c. 19) τοῦ ἤχου would be more common than σπανίζειν τὸν ἦχον:

(4) σπαδονισμοὺς τῶν ἤχων (‘impediments to sound,’ ‘arrested sounds’) occurs, without variant, in _de Demosth._ c. 40, and is adopted by U.-R. as well as by other editors; (5) the authority of R seems to support σπαδονίζει rather than (as U.-R. think) σπανίζει.

=σπονδεῖος.= =170= 2, =178= 7 (with πόδες), =202= 20. _Spondee._ The metrical foot – –. Vossius thus describes the effect of the spondee: “hic pes incessum habet tardum et magnificum; itaque rebus gravibus, et maxime sacris, vel ipso attestante vocabulo, imprimis adhibetur.” Cp. Hor. _Ars Poet._ 255 “tardior ut paulo graviorque veniret ad aures, | spondeos stabiles in iura paterna recepit [sc. iambus],” and Cic. _Orat._ 64. 216.

=σπουδάζειν.= =66= 8, =94= 16. _To be eager._ Lat. _studere_, _sedulo operam navare_. For the middle voice of this verb see note on p. 95 _supra_. The noun =σπουδή= occurs in =156= 14, =186= 4, =192= 7, =212= 16.

=σταθερός.= =234= 4. _Steadfast._ Lat. _stabilis_. τὸ σταθερόν = _la lenteur grave_.

=στάθμη.= =236= 4. _A carpenter’s line or rule._ Lat. _amussis_. ἀπὸ στάθμης = _velut ad amussim_, ‘regulated by line and rule, by square and level.”

=στενός.= =142= 19, =146= 3. _Narrow._ Lat. _angustus_. In =146= 3 it is coupled with λεπτός.

=στηριγμός.= =202= 24. _A sustaining_ (of the voice on certain syllables), _a pause_. Lat. _mora_. See under ἐγκάθισμα, p. 297 _supra_; and under ἀντιστηριγμός, p. 288 _supra_. So =στηριχθῆναι= =220= 18, ‘to be firmly planted,’ ‘to be sustained.’

=στιβαρός.= =216= 16. _Hardy_, _robust_. Lat. _robustus_. The word occurs also in _de Thucyd._ c. 24. Cp. the French _nerveux_. Hesych. στιβαρόν· εὔρωστον, βαρύ, εὔτονον, στεῤῥόν, ἰσχυρόν. As is pointed out by Larue van Hook (_Metaphorical Terminology of Greek Rhetoric_ p. 20), both Latin and English abound in similar terms of style drawn from good physical condition: _nervi_, _vires_, _vigor_, _lacerti_, _ossa_, _robur_: _full-blooded_, _hearty_, _lively_, _lusty_, _muscular_, _nervous_, _robust_, _sinewy_, _supple_, _strenuous_, _vigorous_, etc.

=στίχος.= =86= 2, 12, =88= 7, etc. _A line of poetry._ Lat. _versus_. In _de Thucyd._ c. 19 the word is used with reference to prose: ὅτι πολλὰ καὶ μεγάλα πράγματα παραλιπών, τὸ προοίμιον τῆς ἱστορίας μέχρι πεντακοσίων ἐκμηκύνει στίχων.

=στοιχεῖον.= =70= 11, 20, =108= 10, =110= 9, =138= 1, etc. _Element._ Lat. _elementum_. So =στοιχειώδης= =138= 14. With the use of στοιχεῖον in c. 14 cp. Aristot. _Poet._ c. 20, where the word is defined as φωνὴ ἀδιαίρετος, οὐ πᾶσα δέ, ἀλλ’ ἐξ ἧς πέφυκε συνετὴ γίγνεσθαι φωνή. In =108= 10 the meaning practically is ‘principle,’ ‘rule.’

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=στρέφειν.= =264= 3, =270= 11. _To turn_, _to twist_. Lat. _torquere_. In =270= 11 the meaning may be conveyed by ‘to change the words about,’ ‘to permute or vary the order of the words,’ ‘to give a new turn to the sentence.’

=στρογγύλος.= =112= 11. _Compact_, _rounded_, _terse_. Lat. _rotundus_. Fr. _arrondi_. See the examples quoted in D.H. p. 205, and add _de Lys._ c. 9 στρογγύλη καὶ πυκνή, _de Isaeo_ c. 3 στρογγύλη τε καὶ δικανικὴ οὐχ ἧττόν ἐστιν ἡ Ἰσαίου λέξις τῆς Λυσίου. So =στρογγυλίζειν= =142= 15. Latin equivalents, or parallels, may be found in Horace’s _ore rotundo_ (_Ars P._ 323), Cicero’s _contortus_ (_Orat._ 20. 66), Quintilian’s _corrotundare_ (xi. 3. 102). “στρογγύλος is used of the new stylistic artifices of the sophistical rhetoric by Aristophanes _Acharn._ 686 (στρογγύλοις τοῖς ῥήμασι), and by Plato _Phaedr._ 234 E. In later usage it is constantly used of periodic composition” (G. L. Hendrickson in _American Journal of Philology_ xxv. 138).

=στροφή.= =194= 6, 9, 10, 16, 19, =254= 13, =272= 5, =278= 8. _Strophe_, _stanza_. Lat. _stropha_.

=στρυφνός.= =228= 7. _Harsh_, _astringent_. Lat. _acerbus_. See D.H. p. 205 (s.v. στριφνός: in _C.V._ =228= 7 F has στριφνόν), with the reference to Jebb’s equivalent ‘biting flavour’ (_Att. Orr._ i. 35).

=στύφειν.= =154= 13. _To draw up the mouth._ Lat. _astringere_. Used of sounds that make the hearer pull a wry face and screw up his lips. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 38 ἀνακοπὰς καὶ ἀντιστηριγμοὺς λαμβάνειν καὶ τραχύτητας ἐν ταῖς συμπλοκαῖς τῶν ὀνομάτων ἐπιστυφούσας τὴν ἀκοὴν ἡσυχῇ βούλεται.

=συγγραφεύς.= =74= 8, =76= 3, =154= 17, =206= 25, =214= 15, =228= 11, =236= 18, =248= 14. _Prose-writer_, _historian_. Lat. _scriptor_ (_prosaicus_); (_scriptor_) _historicus_. ἱστοριογράφος (_de Thucyd._ c. 2) is a less ambiguous expression than συγγραφεύς (c. 5 _ibid._) or than λογογράφος (c. 20 _ibid._).—In =68= 9 =συγγράφειν= = _to compose_ (a treatise).

=συγκοπή.= =156= 19, =230= 7. _Stoppage._ Lat. _impeditio_. So =συγκόπτειν= (‘impede the voice,’ ‘check the utterance’) =162= 4. [This meaning seems to bring the three passages fairly into line: otherwise συγκοπαὶ τῶν ἤχων, in =230= 7, might well mean ‘durae sonorum collisiones et concursiones.’]

=συγκροτεῖν.= =206= 16. _To weld together._ Lat. _compingere_, _coagmentare_.

=σύγκρουσις.= =230= 27. _Collision_, _concurrence_, _consonance_. Lat. _concursus_. Fr. _rencontre_. So =συγκρούειν= =202= 18, =224= 10. Cp. Demetr. p. 302. The reference is to a succession of two vowels which do not form a diphthong, either in the same word (e.g. λᾶαν) or with hiatus between two words (e.g. ἄλγε’ ἔχοντα: or καὶ ἐλπίσας, τε ἔσεσθαι, καὶ ἀξιολογώτατον). Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 43. Cicero’s opinion of the ‘concourse of vowels’ (quoted by Quintil. ix. 4. 37) is given in _Orat._ 23. 77 “verba etiam verbis quasi coagmentare neglegat; habet enim ille tamquam hiatus et concursus vocalium molle quiddam et quod indicet non ingratam neglegentiam de re hominis magis quam de verbis laborantis.” On the other hand, Pope (_Essay on Criticism_) states and exemplifies the weak side of hiatus by means of the line, ‘Tho’ oft the ear the open vowels tire’; and Cicero himself (_Orat._ 44. 150) writes, “quod quidem Latina lingua sic observat, nemo ut tam rusticus sit qui vocales nolit coniungere.” In English, the question of hiatus raises sundry points of an interesting kind. Should we, for example, say ‘_an_ historian’ and ‘_an_ historical book,’ on the ground that the initial aspirate is evanescent when the accent falls on the second syllable; and similarly ‘_an_ united family’ but ‘_a_ union of hearts’?

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=συγκρύπτειν.= =130= 26. _To hide_, _to disguise_. Lat. _occulere_.

=συγξεῖν.= =210= 22, =228= 4, =232= 12, =234= 19. _To polish._ Lat. _expolire_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 40 πολλὴν σφόδρα ποιουμένη φροντίδα τοῦ συνεξέσθαι καὶ συνηλεῖφθαι καὶ προπετεῖς ἁπάντων αὐτῶν εἶναι τὰς ἁρμονίας.

=συγχρώζεσθαι.= =244= 17. _To be closely joined._ Lat. _cohaerere_, _mutuo se contingere_.

=συζυγία.= =84= 11, =104= 17, =106= 19, etc. _Coupling_, _grouping_, _combination_. Lat. _coniunctio_. Fr. _liaison_. So _de Demosth._ c. 40 (the passage quoted s.v. συμβολή, _infra_).

=συλλαβή.= =150= 16. _Syllable._ Lat. _syllaba_. Words like this serve to remind us how much of our modern rhetorical and grammatical terminology is taken direct from the Greek.

