way assisted or supported an offender, "shall before the people in an high place be burnt."
In 1406 a petition was presented to the king by the Prince of Wales which drew attention to the propagation of teaching against the temporal possessions of the clergy by certain teachers in "lieux secretes appellez escoles,"[753] and prayed that no man or woman of any sect or doctrine which was contrary to the catholic faith should hold school. The rigour with which this commission was enforced is illustrated by the commission which was issued to the prior of St. Mary's, Coventry, and to the mayor and bailiffs of that city ordering them to arrest and imprison all offenders found there.
The spread of Lollardism among teachers is further illustrated by the "Constitutions" of Archbishop Arundel issued in 1408. He forbade "masters and all who teach boys or others the arts of grammar and that instruct men in the first sciences" to teach theology except in accordance with the customary teaching of the Church, and also prohibited them from allowing their scholars to select as subjects for disputations any topics relating to the catholic faith or the sacraments of the Church.[754]
As the existing legislation was apparently not sufficient to effect the desired purpose, another Act was passed in 1414. By this Act "all of them which hold any errors or heresies as Lollards" and who sustained it in "sermons, schools, conventicles, congregations, and confederacies" were to be arrested.[755]
We have not found it possible to trace the effects of this legislation.
(3) We pass next to consider the Educational Legislation during the later Middle Ages. In our summary of the economic condition of this country at the opening of this period we referred to the scarcity of labour consequent upon the Black Death.[756] As a result an Act was passed in 1388, which provided that "he or she which used to labour at the Plough and Cart till they be of the age of twelve years, from henceforth they shall abide at the same labour without being put to any Mystery or Handicraft; and if any Covenant or Bond of Apprentice be from henceforth made to the contrary, the same shall be taken for void."[757] The reason for this Act is embodied in the statute itself: "there is so great scarcity of Labourers and other Servants of Husbandry that the Gentlemen and other People of the realm be greatly impoverished for the cause thereof."
Either on account of the prosperity of the labouring classes due to the increase of wages resulting from the demand for labour in the later fourteenth century, or to avoid the provisions of the Act we have just described, or for the purpose of making progress in social status, the custom of sending children to schools seems to have developed. As a result, the Commons of England petitioned the king in 1391 "de ordeiner et comander, que null neif ou Vileyn mette ses Enfantz de cy en avant a Escoles pur eux avancer par Clergie et ce en maintenance et salvation de l'honour de toutz Frankes du Roialme."[758]
Mr. de Montmorency suggests four reasons for this action on the part of the Commons.
(1) The Commons "were anxious to check the further increase in the number of unbeneficed clergy and of those whom the bishops could claim as subject to ecclesiastical law."
(2) Lollardism would be very attractive to the newly educated and "the Legislature must have realised the revolutionary possibility of the first and nobler Reformation."
(3) "The jurisdiction of Rome increased with the increase of popular education," consequently, this "was a serious consideration for the patriotic baronage of England."
(4) If a man became ordained, his services would be lost to the manor.[759]
These reasons do not appear to be very conclusive. The first implies an opposition between the clergy and laity which was non-existent; the second and the third are contradictory. If the development of education fostered Lollardism (which is probable, though it has not yet been demonstrated) it could scarcely be regarded as equally favourable to Rome. Further, the desire of limiting the jurisdiction of the Church could have been gratified more simply by the abolition of the "privilege of clergy."
His fourth reason is a more plausible one but it must be noted that the consent of the lord of the manor was required before children could be sent to schools and before ordination.[760] For this reason, legislation would scarcely be necessary to effect this purpose.
The more probable reason for this petition of the commons is that the diminution of the supply of labour had caused employers to become fearful of future possibilities, and that they were afraid that the result of sending children to school would be that the number of those who would be prepared to act as "hewers of wood and drawers of water" would be seriously diminished.
We have just referred to the custom that villeins were not allowed to send their children to school without the consent of their lords. This custom was abolished by a statute of 1406 which provided that "chascun homme ou femme de quele estate ou condicion qil soit, soit fraunc de mettre son fitz ou file dapprendre lettereure a quelconque escole que leur plest deinz le Roialme."[761] The same statute provided that labourers could not apprentice their children to trades and manufactures in the towns unless they owned land worth L1 a year, probably about L40 a year now.
It is difficult to understand the reasons for this legislation. The Feudal System was already crumbling and its complete collapse was not far off. It cannot therefore be assumed that the Act was passed merely to remove a grievance, because the grievance itself was probably lightly felt. It is just possible that the Act might have been intended to facilitate the process by which it was sought to make good the deficiency of priests occasioned by the Black Death. The reference to "daughters," however, makes this suggestion improbable. There is also the possibility that the phrase "dapprendre lettereure" meant an education which would provide for "godly and virtuous living," which, as we have shown in the preceding chapter, was becoming recognised as a part of the educational ideal.
The years 1446-7 are important in the history of education in England. In 1446 the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London petitioned the king for permission to erect two new grammar schools in London; the permission was granted and the Letters Patent duly issued.[762] In 1447, a petition was similarly sent to the Commons by four London Rectors for permission to set up four new grammar schools.[763] As we have already considered these petitions in the chapter dealing with the question of the monopoly of school keeping,[764] it will not be necessary for us to deal further with the topic here.
We have now brought to a close our exposition of the educational administration in England in the Middle Ages. Until comparatively recently it was generally believed that the educational provision available in this country could not be traced back further than to the efforts of the Reformers of the Church in the sixteenth century, and to the influence of the Renaissance. We are now able to realise that the two centuries preceding the Reformation, at least, were a period in which facilities for education in England were widespread and practically open freely to all. The educational effect of the Reformation--even though undesigned--was to remove from the great mass of the people the opportunities for attending school which had previously been available for them. It is also extremely probable that the significance of the Renaissance upon the educational development of this country has been considerably exaggerated; this, however, is a question which still awaits investigation.