=συλλεαίνειν.= =230= 20. _To rub smooth_, _to polish_. Lat. _levigare_, _polire_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 43 ἐν δὲ τῇ δευτέρᾳ περιόδῳ τραχύνεται μὲν ἡ σύνθεσις ἐν τῷ “μεγάλη γὰρ ῥοπή” διὰ τὸ μὴ συναλείφεσθαι τὰ δύο ρ ρ, καὶ ἐν τῷ “ἀνθρώπων πράγματα” διὰ τὸ μὴ συλλεαίνεσθαι <τὸ ν> τῷ ἑξῆς.

=συμβεβηκότα, τά.= =98= 8, 9, =140= 14, =264= 6, =268= 19. _The accidental, non-essential, qualities of a thing._ Lat. _accidentia_. In =268= 19 the reference is to the changes which words undergo in the way of contraction, expansion, acute or grave accentuation, etc.

=συμβολή.= =210= 20, =232= 13. _Clashing._ Lat. _concursus_. In =232= 13 the reference is to _les chocs des voyelles_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 40 καὶ διὰ τοῦτο φεύγει μὲν ἁπάσῃ σπουδῇ τὰς τῶν φωνηέντων συμβολὰς ὡς τὴν λειότητα καὶ τὴν εὐέπειαν διασπώσας, φεύγει δέ, ὅση δύναμις αὐτῇ, τῶν ἡμιφώνων τε καὶ ἀφώνων γραμμάτων τὰς συζυγίας, ὅσαι τραχύνουσι τοὺς ἤχους καὶ ταράττειν δύνανται τὰς ἀκοάς.

=σύμβολον.= =84= 4. _Token_, _label_. Lat. _signum_.

=συμμετρία.= =130= 7, 12, =246= 2, 4, =270= 10. _Due proportion._ Lat. _iusta mensura_. In =270= 10 συμμετρία would seem to mean _the arrangement of the periods within the lines or verses_ (μέτρα: the variant ἐμμετρία is to be noticed); and with it should be compared συμμέτρως in =270= 13, though there Upton suggests ἀσυμμέτρως and Schaefer συμμέτροις. =συμμέτρως= occurs also in =232= 9; and =συμμετρεῖν= in =212= 18, =276= 26. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 43 ὥστε συμμετρηθῆναι πρὸς ἀνδρὸς πνεῦμα.

=συμπληροῦν.= =180= 11, =182= 16. _To complete_, _to constitute_. Lat. _absolvere_.

=συμπλοκή.= =160= 9, =198= 6, =240= 16. _Intertwining_, _blending_. Lat. _implicatio_. So =συμπλέκειν= =154= 17, =258= 4. For the metaphor from weaving cp. ῥάπτειν and ὑφαίνειν: Pindar _Nem._ iv. 153 ῥήματα πλέκων: Swinburne _Erechtheus_ 1487 “I have no will to weave too fine or far, | O queen, the weft of sweet with bitter speech.”

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=σύμπτωσις.= =240= 12. _Concurrence._ Lat. _concursus_.

=συμφορητός.= =72= 22. _Collected promiscuously_, _miscellaneous_. Lat. _collatus_, _collecticius_.

=συνάγειν.= =144= 18, =212= 3. _To contract._ Lat. _contrahere_, _coarctare_.

=συναλοιφή.= =108= 18, =180= 17, =218= 7, =222= 24, =256= 22. _Blending_, _fusion_, _amalgamation_. Lat. _coitus_, _vocalium elisio_. Fr. _synalèphe_ (_contraction, ou jonction de plusieurs voyelles_). So =συναλείφειν= =220= 1, =222= 26, =234= 8, =236= 6, =244= 17. Compare Demetr. p. 303, together with the passage there quoted from Quintil. ix. 4. 35-7 (including the words “coëuntes litterae, quae συναλοιφαί dicuntur”), and see (as to hiatus) Sandys’ _Orator_ pp. 160 ff. and Laurand’s _Études_ pp. 114-6. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 43 καὶ κατ’ ἄλλους δύο τόπους ἢ τρεῖς τὰ ἡμίφωνα <καὶ ἄφωνα> παραπίπτοντα ἀλλήλοις τὰ φύσιν οὐκ ἔχοντα συναλείφεσθαι ἔν τε τῷ “τὸν Φίλιππον” καὶ ἐν τῷ “ταύτῃ φοβερὸν προσπολεμῆσαι” ταράττει τοὺς ἤχους μετρίως καὶ οὐκ ἐᾷ φαίνεσθαι μαλακούς· ἐν δὲ τῇ δευτέρᾳ περιόδῳ κτλ. (the remainder of the passage is given under συλλεαίνειν, p. 324 _supra_).

=συναπαρτίζειν.= =212= 11, =270= 13. _To complete_ (_the sense_) _simultaneously_. Cp. Demetr. _de Eloc._ §§ 2, 10 (together with ἀπαρτίζειν in Glossary p. 267 _ibid._), and also the note on pp. 270, 271 _supra_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 39 ἔτι τῆς ἁρμονίας ταύτης οἰκεῖόν ἐστι καὶ τὸ τὰς περιόδους αὐτουργούς τινας εἶναι καὶ ἀφελεῖς καὶ μήτε συναπαρτιζούσας ἑαυταῖς τὸν νοῦν μήτε συμμεμετρημένας τῷ πνεύματι τοῦ λέγοντος μηδέ γε παραπληρώμασι τῶν ὀνομάτων οὐκ ἀναγκαίοις ὡς πρὸς τὴν ὑποκειμένην διάνοιαν χρωμένας μηδ’ εἰς θεατρικούς τινας καὶ γλαφυροὺς καταληγούσας ῥυθμούς.

=συνάπτειν.= =202= 19, =240= 20, =262= 4. _To link together._ Lat. _adiungere_, _connectere_. Dionysius’ love of variety may be seen by comparing together =262= 4, =258= 4, =256= 20, 22, =258= 24.

=συναρμόττειν.= =118= 14, =134= 11, =234= 19. _To adapt one thing to another._ Lat. _accommodare_. Used with reference to adjusting, dovetailing, interlinking.

=συνασκεῖν.= =282= 1. _To practise simultaneously._ Lat. _simul exercere_.

=σύνδεσμος.= =70= 14, 17, =72= 1, =218= 7, =220= 5, =258= 27. _Conjunction_, _connective_, _connecting word_. Lat. _copula_, _coniunctio_. ‘Particle,’ or ‘connecting-particle,’ will sometimes be a suitable rendering, as the term includes particles like ἄρα (=258= 27) and μέν and δή (Demetr. _de Eloc._ §§ 55, 56, 196), and may even be applied to prepositions (=220= 5, 6). In a difficult passage of Aristot. _Poetics_ (xx. 6), among the examples offered of σύνδεσμος are ἀμφί, περί, μέν, ἤτοι, as well as δέ. A good account of the word will be found in Cope’s _Introduction to Aristotle’s Rhetoric_ pp. 371-4, 392-7. See further Quintil. i. 4. 18; Aristot. _Rhet._ iii. 6. 6.

=συνεδρεύειν.= =100= 10, =160= 19. _To attend_, _to accompany_. Lat. _assidere_, _adiungi_. Used, in =100= 10, of the accompanying relations (mode, place, time, etc.), which adverbs denote in reference to verbs.

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=συνεκτρέχειν.= =274= 24. _To run out together_, _to be of the same length_. Lat. _aequis passibus concurrere_.

=συνεκφέρειν.= =240= 11. _To pronounce concurrently._ Lat. _simul pronuntiare_. Cp. =συνεκφορά= =230= 3.

=συνεφθαρμένος.= =126= 10, =144= 12, =234= 13. _Imperceptibly blended_, _melting into each other_. Lat. _commistus_. φθορά is the technical term for the mixing of colours in painting: e.g. Plut. _Mor._ 346 A καὶ γὰρ Ἀπολλόδωρος ὁ ζωγράφος, ἀνθρώπων πρῶτος ἐξευρὼν φθορὰν καὶ ἀπόχρωσιν σκιᾶς, Ἀθηναῖος ἦν. Perhaps it is this sense of ‘fusion’ that led to φθορά being used, in Byzantine music, in some such sense as ‘modulation.’

=συνεχής.= =230= 17, 20, =244= 21, =246= 1. _Continuous_, _unbroken_. Lat. _continuus_. So =συνεχῶς= =132= 9, =230= 29, =280= 21. =συνέχεια= (=240= 5) = _coherence_, ‘continuus compositionis tenor.’

=συνηχεῖν.= =140= 21, =144= 20, =146= 11. _To sound at the same time._ Lat. _consonare_. In =140= 21 the translation of the manuscript reading συνεχούσης may be “while all these are pronounced, the windpipe constricts the breath,” A. J. Ellis _op. cit._ p. 41 (with the note, “probably this is what Dionysius considered the cause of voice”).

=σύνθεσις.= =68= 5, 7, 19, =70= 3, 9, =72= 8, =74= 15, =78= 9, =86= 2, 13, =90= 19, =134= 26 etc., =200= 10, 16, =202= 1, 7, =204= 9, =232= 25, =240= 23, =270= 9. _Composition._ Lat. _compositio_. ‘Composition’ (with the addition of ‘literary,’ to mark it off from other kinds of composition) seems the least inadequate English rendering of σύνθεσις, and comes nearest to the usual Latin title. To judge by the actual contents of the treatise (which go beyond Dionysius’ occasional and fragmentary definitions), the term ‘putting-together’ can be applied not only to ὀνόματα, but (on the one side) to γράμματα and συλλαβαί and (on the other) to κῶλα and περίοδοι, and to a poem of Sappho or the proem of Thucydides. Hence ‘arrangement (or _order_, _ordonnance_) of words’ proves, in practice, too narrow a title, though the euphonic and symphonic arrangement of words and the elements of words is the main theme, and though there is (as has been pointed out in the Introduction, p. 11 _supra_) some danger of ‘literary composition’ seeming to promise a treatment of the πραγματικὸς τόπος. One of the definitions of composition in the _New English Dictionary_ will apply very fairly to the _de Compositione Verborum_: “the due arrangement of words into sentences, and of sentences into periods; the art of constructing sentences and of writing prose or verse,” while ἁρμονία (which is σύνθεσις in special reference to skilful and melodious combination) might well be defined in the words there quoted from the _Arte of Rhetorique_ of T. Wilson (1553 A.D.): “composition ... is an apt joyning together of wordes in such order, that neither the eare shall espie any jerre, nor yet any man shalbe dulled with overlong drawing out of a sentence.” The form συνθήκη is found, in practically the same sense as σύνθεσις, in the _Epitome_ c. 3; in Lucian _de conscrib. hist._ c. 46 καὶ μὴν καὶ συνθήκῃ τῶν ὀνομάτων εὐκράτῳ καὶ μέσῃ χρηστέον; and in Chrysostom _de Sacerdotio_ iv. 6 (quoted under ἀπαγγελία p. 288 _supra_). As Latin equivalents (in addition to ‘de Compositione Verborum’), ‘de Collocatione Verborum’ or ‘de Constructione Verborum’ might be supported out of Cicero’s _Orator_ and _de Oratore_; and something might be said, too, in favour of ‘de Structura Orationis’ or (more fully) ‘de compositione, seu orationis partium apta inter se collocatione.’—=συνθετικός= occurs in =104= 15, and =σύνθετος= in =144= 11, =176= 3, =184= 3.

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=σύνοψις.= =208= 13. _A general view._ Lat. _conspectus_. εἰς σύνοψιν ἐλθεῖν δυνάμενος would, in Aristotle’s conciser phrase, be: εὐσύνοπτος.—The verb =συνορᾶν= occurs in =184= 22, =συνιδεῖν= =182= 3.

=συντάττεσθαι.= =80= 5, =94= 15, =96= 6, =98= 19, 20, =104= 5, =106= 13, =264= 21. _To put together_, _to compose_, _to treat of_. Lat. _componere_, _tractare_. So =σύνταγμα= =214= 9, and =σύνταξις= (‘arrangement,’ ‘co-ordination,’ ‘treatise’) =94= 3, =96= 2, 13, 16, etc.

=συντιθέναι.= =68= 3, =74= 12, =106= 11, etc. _To arrange words or sounds_, _to compose_. Lat. _componere_.

=συνυφαίνειν.= =134= 12, =166= 17, =184= 14, =234= 9, 20, =240= 7. _To weave together._ Lat. _contexere_. Lucian (_de conscrib. hist._ 48) uses the word: καὶ ἐπειδὰν ἀθροίσῃ ἅπαντα ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα, πρῶτα μὲν ὑπόμνημά τι συνυφαινέτω αὐτῶν κτλ. [The passage is given in full under χρῶμα, p. 333 _infra_.]

=συνῳδός.= =220= 17, =224= 16, =232= 8. _In harmony with_, _accordant_. Lat. _concors_.

=συριγμός.= =146= 14, =148= 7, =160= 1. _A hissing._ Lat. _sibilus_. So =σύριγμα= =146= 3. In =160= 1 the reference is to the ‘whistling of ropes,’ the ‘shrieking of tackle’: cp. Virg. _Aen._ i. 87 “insequitur clamorque virum _stridorque rudentum_.”

=σύρρυσις.= =162= 21. _A flowing together_, _conflux_. Lat. _concursus_. Two forms of the word are found: σύρρευσις and (as here) σύρρυσις.

=συστέλλειν.= =140= 19, =152= 25, =206= 1. _To compress._ Lat. _contrahere_, _corripere_. So =συστολή= =142= 18, =268= 20.

=συστρέφειν.= =204= 9. _To abbreviate._ Lat. _contrahere_. Cp. D.H. p. 206, and Demetr. p. 305 (s.v. συστροφή). The condensation indicated in =204= 9 consists in the fact that the rolling _down_ of the stone is described in a single line, whereas the rolling _up_ takes four lines.

=σφραγίς.= =268= 3. _Seal_, _impression of a seal_. Lat. _signum_.

=σχέδιος.= =186= 5. _Sudden_, _off-hand_, _impromptu_. Lat. _extemporalis_. Cp. αὐτοσχέδιος p. 291 _supra_.

=σχῆμα.= =88= 12, =90= 19, =130= 7, =132= 11, =148= 20 etc., =196= 25, 26, =198= 6, _passim_. _Figure_, _attitude_. Lat. _figura_. See D.H. p. 206, and Demetr. p. 305, for various quotations and references (to which may be added Causeret _La Langue de la rhétorique et de la critique littéraire dans Ciceron_ pp. 176 ff.). Sometimes ‘construction’ will be a good rendering (e.g. _de Isocr._ c. 3), or ‘form’ (_de Thucyd._ c. 37): cp. Cic. _Brut._ 17. 69 (‘sententiarum orationisque formae’). ‘Turns of expression’ (_tours de phrase_) will also serve occasionally.

=σχηματίζειν.= =104= 18, =106= 15, =108= 1, =110= 14, =112= 18, 19, etc. _To use a figure_, _to shape_, _to construct_. Lat. _figurare_. Cp. D.H. p. 206, Demetr. p. 305.

=σχηματισμός.= =112= 14, 20, =146= 7, =212= 21, etc. _Configuration_, _construction_; _the employment of figures or turns of phrase_. Lat. _conformatio_, _figuratio_.

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=σχολικός.= =214= 9. _After the manner of lectures_, _tedious_. Lat. _longus_. Dionysius has in mind treatises which are ‘academic’ rather than practical. Cp. Long. _de Sublim._ iii. 5 πολλὰ γὰρ ὥσπερ ἐκ μέθης τινὲς εἰς τὰ μηκέτι τοῦ πράγματος, ἴδια ἑαυτῶν καὶ σχολικὰ παραφέρονται πάθη.

=σῶμα.= =134= 25. _Person._ Lat. _persona_. Same sense as πρόσωπον: compare, in _Ep._ ii. _ad Amm._ c. 14, πρόσωπα δὲ παρ’ αὐτῷ τὰ πράγματα γίνεται with πράγματα δὲ ἀντὶ σωμάτων τὰ τοιαῦτα ὑπ’ αὐτοῦ γίνεται.

=Σωτάδειος.= =88= 1. _Sotadean._ Lat. _Sotadeus_. So called from Sotades, a native of Maroneia or of Crete, who lived under the early Ptolemies. The structure of the Sotadean verse is analyzed in P. Masqueray’s _Abriss der griechischen Metrik_ pp. 141-4. For some further references see Demetr. p. 244.

=ταμιεύειν.= =246= 4. _To regulate_, _to manage_. Lat. _temperare_, _dispensare_.

=τάξις.= =72= 12, 18, =198= 6, etc. _Order._ Lat. _dispositio_. Not identical in sense with σύνθεσις, which (in =72= 18) forms part of one and the same sentence as τάξις. τάξις often (e.g. Aristot. _Rhet._ iii. 12. 6) refers to the marshalling of the subject matter of a speech.—The verb =τάττειν= occurs (with various senses) in =126= 7, =196= 6, =254= 10, etc.

=ταπεινός.= =74= 12, =78= 10, =80= 13, =92= 17, =134= 23, =166= 3, =176= 11, =186= 19. _Low_, _mean_, _vulgar_. Lat. _humilis_, _abiectus_. So =ταπεινότης= =192= 9.

=τάσις.= =126= 7, 9, =128= 5, 11, =196= 16. _Tension_, _pitch_, _accent_. Lat. _intentio_ (_vocis_), _accentus_. Cp. προσῳδία p. 320 _supra_, and τόνος p. 329 _infra_. Definition in =196= 16: τάσεις φωνῆς αἱ καλούμεναι προσῳδίαι. Quintil. i. 5. 22 “adhuc difficilior observatio est per _tenores_, (quos quidem ab antiquis dictos _tonores_ comperi, videlicet declinato a Graecis verbo, qui τόνους dicunt) vel _accentus_, quas Graeci προσῳδίας vocant,” etc.

=ταυτολογία.= =240= 26. _Verbal reiteration_, _tautology_. Lat. _eiusdem verbi iteratio_. This is, apparently, the earliest recorded use of the word, though Polybius employs the verb ταυτολογεῖν. Quintil. viii. 3. 50 “sicut ταυτολογία, id est eiusdem verbi aut sermonis iteratio. haec enim quamquam non magnopere a summis auctoribus vitata, interim vitium videri potest, in quod saepe incidit etiam Cicero, securus tam parvae observationis: sicut hoc loco, _Non solum igitur illud iudicium iudicii simile, iudices, non fuit._” The English word _tautology_ must have been unfamiliar when Philemon Holland translated the _Morals_ of Plutarch, since it is one of the terms included in the “explanation of certain obscure words” appended to Holland’s volume.