APPENDIX.
WORKS CONSULTED.
A.--SOURCES.
Aelfric: _Homilies_ (with translation by B. Thorpe), 2 vols., Lond., 1844-6.
Alcuin: _Opera Omnia Patrologiae Cursus Complexus_, ed. Migne, vols. C., CI., 1851.
Aldhelm: _Opera_, ed. J. A. Giles, Oxon., 1844.
Alfred the Great: _Preface to Gregory's Pastoral Care_, ed. H. Sweet (Early English Text Society), 50.
_Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_, ed. B. Thorpe, (Rec. Com.) Lond., 1840.
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, The_, ed. B. Thorpe, 2 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1861.
_Annales Monastici_, ed. H. R. Luard, 5 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1864-6-9.
_Asserius de Rebus Gestis Alfredi_, ed. W. H. Stevenson, Lond., 1904.
Bacon, Roger: _Opera Inedita_, ed. J. S. Brewer (R. S.), Lond., 1859.
Basil, St.: _Opera_, 3 vols., Paris, 1839.
_Becket, Thomas a, Materials for a History of_, ed. J. C. Robertson, J. B. Sheppard (R. S.), 7 vols., Lond., 1885.
Bede: _Opera Historica_, ed. C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxon., 1876.
_Beverley Minster, Memorials of_, ed. A. F. Leach (Surtees Society), Durham, 1898.
Cardwell, E.: _Synodalia_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1842.
Cardwell, E.: _Documentary Annals of the Church of England_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1844.
_Charters and Documents illustrating the History of the Cathedral City of Sarum_, 1100-1300, ed. W. D. Macray (R. S.), 1891.
Chaucer, Geoffrey: _Complete Works_, ed. W. W. Skeat, Oxon., 1894-7.
_Chronica Jocelini de Brakelonda_, ed. J. G. Rakewood (Camden Society Publications, XIII.).
_Chronica Monasterii St. Albani, Johannis de Trokelowe, Chronica et Annales_, ed. H. T. Riley, 2 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1866.
_Chronica Monasterii Gesta Abbatum Monasterii Sancti Albani_, ed. H. T. Riley, 3 vols. (R. S.), 1867-9.
_Chronica Monasterii, Ypodigma Neustriae a Thomas Walsingham_, ed. H. T. Riley (R. S.), 1876.
_Chronica Rogeri de Wendover_, ed. H. G. Hewlett, 3 vols., Lond., 1886-9.
_Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis_, ed. W. D. Macray, 2 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1882-83.
_Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon_, ed. J. S. Stevenson, 2 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1858.
_Chronicon Petroburgense_ (Camden Society, XLVII.), 1849.
_Corpus Juris Canonici_, ed. A. L. Richter, 2 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879-81.
_Coventry Leet Book_, ed. M. D. Harris (Early English Text Society), 1907.
Dachery, L.: _Spicilegium, sive collectio veterum scriptorum qui in Galliae Bibliothecis delituerant_, ed. nova. a De la Barre, 3 vols., Paris, 1723.
_Documents illustrating Early Education in Worcester_, ed. A. F. Leach, Lond., 1913.
Dugdale, Sir W.: _Monasticon Anglicanum_, ed. J. Caley, H. Ellis, B. Bandinel, 6 vols., Lond., 1817.
_Dunstan, St., Memorials of_, ed. W. Stubbs (R. S.), Lond., 1874.
_Early Yorkshire Schools_, ed. A. F. Leach (Yorks. Archaeol. Assoc. Record Series, vols. XXVII. and XXXII.), 1899-1903.
_Fifty Earliest English Wills_ (1387-1439), ed. F. J. Furnivall (Early English Text Society), No. 67.
_Flores Historarium_, ed. H. R. Luard, 3 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1890.
_Freemen of York_ (Surtees Soc.), XCVIII., 2 vols., 1897.
_Giraldus Cambrensis_, Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimondes, A. F. Warner (R. S.), 8 vols., Lond., 1861-91.
Gross, Charles: _The Gild Merchant_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1890.
Grosseteste, Robert: _Epistolae_, ed. H. R. Luard (R. S.), Lond., 1861.
Haddon and Stubbs: _Councils and Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1877-8.
_Higden, Ranulf, Polychronicon_ (with the English translation of John Trevisa), ed. C. Babington, J. R. Lumby, 9 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1865-83.
Hingeston-Randulph, F. C.: _The Episcopal Registers of the Diocese of Exeter_, Lond., 1886.
_Historia et Cartularium Monasterii St. Petri Gloucestriae_, ed. W. H. Harte, 3 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1863-67.
_Historians and Archbishops of the Church of York_, ed. J. Raine, 3 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1879-94.
_Historical Papers and Letters from the Northern Registers_, ed. J. Raine (R. S.), Lond., 1873.
_Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury_, ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols. (R. S.), 1879-80.
_Household Books of John, Duke of Norfolk, and Thomas, Earl of Surrey_, Roxburg Club, 1844.
John of Salisbury: _Omnia Opera_, ed. J. A. Giles, 5 vols., Oxon., 1848.
Johnson, J.: _A Collection of the Laws and Canons of the Church of England_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1850-1.
Lanfranc: _Opera_, ed. J. A. Giles, Oxon., 1844.
Leach, A. F.: _Educational Charters_, Lond., 1911.
Leach, A. F.: _English Schools at the Reformation_, Lond., 1897.