=ταυτότης.= =134= 18, =192= 20. _Sameness_, _monotony_. Lat. _rerum earundem iteratio_. Contrasted with μεταβολή: as in =134= 18 διαναπαύειν δὲ τὴν ταυτότητά φημι δεῖν μεταβολὰς εὐκαίρους εἰσφέροντα.—Aristotle uses the word several times, in the sense of ‘identity.’

=τέλειος.= =84= 21, =116= 24, =144= 17, =150= 13, etc. _Complete_, _perfect_. Lat. _absolutus_, _perfectus_. See, further, note on =204= 24.—So =τελειοῦν= =178= 13.—In =120= 4, =268= 5, =τέλος= = ‘end,’ ‘object.’

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=τελεταί.= =252= 15. _Rites_, _mysteries_. Lat. _sacra arcana_, _ritus et caerimoniae_. αἱ τελεταὶ τοῦ λόγου = _sacra eloquentiae_.

=τετράμετρος.= =86= 3, 14, =256= 8, 13. _Consisting of four metres or measures._ Lat. _tetrametrus_ (sc. _versus_: στίχος).

=τετριμμένος.= =252= 29. _Homely_, _ordinary_. Lat. _tritus_. Fr. _ordinaire_. The word sometimes inclines to the sense ‘vulgar,’ ‘hackneyed,’ ‘_banal_,’ ‘_rebattu_’: cp. τέτριπται =134= 22.

=τέχνη.= =68= 9, =94= 10, 14, =96= 2, =104= 10, =132= 22, etc. _Art_, _handbook_. Lat. _ars_. αἱ τέχναι in Dionysius (cp. αἱ τέχναι τῶν λόγων, Aristot. _Rhet._ i. 1. 3) refers specially to rhetorical handbooks: e.g. =270= 4, =282= 3. αἱ ῥητορικαὶ τέχναι is often used to designate the _Rhetoric_ of Aristotle: e.g. =254= 25, and _Ep. i. ad Amm._ cc. 1, 2, etc.—In =124= 3 τεχνίτης = ‘craftsman,’ ‘professional.’

=τὴν ἄλλως.= =176= 6. _To no purpose._ Lat. _temere_. Coupled here with a negative: cp. Suidas, τηνάλλως. μάτην. καὶ οὐ τηνάλλως μετὰ τῆς ἀποφάσεως λέγεται.

=τομή.= =72= 2. _Division._ Lat. _partitio_. Fr. _partie_, _subdivision_.

=τόνος.= =126= 5, 15, 19, =142= 8. _Tone_, _tension_, _pitch_, _accent_. Lat. _tonus_, _intentio_ (_vocis_), _accentus_. If τόνον be read in =136= 16 and τόνος in =236= 8, the meaning will be _energy_: cp. D.H. p. 207. See also under τάσις p. 328 _supra_, and under περισπασμός p. 316 _supra_ (for a passage of Aristot _Rhet._ iii. 1. 4).

=τόπος.= =66= 6, =96= 9, =144= 18, =164= 17, =248= 8. _Place_, _heading_, _department_. Lat. _locus_. The πραγματικὸς τόπος (=66= 6) is the _locus rerum_, as opposed to the λεκτικὸς τόπος (=96= 9). In this connexion not only τόπος, but τρόπος, τύπος, χαρακτήρ and μέρος are sometimes used by Dionysius.

=τορευτός.= =264= 18. _Worked in relief_, _chased_. Lat. _caelatus_. So τορευτής = _caelator_, =266= 8.

=τραγῳδοποιός.= =236= 17, =248= 14. _Tragic poet_, _tragedian_. Lat. _tragicus poëta_. [For the Greek expressions used to denote tragic and comic poets see H. Richards in the _Classical Review_ xiv. 211.]

=τρανός.= =230= 14. _Clear_, _distinct_. Lat. _perspicuus_. In earlier Greek the form τρανής is used: cp. Soph. _Ajax_ 23 ἴσμεν γὰρ οὐδὲν τρανές, ἀλλ’ ἀλώμεθα.

=τραχύτης.= =230= 5, =232= 8. _Roughness._ Lat. _asperitas_. Fr. _âpreté_, _dureté_. So =τραχύς= =130= 26, =154= 12, =228= 7, =234= 15, etc.; and =τραχύνειν= =130= 19, =146= 9, =202= 26, =206= 4, =216= 17, =218= 18, =240= 17. By ‘rough’ letters, in =202= 26, Dionysius may probably mean the following letters found in the four lines quoted in =202= 3-6: Σ, σ, φ (?), σ, γ, χ, στ, ζ, σ, σκ, πτ, σχ, σκ, φ (?); and among these, σκ, σχ and πτ may be regarded as ‘juxtapositions of rough letters.’

=τρίκωλον.= =116= 11. _A sentence consisting of three members or clauses._ Lat. _oratio trimembris_. τὸ τρίκωλον is here a noun: on the same principle as, for example, ἡ τρίοδος (= _trivium_).

=τρίμετρος.= =258= 19, 25. _Consisting of three metres or measures._ Lat. _trimetrus_ (sc. _versus_: στίχος).

=τρισύλλαβος.= =170= 15, =174= 8. _Consisting of three syllables._ Lat. _trisyllabus_.

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=τρόπος.= =196= 1. _Mode_ (in music). Lat. _modus_. Cp. Monro’s _Modes of Ancient Greek Music_ p. 2. In =132= 12 the word means _trope_ (_metaphor_ particularly: cp. Quintil. viii. 6. 4): so =τροπικός= (_figurative_; Fr. _figuré_) =78= 16, =252= 24, =272= 10.

=τροχαῖος.= =170= 8, =184= 11. _Trochee._ The metrical foot – ᴗ.

=τρυφερός.= =236= 9. _Delicate_, _dainty_. Lat. _delicatus_, _nitidus_.

=τύπος.= =70= 7, =268= 2, 17, 24. _Outline_, _form_. Lat. _forma_, _figura_.

=ὕλη.= =266= 9. _Material._ Lat. _materia_. Fr. _matière_.

=ὑπαγωγικός.= =90= 5. _Drawn slowly out_, _prolonged_. Lat. _dilatatus_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 4 διώκει δ’ ἐκ παντὸς τρόπου τὴν περίοδον οὐδὲ ταύτην στρογγύλην καὶ πυκνὴν ἀλλ’ ὑπαγωγικήν τινα καὶ πλατεῖαν καὶ πολλοὺς ἀγκῶνας, ὥσπερ οἱ μὴ κατ’ εὐθείας ῥέοντες ποταμοὶ ποιοῦσιν, ἐγκολπιζομένην. It is possible, however, that in the _de Comp. Verb._ the word has an active meaning similar to that of ἐπαγωγικός, in which case the rendering will be ‘the effect of the passage will no longer be that of a narrative which gently carries the reader on.’

=ὑπαλλαγή.= =78= 16. _Hypallage._ Lat. _hypallage_. Quintil. ix. 6. 23 “nec procul ab hoc genere discedit μετωνυμία, quae est nominis pro nomine positio. cuius vis est, pro eo, quod dicitur, causam, propter quam dicitur, ponere; sed, ut ait Cicero, ὑπαλλαγήν rhetores dicunt. haec inventas ab inventore et subiectas res ab obtinentibus significat: ut _Cererem corruptam undis_, et _receptus Terra Neptunus classes Aquilonibus arcet_.” Cp. Cic. _Orat._ 27. 93 “hanc ὑπαλλαγήν rhetores, quia quasi summutantur verba pro verbis, μετωνυμίαν grammatici vocant, quod nomina transferuntur.”

=ὑπάτη.= =210= 7. _Top note._ Lat. _chorda suprema_. See L. & S. _s.v._

=ὑπεραίρειν.= =224= 11. _To exceed._ Lat. _transgredi_.

=ὑπερβολή.= =156= 11. _Excess_, _violence_. Lat. _impetus_, _ardor_. [Not here used in the technical sense of _superlatio_, _traiectio_.]

=ὑπέρμετρος.= =214= 8. _Exceeding due measure_, _excessively long_. Lat. _excedens mensuram_. [Not here used in the technical sense of passing beyond the bounds of metre: Demetr. _de Eloc._ § 118 ποίημα γὰρ ἄκαιρον ψυχρόν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ ὑπέρμετρον, ‘a bit of verse out of place is just as inartistic as the disregard of metrical rules in poetry.’]

=ὑπεροπτικός.= =232= 20. _Disdainful._ Lat. _ad contemnendum pronus_.

=ὑπερτείνειν.= =132= 14. _To exceed._ Lat. _transcendere_.

=ὑπηχεῖν.= =150= 7. _To sound in answer to_, _to re-echo_. Lat. _resonare_.

=ὑποβάκχειος.= =174= 23, =178= 11, 13. _Hypobacchius._ The metrical foot ᴗ – –. The _Epitome_ (c. 17) gives παλιμβάκχειος in the same sense as ὑποβάκχειος.

=ὑπογράφειν.= =122= 7. _To sketch._ Lat. _adumbrare_. Fr. _esquisser_.

=ὑπόδειγμα.= =174= 12. _Pattern_, _specimen_. Lat. _documentum_, _exemplum_.

=ὑπόθεσις.= =104= 6. _Subject_, _theme_. Lat. _argumentum operis_. So =τὰ ὑποκείμενα= (_the subject matter_) =74= 9, =106= 17, =130= 13, =134= 21, =158= 2.

=ὑπόμνησις.= =80= 1. _Reminder._ Lat. _admonitio_. ὑπομνήσεως ἕνεκα = _memoriae causa_.