_Liber Censualis Vocati Domesday Book_, ed. Sir H. Ellis (Rec. Com.), Lond., 1816.
_Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis_, ed. J. Stevenson (Surtees Society), 1841.
_Manners and Meals in the Olden Times_, ed. F. J. Furnivall (Early English Text Society), O. S. XXXII.
_Memorials of St. Edmunds Abbey_, ed. T. Arnold, 3 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1890-1891.
Migne: _Patrologiae Cursus Complexus_, vols. XXXI., LXVI., CXXXVII., CXXXVIII., CXXXIX.
_Monumenta Academica_, ed. H. Anstey, 2 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1868.
_Monumenta Franciscana_, ed. J. S. Brewer, R. Hewlett (R. S.), 4 vols. 1858-1882.
Neckham, Alexander: _De Natura Rerum_, ed. T. Wright (R. S.), Lond., 1863.
_Northumberland Household Book_, ed. Bishop Percy, 2nd. edition, Lond., 1827.
_Norwich, Visitations of the Diocese of_, 1492-1532, ed. A. Jessop (Camden Society, XLIII.).
_Paston Letters_, ed. J. Gairdner, 6 vols., Lond., 1904.
Pecock, R.: _Repressor of Over-Much Blaming of the Clergy_, ed. C. Babington, 2 vols. (R. S.), 1860.
Pertz, G. H.: _Leges_, 5 vols., Hanover, 1853.
_Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council_, ed. Sir H. Nicholas, 7 vols. (Rec. Com.), 1834-37.
_Register of St. Osmund_, ed. Rev. W. H. R. Jones, 2 vols. (R. S.), 1883-5.
_Registrum Palatinum Dunelmensis_, ed. Sir T. D. Hardy, 4 vols. (R. S.), Lond., 1873-78.
_Rotuli Hugonis de Welles Episcopi Lincolniensis_, ed. W. P. W. Phillimore, F. H. Davies, 3 vols. (Lincoln Record Soc.), 1911.
Sharp, R. R.: _Calendar of Wills proved and enrolled in the Court of Husting_, Lond., 1889-90.
Simpson, W. Sparrow: _Registrum Statutorum et Consuetudinum Ecclesiae Cathedralis St. Pauli_, Lond., 1897.
Smith, J. Toulmin: _English Gilds_ (Early English Text Society), Lond., 1870.
Sonner, W.: _Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum_, Oxon., 1659.
_Southwell Minster, Visitations and Memorials of_, ed. A. F. Leach (Camden Society), N. S., 1891.
_Statutes of the Realm_, ed. Sir T. E. Tompkins, J. Raithby, J. Caley, and W. Elliot (Rec. Com.), 9 vols., 1819-28.
Stow: _A Survey of London_, ed. C. L. Kingsford, 2 vols., Oxon., 1905.
_Valor Ecclesiasticus_, ed. J. Caley, Rev. J. Hunter (Rec. Com.), 1817-34.
_Waltham Abbey, The Foundations of_, ed. W. Stubbs, (R. S.), Lond., 1861.
Wharton, H.: _Anglia Sacra seu Collectio Historiarum de Archiepiscopis et Episcopis Angliae_, 2 vols., Lond., 1861.
Wilkins, D.: _Concilia Magnae Britannicae et Hiberniae_, 4 vols., Lond., 1737.
William of Malmesbury: _De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum_, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton (R. S.), Lond., 1870.
William of Malmesbury: _De Gestis Regum Anglorum_, ed. W. Stubbs (R. S.), Lond., 1887-89.
Wulfstan: _Vita St. Aethelwoldi_; Migne: _Patrologiae Cursus Complexus_, CXXXVII.
_Yorkshire Chantry Surveys_, ed. J. Rainer, 2 vols. (Surtees Society), Lond., 1898.
_Calendars of the Charter Rolls._
_Calendars of the Close Rolls._
_Calendars of the Patent Rolls._
B.--OTHER WORKS.
Adams, G. B.: _Civilisation during the Middle Ages_, New York, 1894.
Allain, L'Abbe: _L'instruction primaire en France avant la Revolution_, Paris, 1881.
Ampere, J. J.: _Histoire Litteraire de la France avant la Douzieme Siecle_, 3 vols., 1839-40.
Ashley, W. J.: _Introduction to English Economic History_, 2 vols., Lond., 1886.
Azarias, Brother: _Essays Educational_, Chicago, 1896.
Bateson, M.: _Medieval England_, Lond., 1903.
Boehmer: _Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie im XI. und XII. Jahrhundert_, Leipzig, 1899.
Brodrick, G. C.: _History of the University of Oxford_, Lond., 1896.
Burrows, Montague: _Collectanea_, Second Series (_Oxford Hist. Soc. Publications_, vol. XVI.), Third Series, vol. XXXII., Oxon., 1890, 1896.
Capes, W. W.: _The English Church in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries_, Lond., 1900.
Cavendish, G.: _Life of Cardinal Wolsey_, ed. H. W. Singer, Lond., 1827.
Chevrier, Fischer de: _Histoire de l'instruction populaire en France_, Paris, 1898.
Church, R. W.: _St. Anselm_, Lond., 1884.
Clark, J. Willis: _The Care of Books_, New York, 1901.
Compayre, G.: _Abelard, and the Origin and Early History of the Universities_, New York, 1893.
Conybeare, E.: _Alfred in the Chronicles_, Lond., 1900.
Cooper, C. H.: _Annals of Cambridge_, 4 vols., Camb., 1842-1852.
Cornish, F. W.: _Chivalry_, Lond., 1901.
Coulton, G. C.: _Monastic Schools in the Middle Ages_, Lond., 1913.
Cunningham, W.: _The Growth of English Commerce and Industry_, Camb., 1882.
Cutts, E. L.: _Parish Priests and their People in the Middle Ages_, Lond., 1898.
Cutts, E. L.: _Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages_, Lond., 1873.
Davidson, Thos.: _Aristotle and the Ancient Educational Ideals_, New York, 1892.
Denifle, H.: _Die Enstehung der Universitatem des Mittelalters bis 1400_, Berlin, 1885.
Dill, S.: _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, 2nd edition, Lond., 1899.
Dittes, Fr.: _Gesichte der Erziehung und der Unterrichtes_, Leipzig, 1890.
Drane, A. T.: _Christian Schools and Scholars_, Lond., 1881.
Draper, J. W.: _Intellectual Development of Europe_, 2 vols., New York, 1876.
Dunning, W. A.: _History of Political Theories_, New York, 1905.
Edgar, J.: _History of Early Scottish Education_, Edinburgh, 1893.
Emerton, E.: _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_, Boston, 1883.
Emerton, E.: _Medieval Europe_, Boston, 1894.
Fletcher, C. R. L.: _Collectanea_, First Series. (_Oxf. Hist. Soc. Pubs._), vol. V., Oxon., 1885.
Froude, J. A.: _History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the death of Elizabeth_, 12 vols., 1856-70.
Furnivall, F. J.: _The Babees Book_, Lond., 1868.
Gaskoin, C. J. B.: _Alcuin_, Lond., 1904.
Gasquet, F. A.: _The Black Death_, 2nd edition, Lond., 1908.
Gasquet, F. A.: _The Old English Bible and Other Essays_, Lond., 1897.
Gautier, Leon: _Chivalry_, Lond., 1891.
Green, Mrs. J. R.: _Town Life in the Fifteenth Century_, 2 vols., Lond., 1805.
Hartson, L. D.: _A Study of Voluntary Associations_ (Ped. Sem., Vol. XVIII., No. 1), Worcester, Mass., 1911.
Hazlitt, W. C.: _Schools, School Books and Schoolmasters_, Lond., 1887.
Healy, J.: _Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars_, Dublin, 1890.
Hibbert, F. A.: _Influence and Development of English Gilds_, Camb., 1891.
Hodgkin, T.: _Italy and her Invaders_, 4 vols., Camb., 1880-5.
Hodgson, G. E.: _Primitive Christian Education_, Edinburgh, 1912.
Holman, H.: _English National Education_, Lond., 1898.
Hunt, W.: _The English Church from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest_, Lond., 1899.
Jessop, A.: _The Coming of the Friars_, Lond., 1901.
Kemble, J. M.: _Saxons in England_, 2 vols., Lond., 1849.
Lacroix, P.: _Le Chevalrie et Les Croisades_, Paris, 1890.
Lacroix, P.: _L'ecole et la Science jusqu'a la Renaissance_, Paris, 1887.
Lacroix, P.: _Le moyen Age et la Renaissance_, 5 vols., Paris, 1848-51.
Laurie, S. S.: _Rise and Constitution of the Early Universities_, New York, 1886.
Leach, A. F.: _A History of Warwick School_, Lond., 1906.
Leach, A. F.: _History of Winchester College_, Lond., 1899.
Little, A. G.: _The Grey Friars at Oxford_ (Oxf. Hist. Soc. Pubs., vol. XX.), Oxon., 1891.
Lyte, Sir H. C. M.: _A History of Eton College_, Lond., 1875.
Lyte, Sir H. C. M.: _History of the University of Oxford_, Lond., 1886.
Maitland, S. R.: _The Dark Ages_, Lond., 1899.
Maitre, Leon: _Les ecoles episcopales et monastiques, 769-1180_, Paris, 1866.
Medley, D. L.: _English Constitutional History_, 4th edition, Lond., 1907.
Meredith, H. C.: _Economic History of England_, Lond. (n.d.).
Mignet, F. A. A.: _Memoire sur la conversion de l'Allemagne par les Moines_, Paris (n.d.).
Monnier, M. F., _Alcuin et Charlemagne_, Paris, 1860.
Montalembert, Count de: _The Monks of the West_, 7 vols., Lond., 1861-79.
Montmorency, J. E. G. de: _State Intervention in English Education from the Earliest Times to 1833_, Camb., 1902.
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Ozanam, A. F.: _La Civilisation Chretienne chez les Francs_, Paris, 1872.
Parker, H.: _The Seven Liberal Arts; in Eng. Hist. Rev._, vol. V., pp. 417-461, July 1890.
Poole, R. L.: _Illustrations of Medieval Thought_, Lond., 1844.
Putnam, G. H.: _Books and their Makers during the Later Middle Ages_, 2 vols., Lond., 1896.
Rashdall, H.: _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, 2 vols., Oxon., 1895.
_Report of the Schools Enquiry Commission_, Lond., 1868.
Rogers, J. E. T.: _History of Agriculture and Prices in England_, 4 vols., Lond., 1866-82.
Roper, W.: _Life of Sir Thos. More_, ed. S. W. Singer, Chiswick, 1882.
Sandys, E. G.: _History of Classical Scholarship_, 3 vols., Camb., 1903.
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Theiner, A.: _Histoire des Institutions d'Education Ecclesiastique_, 2 vols., Paris, 1841.
Timbs, J.: _School Days of Eminent Men_, Lond. (n. d.).
Townsend, W. T.: _Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages_, Lond., 1881.
Traill, H. D.: _Social England_, 6 vols., Lond., 1894.