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=ὑποτακτικός.= =220= 19. _Subordinate._ Lat. _subditus_. Dionysius seems to mean that π is not apt to be amalgamated with, or absorbed in, a preceding ν. [The second vowel in a diphthong could be described as ὑποτακτικὸν φωνῆεν.] The verb =ὑποτάττειν= occurs in =100= 23 and =126= 21.

=ὑποτίθεσθαι.= =194= 8. _To take as a subject._ Lat. _argumentum sibi sumere_. This (rather than ‘to postulate’) seems to be the meaning.

=ὑποτραχύνειν.= =222= 7. _To grate slightly on the ear._ Lat. _leni horrore aures afficere_.

=ὕπτιος.= =108= 3. _Passive._ Lat. _supinus_.

=ὕφος.= =234= 12. _Woven stuff_, _a web_. Lat. _tela_. The word is used metaphorically in Long. _de Subl._ i. 4 τοῦ ὅλου τῶν λόγων ὕφους.

=ὑψηλός.= =92= 18, =172= 2, =180= 2, =182= 7. _Lofty_, _elevated_. Lat. _sublimis_.

=φαντασία.= =230= 29. _Representation_, _image_. Lat. _imago_.

=φάρμακον.= =208= 17. _Colour_ (for painting). Lat. _pigmentum_. For φάρμακα (= βάμματα, χρώματα) cp. Horace’s “lana Tarentino violas imitata veneno” (_Ep._ ii. 1. 207).

=φάρυγξ.= =150= 7. _Throat._ Lat. _guttur_. Here used in the masculine gender, according to the best-supported reading. Galen (on Hippocr. _Progn._ p. 45), ὅτι φάρυγγα τὴν προκειμένην χώραν στομάχου τε καὶ λάρυγγος ὀνομάζει δῆλόν ἐστι.

=φθαρτός.= =266= 9. _Perishable._ Lat. _mortalis_, _periturus_.

=φθόγγος.= =128= 4, =130= 12, =268= 10. _Sound_, _note_. Lat. _sonus_.

=φιλόκαλος.= =66= 16. _Loving beauty_, _artistic_. Lat. _pulchritudinis studiosus_.

=φιλόλογος.= =264= 24. _Loving literature_, _literary_; _a scholar_. Lat. _litterarum studiosus_; _litteratus_, _philologus_.

=φιλοπονία.= =264= 25. _Loving care_; _industry_. Lat. _diligentia_: which (etymologically) contains the same suggestion of ‘work done _con amore_.’

=φιλόσοφος.= =74= 8, =132= 22, =164= 22, =248= 15. _Philosopher._ Lat. _philosophus_. The comprehensive sense in which philosophy is understood may be illustrated from =φιλοσοφία= (=140= 12) and =φιλοσοφεῖν= (=70= 12). Cp. in modern times such academic vestiges of ancient usage as ‘Natural Philosophy’ or ‘Ph. D.’ In _Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme_ (ii. 4) rhetoric is taught by the _Maître de Philosophie_; and Dionysius is fond of contrasting the philosophical, or scientific, rhetoric (ἡ φιλόσοφος ῥητορική) of the best Attic times with the later and purely empirical Asiatic rhetoric, to which he applies the epithet ἀμαθής. See further in D.H. p. 208.

=φιλοτεχνεῖν.= =154= 20, =200= 18. _To practise an art lovingly_, _to be devoted to it_. Lat. _artem amare_, _in artem incumbere_. So =φιλοτέχνως= =176= 18. φιλοτεχνεῖν, φιλότεχνος and φιλοτεχνία are all used by Plato in reference to art pursued _con amore_; and Cicero (_ad Att._ xiii. 40. 1) uses φιλοτέχνημα of an elaborate work of art—a _chef-d’œuvre_: “Ubi igitur φιλοτέχνημα illud tuum quod vidi in Parthenone, Ahalam et Brutum?”

=φιλοχωρεῖν.= =110= 5. _To cling to a place_, _to haunt it_. Lat. _libenter in loco commorari_. φιλοχωρεῖν is used repeatedly by Dionysius in the _Antiqq._ _Rom._ (e.g. i. 13 Ἀρκαδικὸν γὰρ τὸ φιλοχωρεῖν ὄρεσιν and v. 63 παρεκελεύοντο ἀλλήλοις μὴ φιλοχωρεῖν ἐν πόλει μηδενὸς αὐτοῖς ἀγαθοῦ μεταδιδούσῃ) and φιλοχωρία in i. 27 (ὑπὸ τῆς φιλοχωρίας κρατουμένους). Plutarch uses the word in reference to his birthplace Chaeroneia, telling us that he ‘clung fondly to the spot,’ lest by leaving it he should make a small place, but one which had witnessed thrilling scenes, ‘smaller yet’ (ἡμεῖς δὲ μικρὰν οἰκοῦντες πόλιν, καὶ ἵνα μὴ μικροτέρα γένηται φιλοχωροῦντες, Plut. _Demosth._ c. 2). The form =χωροφιλεῖν= seems to occur twice only in good Greek authors: (1) Antiphon _de Caede Herodis_ § 78 εἰ δ’ ἐν Αἴνῳ χωροφιλεῖ [probably it is to this passage that Dionysius here refers]; (2) _Ep. Thaletis ap. Diog. L._ i. 44 σὺ μέντοι χωροφιλέων ὀλίγα φοιτέεις ἐς Ἰωνίην.

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=φλυαρία.= =264= 7, =268= 15. _Nonsense_, _foolery_. Lat. _nugae_, _ineptiae_. So =φλυάρημα= (_futility_) =192= 9. Notwithstanding the remarks in Stephanus, it would seem more natural to take =φλύαρος= as an adjective (than as a noun) in =272= 20, 22, and this for two reasons: (1) the form φλυαρία has been used shortly before; (2) the adjectival use is sufficiently established by Hesychius’ note (φαῦλος, εὐήθης) and by that of Thom. M. p. 376 Ritschl (πολύλογος), while ἡ φλύαρος φιλοσοφία occurs in the Septuagint (_Maccab._ iv. 5, 10) and καὶ ὅλως ἀποδείκνυσι τὸν Πυθαγόρου λόγον φλύαρον in Plut. _Mor._ 169 E.

=φορά.= =144= 22, =204= 17, =244= 20. _Current_, _rush_. Lat. _cursus_, _impetus_.

=φορτικός.= =252= 14. _Coarse_, _rude_. Lat. _insolens_, _importunus_, _insulsus_.

=φράσις.= =84= 2, =166= 3, =182= 8, =206= 1, 15, =208= 7, =250= 14. _Style_, _expression_. Lat. _elocutio_. Cp. Quintil. viii. 1. 1 “igitur, quam Graeci φράσιν vocant, Latine dicimus _elocutionem_. ea spectatur verbis aut singulis aut coniunctis.”

=φριμαγμός.= =158= 14. _Snorting._ Lat. _fremitus_. It is hardly likely that the word here means no more than βληχή, _bleating_.

=Φρύγιος.= =196= 1. _Phrygian._ Lat. _Phrygius_. Cp. Monro’s _Modes of Ancient Greek Music_, passim.

=φυλακή.= =198= 6. _Preservation._ Lat. _conservatio_.—In the _de Imitat._ B. vi. 3 the reading φυλακή (if correct) will correspond to the middle φυλάττεσθαι (not to φυλάττειν).

=φυσικός.= =96= 23, =214= 3, =224= 5, =240= 8, etc. _Natural._ Lat. _naturalis_. So =φυσικῶς= =200= 12. ὁ φυσικός, in =214= 3, = ‘the natural philosopher,’ ‘the physicist’ (of Empedocles). In =134= 2 οὐδ’ ἔχει φύσιν τὸ πρᾶγμα ... πεσεῖν the meaning is ‘nor is the subject of such a nature that it can fall.’

=φωνή.= =130= 4, 21, =136= 22, =138= 7, etc. _Voice_, _sound_. Lat. _vox_, _sonus_, _sonus vocalis_. Cp. =φωνεῖν= (‘to pronounce,’ etc.) =140= 1, 20, =144= 18, =148= 14.

=φωνήεις.= =138= 8, 9, 15, =140= 2, =144= 7, =150= 17, =152= 4, =220= 11. _Voiced._ Lat. _vocalis_. φωνήεντα γράμματα = _litterae vocales_ = _vowels_. For the term ‘voiced’ see s.v. ἄφωνος p. 292 _supra_. Cp. Dionys. Thrax _Ars Gramm._ p. 9 (ed. Uhlig) φωνήεντα δὲ λέγεται, ὅτι φωνὴν ἀφ’ ἑαυτῶν ἀποτελεῖ.

=φωτεινός.= =234= 13. _Full of light._ Lat. _lucidus_, _luminosus_.

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=χαρακτήρ.= =68= 21, =80= 17, =90= 10, etc. _Characteristic stamp_, _type_. Lat. _forma_, _nota_. So the adjective =χαρακτηρικός= in =232= 21 (cp. _de Demosth._ c. 39 init.). See further in D.H. p. 208, Demetr. p. 308.—In =230= 9 the verb =χαράττειν= = ‘to irritate.’

=χάρις.= =112= 5, =120= 20, =124= 12, etc. _Charm_, _grace_. Lat. _venustas_, _lepor_. Fr. _grâce_. Cp. Demetr. p. 308. So =χαρίεις= (‘refined,’ ‘elegant,’ ‘accomplished,’ ‘consummate’) =106= 16, =116= 1, =154= 16; =χαριέντως= =110= 22.