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Watson, Foster: _English Grammar Schools_, Camb., 1908.
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ABBREVIATIONS.
_Ed. Ch._ Educational Charters.
_E. S. R._ English Schools at the Reformation.
_S. M. E._ Schools of Medieval England.
INDEX.
Aachen, Council of, 36, 58, 60
Abbot, John, 125, 155
Abbot of Ramsey, 36
Abbotsbury Gild, 144
"A B C," 74, 167, 228, 229
Abelard, 134, 135, 218
Acaster College, 75, 91, 211 _et seq._
Adam du Petit Point, 78, 220
Adelard, 34, 78
Adulterine Gilds, 148
Aelfric, Abbot, 36, 37, 54
Agatha, 13
Agriculture, 7, 129, 130
Aidan, St., 11, 15, 16
Aix-la-Chapelle, Council of, 58, 60
Alberic, 78, 218
Albert, Archbishop, 26, 27
Albertus Magnus, 134
Albigensian Heresy, 184
Alchemy, 224
Alcuin, 26 _et seq._, 29, 30, 36
Aldeborough, 163, 165
Aldhelm, 12, 26
Alexander II., Pope, 58
Alexander of Hales, 187
Alexandria, Schools of, 20
Alfeah, Bishop, 34
Alfred's Palace School, 33
Alfred the Great, 31 _et seq._
All Hallow's (London) School, 96
All Saints' School, Warwick, 43
Almonry Schools, 69, 106, 170, 172, 174
Almshouses, 200, 210
Aluuid, 41
Annones, 40
Anselm, Archbishop, 57, 58, 60, 78, 134, 135
Appointment of Schoolmasters, 104, 105
Apprenticeship, 153, 154
Aquinas, Thomas, 134
Arabic, 224, 225
Architecture, 7
Aristotle, 134, 220, 225
Art, 228
Arundel School, 105, 241
Asceticism, 6
Aske, Robert, 175
Asser, 32
Asserton, 168
Astronomy, 25
Athelard of Waltham, 42
Athelhelm, 39, 117
Athelstan, King, 34
Athelwold, Bishop, 33, 35
Athens, Schools at, 20
Augustine, St., of Canterbury, 3, 12, 20, 26
Augustine, St., of Hippo, 18, 23
Avranches School, 58
Bacon, Roger, 87, 224-227
Balcombe, 229
Balsham, Bishop, 204
Banbury, 230
Bardney, 174
Barton School, 86
Basil, St., of Caesarea, 7, 14, 27
Basil, St., of Lindisfarne, 11
Basingstoke, 163, 164
Battle School, 105
Beccles Manor, 105
Beckington, Bishop, 90
Bec, Monastery of, 27, 57, 58
Bede, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 24, 25 _et seq._
Bedford School, 85, 105
Begging Scholars, 189 _et seq._
Benedict Biscop, 12, 13, 14
Benedict, St., 8 _et seq._
Benedictine monks, 5 _et seq._
Benedictine rules, 9, 105, 178, 181
Benedictine statutes, 105, 178, 181
Berkeley, Lady, 207
Berkhampstead, 164
Bernard of Clairvaux, 135
Bernard Sylvester, 219
Bernard's, St., College, Oxford, 180
Bishop's Schools, 23, 24, 28 _et seq._
Black Death, 126, 127, 241, 243
Boethius, 133, 222, 226
Bologna, 136
Boniface, Archbishop, 140
Boston, 85, 237
Botelor School, 114
Bourne, 171
Brecon, 74, 167, 214
Bredgar, 207
Bridgnorth, 154, 163
Bristol Gilds, 146, 150
Bristol Schools, 85
Brock, William, 181
Bromiscombe, Bishop, 206
Brotherhood of the Holy Ghost, Gild of, 164
Bruton, 61, 105, 171, 172
Burghersh, Bishop, 193
Bury St. Edmunds, 61, 85, 89, 105, 114, 171
Byngham, Wm., 127
Byrhtferth, 36
Caedmon, 12
Calne Chantry, 168
Cambridge Gild, 144
Cambridge, Univ. of, 140, _et seq._, 179, 184, 186, 203, 204
Canon Law, 79, 80, 83, 85, 87
Canterbury, 26, 27, 28, 61, 74, 75, 204
Canterbury Hall, 180
Canute, King, 41
Capitalist Class, Rise of, 131
Capitularies, 787, 789, 802, 27
Carlisle Gilds, 146
Carpenter, Sir J., 213
Carrow Abbey, 176
Cassian, 7, 8
Cassiodorus, 8, 133
Catechetical Schools, 22
Cathedral Schools, 10, 22 _et seq._, 69
Ceolfrid, 10, 12
Ceolnoth, Archbishop, 19
Ceolwulf, 16
Chad, St., 5, 15
Chalons-sur-Soane, 24
Chancellor, 80 _et seq._, 106, 142, 213
Chantries' Act, 159, 169, 188, 206
Chantry Schools, 98, 109, 157 _et seq._
Charles the Great, 28, 46
Chartres, 5, 8, 66, 78, 218
Chaucer, 121, 176, 227, 237, 238
Chesterfield, 105
Chicheley, Archbishop, 126, 210, 235
Childrey, 229
Chivalry, 119, 120, 131
Choristers' Schools, 89 _et seq._
Christ Church, Hants., 85, 105, 171
Christ Church, Oxford, 180
Christ Church, Twineham, 61
Christian Schools, 22 _et seq._
Chrodegang, Bishop, 18
Church and Education, 1, 2, 18, 19, 33 _et seq._, 44 _et seq._, 53 _et seq._, 118 _et seq._, 168, 169 _et seq._
Church and State, Relation between, 12, 17 _et seq._, 44, 45, 49, 76
Church Scot, 40
Cicero, 13, 21, 133, 225, 230
Cirencester, 105
Clement of Alexandria, 22
Clement V., Pope, 127
Clermont, 23, 24
Cloveshoo, Council of, 11
Cluny, 57 _et seq._
Cock Penny, 113
Coggeshall School, 164, 200
Colchester, 105
Colet, Dean, 67, 111, 113, 167, 230
College de Dix Huit, 202
Collegiate Churches, 17 _et seq._, 44 _et seq._, 106 _et seq._, 193, 196, Bk. III. Ch. 7
Collyer, Richard, 234
Cologne Gilds, 144
Commensales, 194
Commercial changes in the 15th century, 130
Common Sciences, 224
Corbeil, 35
Corpus Christi, Gild of, 156
Coventry Gild, 156
Coventry Leet Book, 125
Coventry School, 113, 154, 171, 174, 241
Coxford Priory and Convent, 109
Craft Gilds, 52, 146-148, 151
Crediton Chantry, 168, 214
Cromer School, 125
Cross, St., Hospital of, 191
Crusades, Influence on Education, 118 _et seq._, 132, 134
Cuckfield, 229, 230, 234
Curriculum, 22, 24, 26, 133, 166, 167, 226, 229, 230, 234, Book III. Chap. 8
Cuthbert, St., 13, 16
Cynewulf, 12
Danish Invasions, 31
Decay of Chivalry, 131
Decline of Feudal System, 130
Denton, 168
Derby, 85, 89, 105, 171, 192
Deritend, 163, 164
Dialectics, 133
Diet, 5
Discipline, 42
Dominic, St., 149, 183
Dominician Friars, 183 _et seq._
Donatus, 35, 66, 71, 88, 133, 228
Doomsday Book, 30, 39, 43, 50
Dorchester, 168
Drapers' Guild, 154
Duns Scotus, 134, 187
Dunstable, 85, 96, 105, 171, 221
Dunstan, Archbishop, 16, 33 _et seq._, 38, 39, 96
Dunwich, 65
Durham, 105, 114, 123, 124, 146, 173, 174, 177, 178, 192
Dyer, William, 234
Eadmer, 62
Eanbald, Archbishop, 29
East Retford, 163, 165
Eata, 11
Eccleshall, 163, 165
Economic conditions in Anglo-Saxon times, 14
Edgar, King, 33, 41, 86
Edward the Confessor, 43
Edward VI., Schools of, 152
Egglesfield, 196
Elementary Instruction, 222
Elizabeth, Queen, 152
Endowment, 196
Episcopal Schools, 24, 28, 61
Ernwulf, Prior, 57
Eton, 70, 91, 96, 101, 167, 188 _et seq._, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 214, 215
Evesham, 61, 104
Exeter, 70, 97, 144, 154, 192, 197, 198
Experimental Science, 224
Eye Chantry, 164
Eynsham, 138
Factory System, 129
"Fagging," 122
Farmary School, 173, 174
Farthinghoe, 125, 155
Fastolf, Sir John, 162
Ferendon, 98
Feudal System, 45 _et seq._, 118 _et seq._, 243
Fines, Feudal, 51
Fitzstephen, 10, 113, 117, 221
Fleury, 35, 42
Florence of Worcester, 62
Flower, Ed., 234
Foreign Trade in 15th century, 130
Fotheringhay, 210
France, Church of, 78
Franciscans, 149, 182, 183
Fraternity of the Assumption of the Virgin, 151
Free School, 67 _et seq._
Free Tenants, 50, 117
French Language in Schools, 127, 128, 223
Freya, 3
Friars, 182 _et seq._, 223
Frideswide, St., 138
Frith Gilds, 145
Frithegode, 39
Gallienus, 144
Gaps School, 24
Gardyner, John, 155
Gargrave, 164, 165
Geoffrey of Maine, 61
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 62
Ghent, 38
Giffard, Bishop, 180
Gilds, 2, 52, 109 _et seq._, 136, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 155, 156
Giles, Bishop, 192, 203
Giraldus Cambrensis, 138, 222
Girls, Education of, 170 _et seq._
Glasney, 74, 167, 206
Glastonbury, 33, 34
Gloucester, 19, 96, 98, 100, 105, 171, 174, 177, 178
Gloucester College, Oxford, 180, 181
Godfrey of Malmesbury, 59
Goldsmiths' Company, 125, 155
Goode, Bishop, 74
Graeco-Roman Schools, 20, 24
Grammar, 7, 65, 193, 194, 198, 205, 206, 210, 211, 213, 215, 216, 222, 224, 227, 228, 229, 233, 238, 241
Grammar School, 20, 65 _et seq._, 84 _et seq._
Grandisson, Bishop, 192, 206
Grantham School, 86
Gratian, Edict of, 40
Greek Education, 8
Greek, 224, 225
Green, Sir Wm., 190
Gregory, Bishop, 23, 26, 31
Gregory VII., Pope, 48
Gregory IX., Pope, 136
Grimsby School, 86
Grosseteste, Robert, 139, 223, 240
Gryndour, Richard, 114
Guildford, 186
Guldulf, Bishop, 57
Gynwell, Bishop, 176
Hadrian, Abbot, 12, 25
Hamburg Gild, 144
Hamlyn, John, 100
Hanse des Merchandes de L'eau, 146
Harold, King, 42
Harrow, 200
Hartlebury, 113
Hastings, 85
Hatherton, 157
Hebrew, 224, 225
Hemmingborough, 208
Henry I., 147
Henry II., 47, 146
Henry III., 140, 141
Henry VII., 181
Henry VIII., 159
Henry of Blois, Bishop, 191