=χλευασμός.= =192= 7. _Scoffing_, _satire_. Lat. _derisio_, _illusio_. =χλευάζειν= =270= 3.

=χορδή.= =122= 23. _String_, _note_. Lat. _chorda_.

=χορεῖος.= =170= 17, =184= 11. _Choree._ Lat. _choreus_. The metrical foot ᴗ ᴗ ᴗ. In =170= 18 the reading τρίβραχυς πούς (τροχαῖος πούς F) seems to be a gloss. The term χορεῖος is applied to the trochee more commonly than to the tribrach. The Epitome (c. 17) gives χορεῖος (without addition).

=χρεία.= =104= 21, =198= 2. _Use_, _practical work_. Lat. _usus_. Cp. _de Demosth._ c. 45, _de Thucyd._ c. 55. There may also be some notion of _practical need_, _stress_: cp. ἐν χρείᾳ δορός (Soph. _Aj._ 963) and ὑπὸ τῆς χρείας αὐτῆς (schol. on Hom. _Odyss._ viii. 163).

=χρεμετισμός.= =158= 14. _Neighing_, _whinnying_. Lat. _hinnitus_.

=χρῆμα.= =158= 2. _Object._ Lat. _res ipsa_. Cp. note on p. 158 _supra_.

=χρόνοι.= =130= 1, =164= 5, =204= 22 (lit. ‘does not divide the times’), =210= 19, =216= 18, =234= 4, =244= 19, =264= 4. _Times_, _time-intervals_, _time-spaces_, _rests_, _pauses_. Lat. _tempora_, _morae_. So in =128= 15 χρόνους = ‘the length of syllables,’ and in =130= 7 ἐν τοῖς χρόνοις τῶν μορίων = ‘in the duration of words,’ ‘in quantity.’ χρόνων = ‘tenses,’ =108= 5; χρόνιος = _diuturnus_, =202= 23; χρονίζειν = _immorari_, =164= 12.

=χρῶμα.= =88= 12, =198= 14. _Colour._ Lat. _color_. In =198= 14 χρώμασιν should be retained (in place of Usener’s χρήμασιν) in the sense of ‘ornaments’; the ornaments in question being μέλος εὐγενές, ῥυθμὸς ἀξιωματικός, μεταβολὴ μεγαλοπρεπής (=136= 11, where compare τὸ πᾶσι τούτοις παρακολουθοῦν πρέπον with τοῖς ἄλλοις χρώμασιν ἅπασι παρεῖναι δεῖ τὸ πρέπον in =198= 14). Compare too _de Demosth._ c. 22 κοσμοῦντος ἅπαντα καὶ χρωματίζοντος τῇ πρεπούσῃ ὑποκρίσει ἧς δεινότατος ἀσκητὴς ἐγένετο, and the use of χρῶμα (or χρώματα) in _de Isaeo_ c. 4 and _de Thucyd._ c. 42. Photius (_Bibl. Cod._ 214) has ἔστι δὲ ἡ φράσις τῷ ἀνδρὶ σαφὴς μὲν καὶ καθαρὰ καὶ σπουδῇ φιλοσόφῳ πρέπουσα, οὐ μήν γε τοῖς κεκαλλωπισμένοις καὶ περιττοῖς ἐξωραϊζομένη χρώμασι καὶ ποικίλμασι τῆς ῥητορείας. Similarly _color_ in Quintil. x. 1. 116, and Cic. _de Orat._ iii. 25. 100. The stage at which the χρῶμα would best be introduced in a historical work is suggested in a passage of Lucian (_de conscrib. hist._ 48): καὶ ἐπειδὰν ἀθροίσῃ ἅπαντα ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα, πρῶτα μὲν ὑπόμνημά τι συνυφαινέτω αὐτῶν καὶ σῶμα ποιείτω ἀκαλλὲς ἔτι καὶ ἀδιάρθρωτον· εἶτα ἐπιθεὶς τὴν τάξιν ἐπαγέτω τὸ κάλλος καὶ χρωννύτω (i.e. ‘tinge’) τῇ λέξει καὶ σχηματιζέτω καὶ ῥυθμιζέτω. But might it not be more truly said that a great historian like Gibbon has his χρῶμα from the beginning, —from the moment when he stands in the Forum and conceives his vast theme? It is in fact one aspect of his inspiration.

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=χρωματικός.= =194= 7, =196= 3. _Chromatic._ Lat. _chromaticus_. For the chromatic scale see note on =194= 7.

=χώρα.= =144= 13. _Room_, _space_. Lat. _locus_, _spatium_. χωρίον in =126= 6 = ‘distance,’ ‘interval.’

=ψιλός.= =130= 5, =148= 7, 12 (_bis_), 18, 19, =150= 3, 9, =154= 2, =250= 12, =254= 1. _Bare_, _smooth_, _unaspirated_. Lat. _lenis_. So =ψιλότης= =148= 21. See s.v. δασύς p. 294 _supra_, with the reference there given to A. J. Ellis’ pamphlet. In =148= 7 Ellis takes ‘smooth’ to mean ‘unaccompanied by voice, but in this case possibly not mute.’ In =130= 5 the ‘ordinary’ voice, the voice ‘pure and simple’ (or ‘without addition’), is meant: cp. =154= 2, =250= 12, =254= 1. So ἐν τοῖς ψιλοῖς λόγοις Aristot. _Rhet._ iii. 2. 3, and “nuda oratio” Cic. _Orat._ 55. 183.

=ψοφοειδής.= =162= 15. _Sounding._ Lat. _sonans_. If the term is technical, it may perhaps be translated by _fricative_; it can hardly be so wide as _consonantal_.

=ψόφος.= =138= 7, 8, 9, 12, =146= 4, =222= 2. _A sound_, _a noise_. Lat. _sonus_, _strepitus_. The consonants (_litterae consonantes_) are called ψόφοι, as contrasted with the φωνήεντα γράμματα.

=ψῦγμα.= =202= 26. _Inhalation._ Lat. _respiratio_. Used particularly of the ‘catch of the breath’ (_interspiratio_) between one word and another. [ψῦγμα must, of course, be distinguished from ψῆγμα: cp. Long. p. 174.]

=ᾠδή.= =124= 16, 22, =148= 1, =224= 21, =278= 8. _Song_, _lay_, _ode_. Lat. _cantus_, _carmen_. So =ᾠδικός= = _vocal_ (of the voice accompanied by music), =126= 16, =130= 5.

=ὤρα.= =78= 12. _Care_, _heed_. Lat. _cura_. Cp. Hesychius: ὥρα ... ψιλῶς δὲ φροντίς, ἐπιμέλεια· ὅθεν ὀλίγωρον (i.e. ‘a _poco curante_,’ ‘a Hippocleides’) λέγομεν τὸν ὀλίγην ἔχοντα φροντίδα. In =78= 12 M has γρ φροντίδα in the margin.

=ὥρα.= =120= 20, =124= 12, =162= 1. _Freshness_, _bloom_, _beauty_. Lat. _venustas_, _flos_. Fr. _fraîcheur_. Cp. _Ep. ad Cn. Pomp._ c. 2 (quoted from _de Demosth._ c. 5: in reference to Plato’s style ὅ τε πίνος ὁ τῆς ἀρχαιότητος ἠρέμα αὐτῇ καὶ λεληθότως ἐπιτρέχει ἱλαρόν τέ τι καὶ τεθηλὸς καὶ μεστὸν ὥρας ἄνθος ἀναδίδωσι, καὶ ὥσπερ ἀπὸ τῶν εὐωδεστάτων λειμώνων αὔρα τις ἡδεῖα ἐξ αὐτῆς φέρεται).—In =68= 14 and =76= 6 ὥρα = ‘time,’ ‘season.’

=ὡραϊσμός.= =66= 18. _Adornment_, _elegance_. Lat. _elegantia_.

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APPENDIX A

OBSCURITY IN GREEK

The natural lucidity of the Greek language is sometimes assumed by its modern admirers to extend to all the writings of Greek authors. But the ancients themselves made no such extravagant claims. They might praise Lysias as a model of clearness; but they knew well the difficulties, of subject matter or expression, to be met with not only in Heracleitus[199] or Lycophron, but in masters so great as Pindar, Aeschylus, Thucydides, and the author of that excellent definition which sees in lucidity a fundamental virtue of style—Aristotle himself. Thucydides (to take one writer only out of this group of four) is taxed with obscurity by critics other than Dionysius. Marcellinus, although not otherwise in entire agreement with Dionysius, attributes this particular defect to Thucydides and regards it as deliberate: ἀσαφῶς δὲ λέγων ἐπίτηδες, ἵνα μὴ πᾶσιν εἴη βατὸς μηδὲ εὐτελὴς φαίνηται παντὶ τῷ βουλομένῳ νοούμενος εὐχερῶς, ἀλλὰ τοῖς λίαν σοφοῖς δοκιμαζόμενος παρὰ τούτοις θαυμάζηται ... τὸ δὲ τῆς συνθέσεως τραχύτητος μεστὸν καὶ ἐμβριθὲς καὶ ὑπερβατικόν, ἐνίοτε δὲ ἀσαφές ... ἀσαφὴς τὴν διάνοιαν διὰ τὸ ὑπερβατοῖς χαίρειν (Marcell. _Vita Thucyd._ §§ 35, 50, 56). An epigram in the Greek Anthology is pitched in the same key:—

ὦ φίλος, εἰ σοφὸς εἶ, λάβε μ’ ἐς χέρας· εἰ δέ γε πάμπαν νῆϊς ἔφυς Μουσέων, ῥίψον ἃ μὴ νοέεις. εἰμὶ δέ γ’ οὐ πάντεσσι βατός· παῦροι δ’ ἀγάσαντο Θουκυδίδην Ὀλόρου, Κεκροπίδην τὸ γένος.