Henry of Huntingdon, 62
Herebald, 25
Hermit, 6
Herton, Rd., 191
Hexham, 25, 28, 30
Heytesbury, 213
Higham Ferrens, 210
Hilary, Bishop, 23
Hincmar, 48
Hingham, 237
Holbeach, 168
Holy Cross, Waltham, 42
Horace, 13, 20
Horncastle, 86
Horsham, 23
Hospitals, 191, 192, 210, 213
Hospitaller, 120
Houghton, 168, 234
Howden Schools, 73, 205
Hull Schools, 168
Hundred Years' War, 130
Huntingdon, 61, 62, 85, 96, 105, 171
Ideals of Chivalry, 119, 120
Ilbert of Lacy, 94
Impropriation, 236
Infant Education, 7, 10
Ini, King, 16
Innocent III., Pope, 47, 84, 182
Ipswich, 114, 116, 154, 178, 179, 186, 228
Ireland, 11, 20, 34
Isidorus, 133
Islip, John, Abbot, 180
Islip, Simon, Archbishop, 180, 237
Ivo of Chartres, 58
Jarrow, 12
Jerome, 20, 26
Jews, 6
John, Abbot, 13
John, King, 140
John of Cella, 61
John of Salisbury, 78, 87, 217-220, 222
John, St., Bishop of Hexham, 25
John, St., of Beverley, 25
Joissy of London, 202
Kalendars, Gild of, 105
Kempe, John, 211
King's College, Cambridge, 194
Kingston Gild, 156
Kinoulton, 70, 86
Knighthood, 120
Knights of Santiago, 120
Lancaster, 105, 155, 163 _et seq._
Lanfranc, 15, 57, 58, 78, 204
Langley, Bishop, 114, 158
Lateran Council, 83, 84
Latin, 4 _et seq._, 11, 13, 19, 29, 32, 43, 72, 103, 166
Launceston, 74, 167
Law, 221, 228
Lectors, 186
Ledbury, 214
Legislation, 235, 241
Leicester, 105
Leland, 137
Le Mans, 24
Leo I., Pope, 24, 26
Lerens, 24
Lewes, 105, 171
Libraries, 12, 26, 27
Lichfield, 230, 237
Lincoln, 80, 86, 91, 101, 102, 146, 168, 172, 186
Lindisfarne, 3, 11, 74, 75
Litteratores, School of, 20
Llangadock, 214
Llanthony, 98
Logic, 133, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 230, 235, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243
Lombard, Peter, 224
London, Council of, 56
Luebeck, 144
Lucretius, 21
Luxeuil, 24
Lyme Regis, 145, 168
Lynn, 144
Lyons, 20
Macclesfield, 125
Maidstone, 208
Maistyr of Gramer, 123
Maldon, 150
Malet, Robert, 94
Malmesbury, 105
Manchester, 113, 230
Manners, 234
Manorial System, 49 _et seq._, 126
Manufactures, Rise of, 128
Manuscript, Transcription of, 8, 9
Marlborough, 86
Marseilles, 7
Martianus, 133
Mary-le-Bow, 96
Mary, Queen, 152
Mary's, St., Coll., Oxford, 180
Mathematics, 20, 224, 225, 226
Mathilda, Empress, 47
Medicine, 221
Mellitus, Bishop, 17
Mendicant Orders, 170, 182 _et seq._
Mercers' Gild, 125, 154
Merchant Gilds, 52, 145, 146, 151
Merchant Taylors, 230
Merton College, 193, 203, 204, 221, 223
Metaphysics, 224
Methodist Revival, 149
Mettingham, 207
Middle Class, Rise of, 131
Mildenhall Manor, 105
Monachism, 5, 6, 55
Monasteries, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 24, 25, 42, 55 _et seq._, 170 _et seq._, 193, 194, 195, 202, 204, 236
More, Sir Thomas, 122, 238
Moral Sciences, 21, 224
Morton, Cardinal, 122
Municipal Authority, Development of, 52, 151, 208
Music, 19, 20, 43, 71, 72, 133, 178
Naples, University of, 136
Nations, 141
Natural Philosophy, 224
Neckham, Alexander, 221, 222
Neckham, Robert, 61, 78, 221, 222
New College, 210
New Testament, 6
Newark, 86, 108, 111
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 186
Newland School, 68, 114, 161, 167, 168
Newman, Cardinal, 1
Nicholas Breakspear, 16
Nicholas, St., Hospital of, 192
Nominalist, 134
Norfolk Gilds, 145
Norman Conquest, 48 _et seq._, 56, 57, 76, 127, 128
North Wroxall Chantry, 168
Northallerton, 73, 164
Northampton, 86
Norton Chantry, 168
Norwich, 107, 144, 175, 186, 190
Notre Dame Schools, 135
Novices, Schools for, 105, 116, 170, 174, 177, 178, 204
Nutt Money, 113
Oakley, Bucks, 41
Oblates, Schools for, 204
Odiham School, 164, 165
Odo, Archbishop, 39, 117
Offa, King, 19, 30
Optics, 224
Orderic Vitalis, 62
Origen, 23
Orosius, 26, 133
Oseney Abbey, 138
Oswald, St., 3, 34 _et seq._
Ottery St. Mary, 206
Oxford, 137 _et seq._, 146, 179 _et seq._, 184, 186, 193, 196, 203, 222, 224, 226, 227, 228
Pachomius, 6
Pages, 120
Palace Schools, 28, 29, 33
Palmers' Gild, 150
Pantaenus, 22
Paris, 24, 27, 78, 135, 138, 146, 202, 203, 218, 220, 221, 222, 224
Parish Schools, 25, 29, 30, 38, 39, 40 _et seq._, 107, 108
Parlour Boarder, 195
Partney School, 86
Paston Letters, 162
Patrick, St., 34
Paul, Abbot, 57, 59
Peckham, Archbishop, 107, 187
Penrhyn, 206
Percival, Sir John, 125
Pershore, 40
Peter Helias, 219
Peterhouse, Cambridge, 204
Peter's, St., School, Cornhill, 96
Philosophy, 227, 228
Piers Plowman, 189
Plesby, 208
Plymouth School, 154
Poitiers School, 24
Political Ideas of Church in Middle Ages, 44, 45
Polesworth Nunnery, 176
Polychronicon, 65
Pontefract, 85, 192
Potation Money, 113
Poverty of Scholars, 197-199, 201, 220
Praemunire, 236
Primer, 228
Priscian, 35, 66, 71, 133, 228
Prittlewell School, 164
Provisors, 236
Psalter, 6, 74, 75, 217, 228
Public School, 69 _et seq._, 122, 188 _et seq._, 195, 198
Public School Commission, 67
Pullen, Robert, 137, 220
Putta, Bishop, 72
Quadrivium, 28, 36, 133, 219
Questiones Grammaticales, 36
Raleigh, Bishop, 140
Raleigh School, 151
Ramsey Abbey, 36
Raveningham, 207
Read, Sir Bartholomew, 125, 155
Reading, 73
Reading School, 20, 73, 85, 171, 174
Realists, 134
Reformation, 215, 242, 244
Remuneration of Schoolmasters, 111 _et seq._
Renaissance, 244
Revival of learning, 59, 118
Rewley, 180
Rhetores, School of, 20
Rhetoric, 7, 133, 219
Richard II., King, 152
Richard of Middleton, 187
Ripon, 38
Rites of Durham, 173, 174, 177
Robert of Melun, 218
Roger Bacon, 87, 224-227
Roger, Earl of Warwick, 95
Roger, Thorold, 162
Roger of Wendover, 62
Roman Law, 26, 45, 133, 137, 138
Roman Uncials, 74
Roscellinus, 134
Rotherham, 72, 91, 94, 168, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 231
Royal Commission into University Education in Wales, 72
Rushworth School, 175
St. Albans School, 65, 221
St. Andrew's, Holborn, School, 96
St. Anthony, London, 96
St. Augustine, 3, 12, 17
St. Augustine of Hippo, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26
St. Basil of Caesarea, 7
St. Benedict, 9
St. Jerome, 12
St. Paul's School, 17, 80, 81, 90, 96, 99, 111, 167, 172
St. Vandrille School, 24
Salerno Medical School, 136
Salisbury Gilds, 146
Salisbury, John of, 65, 128, 217-220, 222
Salisbury School, 115, 172
Samson, Abbot, 41, 61, 78, 87, 89, 114
Scholasticism, 132, 134, 135
Scholasticus, 80
School Books, 13 _et seq._
School Fees, 69
School Houses first erected, 88
Schools of Theology, 78 _et seq._
Sciences, Common, 224
Scola Grammatice, 65
Scot, Church, 40
Scriptorium, 10, 12
Scripture, 19, 39 _et seq._
Secular Clergy, 18 _et seq._, 55, 76 _et seq._
Sens, Council of, 135
Sentences, 224
Seven Liberal Arts, 66, 216
Sevenoaks School, 126
Shermen Gild, 154
Shoemakers' Gild, 154
Shrewsbury School, 67, 68, 154
Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop, 23
Sigebert, 24, 64
Simeon of Durham, 62
Simon de Gorham, 59
Simon of Poissy, 220
Singing, 10 _et seq._, 121
Social Consciousness, 167, 168, 214
Song School, 71 _et seq._, 166
Southampton Gilds, 146
Southwell School, 86, 88, 108, 223
Spiritual Power, Dogma of, 47
Stamford College, 167
Staphorst Gilds, 144
Stapleton, Bishop of, 79, 192
State and Church, 1, 2, 49, 76 _et seq._
Staunton School, 164, 165
Stockport School, 155
Stratford-on-Avon Gilds, 154
Studium, 136, 185, 186
Sullington School, 168
Tabenna, 6
Tailors' Gild, 154
Tattershall, 211
Taxatio of Pope Nicholas, 157
Teaching Profession, Recognition of the, 82
Temporal Power, Dogma of, 47
Tenure of Schoolmasters, 110 _et seq._
Tewkesbury, 234
Thaxted School, 164
Theobald, Archbishop, 216
Theobald of Etampes, 88, 137
Theodore, Archbishop, 2, 16, 25, 64
Theodulf of Orleans, 30, 38, 86
Theological Schools, 78 _et seq._, 142, 220, 221, 223, 228, 241
Thetford, 85, 105, 171, 186
Thirsk School, 164
Thomas a Becket, 1, 7, 138, 216, 221, 222
Thomas, Archbishop, 79
Thomas of Brompton, 100
Thornton School, 168
Thurstan, Abbot, 57
Tonge, 209
Toulouse, University of, 136
Tours, Council of, 29
Towcester, 161
Trades in School Curriculum, 7
Transcription of Manuscripts, 8, 9
Trevisa, John, 65, 128
Trinity College, Oxford, 180
Trinity Gild, 151
Trivium, 28, 36, 133
Truro School, 164, 166
Twineham, Christ Church, 61
Universities, 124, 132 _et seq._, 170, 179 _et seq._, 188, 203, 222,