_Anth. Pal._ ix. 583.

And Cicero, in a more uncompromising way, condemns the Speeches as scarcely intelligible: “ipsae illae contiones ita multas habent obscuras abditasque sententias, vix ut intellegantur; quod est in oratione civili vitium vel maximum” (Cic. _Orat._ 9. 30).

Obscurity in matter and obscurity in expression are intimately allied. Euripides, in the _Frogs_, says of Aeschylus that he was obscure in setting forth his plots (ἀσαφὴς γὰρ ἦν ἐν τῇ φράσει τῶν πραγμάτων, Aristoph. _Ran._ 1122). Dionysius attributes to Lysias, as compared with Thucydides

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and Demosthenes, a lucidity which embraces matter as well as expression and treats words as the servants of thought: τρίτην ἀρετὴν ἀποφαίνομαι περὶ τὸν ἄνδρα τὴν σαφήνειαν, οὐ μόνον τὴν ἐν τοῖς ὀνόμασιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὴν ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν· ἔστι γάρ τις καὶ πραγματικὴ σαφήνεια οὐ πολλοῖς γνώριμος. τεκμαίρομαι δέ, ὅτι τῆς μὲν Θουκυδίδου λέξεως καὶ Δημοσθένους, οἳ δεινότατοι πράγματα ἐξειπεῖν ἐγένοντο, πολλὰ δυσείκαστά ἐστιν ἡμῖν καὶ ἀσαφῆ καὶ δεόμενα ἐξηγητῶν ... τούτου δὲ αἴτιον, ὅτι οὐ τοῖς ὀνόμασι δουλεύει τὰ πράγματα παρ’ αὐτῷ [sc. Λυσίᾳ], τοῖς δὲ πράγμασιν ἀκολουθεῖ τὰ ὀνόματα (_de Lysia_, c. 4). So far as the two can be separated, it is with wording rather than with subject matter that the present appendix is concerned.

One principal cause of obscurity is the anxious search for brevity. Dionysius sees this, especially in regard to Thucydides; and “brevis esse laboro, | obscurus fio” has many an analogue in his critical pages (e.g. ἀσαφὲς γίνεται τὸ βραχύ and διὰ τὸ τάχος τῆς ἀπαγγελίας ἀσαφὴς ἡ λέξις γίνεται, _de Thucyd._ c. 24 and _Ep. ii. ad Amm._ c. 2). At the same time, he does not seem to concede enough to the claims of brevity in _C.V._ =118= 1, 2, where it is not simply a question of ‘offending the ear,’ or of ‘spoiling the metre,’ or even of ‘charm.’ The two lines there quoted from Sophocles have something of that πολύνους βραχυλογία which has been justly attributed to Thucydides.[200]

But too many words may be just as fatal to clearness as too few. As Aristotle says (_Rhet._ iii. 12. 6), lucidity is imperilled when a style is prolix, no less than when it is condensed. A disjointed and rambling diffuseness is condemned by Demetrius (_de Eloc._ § 192); and Dionysius (_Ep. ii. ad Amm._ c. 15) remarks that numerous parentheses make the meaning hard to follow (... αἱ μεταξὺ παρεμπτώσεις πολλαὶ γινόμεναι καὶ μόλις ἐπὶ τὸ τέλος ἀφικνούμεναι, δι’ ἃς ἡ φράσις δυσπαρακολούθητος γίνεται).[201]

It is, however, the arrangement of words (even more than their number, large or small) that contributes to lucidity or its opposite. Quintilian (ix. 4. 32) says “amphiboliam quoque fieri vitiosa locatione verborum, nemo est qui nesciat”; and certainly the importance of a right order, in its bearing on clearness, is very great even in the highly inflected languages. Elsewhere (viii. 2. 16) Quintilian gives some good examples of ambiguities to be avoided: “vitanda est in primis ambiguitas, non haec solum, de cuius genere supra dictum est, quae incertum intellectum facit, ut _Chremetem audivi percussisse Demean_,[202] sed illa quoque, quae, etiamsi turbare non potest sensum, in idem tamen verborum vitium incidit, ut si quis dicat, _visum a se hominem librum scribentem_. nam etiamsi librum ab homine scribi patet, male tamen composuerit feceritque ambiguum, quantum in ipso fuit.” Quintilian’s ideal is a fine one, but it is not always possible to

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attain it in Latin or in Greek. The freedom of the classical word-order, so desirable on other grounds, stands in the way here.

Illustrations of a certain degree of ambiguity will be found in some instances of the dependent genitive in Greek, as used especially in Thucydides. Thucydides usually places the dependent genitive _before_ the noun on which it depends.[203] As, however, his rule is not invariable, it cannot be said that in all the following examples (which are designedly of a promiscuous character) the reader is absolved, as Quintilian evidently thinks he should be, from making his conception of the general sense help in determining the grammatical construction:—

(1) καὶ μετὰ τῆς ἥσσονος ἅμα ἐλπίδος ὀλίγων ἡμερῶν ἕνεκα μεγάλου μισθοῦ δόσεως ἐκείνοις ξυναγωνίζεσθαι, Thucyd. i. 143.

(2) εἴ τις ὑπομένοι καὶ μὴ φόβῳ ῥοθίου καὶ νεῶν δεινότητος κατάπλου ὑποχωροίη, iv. 10.

(3) Κερκυραῖοι δὲ μετὰ τῆς ξυμμαχίας τῆς αἰτήσεως καὶ ταῦτα πιστεύοντες ἐχυρὰ ὑμῖν παρέξεσθαι ἀπέστειλαν ἡμᾶς, i. 32.

(4) οἵπερ τῶν ὁλκάδων ἕνεκα τῆς ἐς Σικελίαν κομιδῆς ἀνθώρμουν πρὸς τὰς ἐν Ναυπάκτῳ ναῦς, vii. 34.

(5) ἄπιστα μὲν ἴσως, ὥσπερ καὶ ἄλλοι τινές, δόξω ὑμῖν περὶ τοῦ ἐπίπλου τῆς ἀληθείας λέγειν, vi. 33.

(6) τά τε τῆς ἀντιμιμήσεως αὐτῶν τῆς παρασκευῆς ἡμῶν τῷ μὲν ἡμετέρῳ τρόπῳ ξυνήθη τέ ἐστι κτλ., vii. 67.

(7) τοὺς γὰρ ἂν ψιλοὺς τοὺς σφῶν καὶ τὸν ὄχλον τῶν Συρακοσίων τοὺς ἱππέας πολλοὺς ὄντας, σφίσι δ’ οὐ παρόντων ἱππέων, βλάπτειν ἂν μεγάλα, vi. 64.

(8) καὶ τοῦ Κλέωνος καίπερ μανιώδης οὖσα ἡ ὑπόσχεσις ἀπέβη, iv. 39.

(9) καὶ τριήρης τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἁλίσκεται τῶν Ἀθηναίων ὑπὸ τῶν Συρακοσίων ἐφορμοῦσα τῷ λιμένι, vii. 3.[204]

Similarly in other authors: e.g. καὶ δὴ καὶ τότε τοῦ Θρασυμάχου τὴν ἀπόρρησιν οὐκ ἀπεδέξατο, Plato _Rep._ ii. 357 A (where, however, the meaning may be “would not accept from Thrasymachus his withdrawal”); and ὣς φάτο, τῷ δ’ ἄρα πατρὸς ὑφ’ ἵμερον ὦρσε γόοιο, Hom. _Il._ xxiv. 507; and

=τούτων= ἐγὼ οὐκ ἔμελλον, ἀνδρὸς οὐδενὸς φρόνημα δείσασ’, ἐν θεοῖσι =τὴν δίκην= δώσειν.

Soph. _Antig._ 458-60.[205]

If in some of these instances the order is not absolutely unambiguous, still less is it so in other and more miscellaneous extracts about to be given. The writer of artistic prose, as of poetry, has to satisfy claims which are often hard to reconcile: those of clearness, of emphasis, and of euphony.[206]

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The result may often be a more or less unconscious compromise in which one of the elements prospers at the expense of the others. Euphony, to take that element alone, is expected to please the ear in many different ways—by the avoidance of harsh letters (found singly or in combination), of short syllables in close succession, of monotony in word-terminations, of monotony in every shape and form. Obscurity may well ensue, especially in a literature which does not aid the eye by means of punctuation, capital letters (to denote proper names or the beginning of a sentence), italic type, or division into paragraphs and chapters. To set against these deficiencies, there was the help provided by the reciter or the skilled _anagnostes_; and it is often interesting to speculate how, by a slight pause or modulation of the voice, a practised reader would be able to remove a seeming ambiguity. In poetry, again, metre would often be an aid to clear delivery, though its exigencies might on the other hand have led to some ambiguities in the actual writing. No careful modern student of a highly-wrought speech, like the _Crown_ of Demosthenes, can have failed to be arrested momentarily, here and there, by some slight ambiguity which, as far as he can judge, might have been removed by an equally slight change in the word-order; and he gains much in the appreciation of Demosthenes if he is thus led to consider what are the subtle laws of rhythm and melody to which an absolutely unimpeachable lucidity has (in however small a degree) given way. He will certainly be led to the conclusion that, in Greek, good order is by no means the simple thing it may seem when achieved, but rather is the highly complex result of the play of many forces. The following examples, drawn from various authors in poetry and in prose, may be found suggestive. They are of set purpose presented without any attempt at sequence or classification, except that a considerable number of extracts from the _de Corona_ are grouped together:—

(1) καί μοι τὸν υἱόν, εἰ μεμάθηκε τὸν λόγον ἐκεῖνον, εἴφ’, =ὃν= ἀρτίως εἰσήγαγες.

Aristoph. _Nub._ 1148.

(2) ἀλλά =μιν= αὖτις ἀναρπάξασα θύελλα πόντον ἐπ’ ἰχθυόεντα φέρεν βαρέα =στενάχοντα=.

Hom. _Odyss._ xxiii. 316.[207]

(3) ἠδ’ ὡς εἰς Ἀίδεω δόμον =ἤλυθεν= εὐρώεντα, ψυχῇ χρησόμενος Θηβαίου Τειρεσίαο, =νηῒ πολυκλήιδι=.

id. _ib._ xxiii. 322.[207]

(4) ὅτι Ἱππίας μὲν πρεσβύτατος ὢν ἦρχε τῶν Πεισιστράτου υἱέων.

Thucyd. i. 20.

Here τῶν Πεισιστράτου υἱέων depends on πρεσβύτατος ὤν, not on ἦρχε.

(5) κράτιστα τοίνυν τῶν παρόντων ἐστὶ νῷν θεῶν ἰόντε προσπεσεῖν του πρὸς βρέτας.

Aristoph. _Eq._ 30, 31.

Here the actor would pause slightly after νῷν, at the end of the metrical line.

(6) τοῦτ’ οὖν ἔβλαψα τί δράσας;

id. _Ran._ 1064.

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Careful delivery would make it quite plain that the meaning is: τί οὖν ἔβλαψα, δράσας τοῦτο;

(7) σαφῶς γὰρ ἄν, εἰ πείθοιμι ὑμᾶς καὶ τῷ δεῖσθαι βιαζοίμην ὀμωμοκότας, =θεοὺς ἂν διδάσκοιμι μὴ ἡγεῖσθαι ὑμᾶς εἶναι=.

Plato _Apol._ c. 24.

(8) καὶ ἐς τύχας =πρὸς πολλῷ δυνατωτέρους= ἀγωνιζόμενοι καταστῆναι.

Thucyd. i. 69.

(9) οὐδ’ ἐκλογίσασθαι πώποτε πρὸς οἵους =ὑμῖν= Ἀθηναίους ὄντας καὶ ὅσον ὑμῶν καὶ ὡς πᾶν διαφέροντας ὁ ἀγὼν ἔσται.

id. i. 70.

ὑμῖν is probably to be connected with ὁ ἀγὼν ἔσται. Its present position has the effect of marking the contrast between ὑμῖν and Ἀθηναίους, and further of breaking the monotony of the accusative-endings οἵ=ους= Ἀθηναί=ους= ὄντ=ας=. It should, however, be remembered that in a highly inflected language like Greek a noun may stand in a vague general case relation (genitive, dative, or accusative) to the whole sentence in a way that is impossible in an uninflected language. This may be so here, and in some of the other passages quoted.

(10) ῥηθήσεται δὲ οὐ παραιτήσεως μᾶλλον ἕνεκα ἢ μαρτυρίου καὶ δηλώσεως πρὸς οἵαν =ὑμῖν= πόλιν μὴ εὖ βουλευομένοις ὁ ἀγὼν καταστήσεται.

id. i. 73.

Similarly ὑμῖν (‘you will find,’ etc.) is to be taken with ὁ ἀγὼν καταστήσεται. It is contrasted with πόλιν and paves the way for βουλευομένοις.

(11) ἔνθ’ ὅ γε τοὺς =ἐλεεινὰ= κατήσθεε τετριγῶτας· μήτηρ δ’ ἀμφεποτᾶτο ὀδυρομένη =φίλα τέκνα=.

Hom. _Il._ ii. 314-15.

Connect ἐλεεινὰ τετριγῶτας, and ἀμφεποτᾶτο φίλα τέκνα.

(12) ὡς οὖν δεινὰ πέλωρα =θεῶν= εἰσῆλθ’ ἑκατόμβας.

id. _ib._ ii. 321.

Connect θεῶν ἑκατόμβας.

(13) καίτοι σ’ ἐγὼ ’τίμησα τοῖς φρονοῦσιν =εὖ=.

Soph. _Antig._ 904.

εὖ with ἐτίμησα. The line occurs in the suspected portion of the _Antigone_. But, so far as this particular point is concerned, cp. the order of μόνος in—

τὰ κοινὰ χαίρων οὐ δίκαια δρᾷ =μόνος=.

Eurip. _Ion_ 358.

(14) =τίνος= δ’ Ἀτρεῖδαι τοῦδ’ ἄγαν οὕτω χρόνῳ τοσῷδ’ ἐπεστέφοντο πράγματος χάριν, ὅν γ’ εἶχον ἤδη χρόνιον ἐκβεβληκότες;

Soph. _Philoct._ 598.

Here strict lucidity is sacrificed to emphasis. τίνος must be joined with πράγματος (not with τοῦδε).

(15) στέμματ’ ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν =ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος= χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ.

Hom. _Il._ i. 14.

(16) περὶ τούτων δ’ ὄντος τουτουὶ τοῦ ἀγῶνος, ἀξιῶ καὶ δέομαι πάντων ὁμοίως ὑμῶν ἀκοῦσαί μου περὶ τῶν κατηγορημένων ἀπολογουμένου =δικαίως=, ὥσπερ οἱ νόμοι κελεύουσιν, οὓς ὁ τιθεὶς ἐξ ἀρχῆς Σόλων κτλ.

Demosth. _de Cor._ § 6.

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δικαίως qualifies ἀκοῦσαι: cp. the position of γενναίως in _de Cor._ § 97 (quoted in Introduction p. 24 _supra_). The present order is not only emphatic, but also serves to connect δικαίως closely with ὥσπερ κτλ., and thus to a certain extent actually to avoid ambiguity.

(17) σκέψασθ’ ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι καὶ θεωρήσατε ὅσῳ καὶ ἀληθέστερον καὶ ἀνθρωπινώτερον ἐγὼ περὶ τῆς τύχης =τούτου= διαλεχθήσομαι.

Demosth. _de Cor._ § 252.

(18) τὸ μὲν τοίνυν προελέσθαι τὰ κάλλιστα καὶ =τὸ= τῶν οἰηθέντων Ἑλλήνων, εἰ πρόοιντο ἡμᾶς, ἐν εὐδαιμονίᾳ διάξειν, =αὐτῶν= ἄμεινον πράττειν τῆς ἀγαθῆς τύχης τῆς πόλεως εἶναι τίθημι.

id. _ib._ § 254.

(19) =τοῦ μὲν οὖν γράψαι= πράττοντα καὶ λέγοντα τὰ βέλτιστά με τῷ δήμῳ διατελεῖν καὶ πρόθυμον εἶναι ποιεῖν ὅ τι ἂν δύνωμαι ἀγαθόν, καὶ ἐπαινεῖν ἐπὶ τούτοις, ἐν τοῖς πεπολιτευμένοις =τὴν κρίσιν= εἶναι νομίζω.

id. _ib._ § 56.

(20) οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἥψατ’ αὐτῶν | παρόντων ἡμῶν, κτλ.

id. _ib._ § 30.

The vertical stroke, here and elsewhere, may serve to indicate the possibility of a slight pause in utterance, and Aristotle’s remarks on the obscurity of Heracleitus may be recalled: τὰ γὰρ Ἡρακλείτου διαστίξαι (‘to punctuate’) ἔργον διὰ τὸ ἄδηλον εἶναι ποτέρῳ πρόσκειται, τῷ ὕστερον ἢ τῷ πρότερον, οἷον ἐν τῇ ἀρχῇ αὐτοῦ τοῦ συγγράμματος· φησὶ γὰρ “τοῦ λόγου τοῦδ’ ἐόντος ἀεὶ ἀξύνετοι ἄνθρωποι γίγνονται”· ἄδηλον γὰρ τὸ ἀεί, πρὸς ὁποτέρῳ <δεῖ> διαστίξαι.

Aristot. _Rhet._ iii. 5.

(21) λοιπὸν τοίνυν ἦν καὶ ἀναγκαῖον ἅμα | πᾶσιν οἷς ἐκεῖνος ἔπραττ’ ἀδικῶν ὑμᾶς ἐναντιοῦσθαι δικαίως.

Demosth. _de Cor._ § 69.

(22) ταῦτα τοίνυν εἰδὼς Αἰσχίνης οὐδὲν ἧττον ἐμοῦ | πομπεύειν ἀντὶ τοῦ κατηγορεῖν εἵλετο.

id. _ib._ § 124.

(23) συνέβαινε δ’ αὐτῷ | τῷ πολέμῳ κρατοῦντι, κτλ.

id. _ib._ § 146.

(24) τότε τοίνυν κατ’ ἐκεῖνον τὸν καιρὸν ὁ Παιανεὺς ἐγὼ Βάτταλος Οἰνομάου τοῦ Κοθωκίδου σοῦ | πλείονος ἄξιος ὢν ἐφάνην τῇ πατρίδι.

id. _ib._ § 180.

(25) εἰ γὰρ ὡς οὐ τὰ βέλτιστα ἐμοῦ πολιτευσαμένου | τουδὶ καταψηφιεῖσθε, ἡμαρτηκέναι δόξετε, οὐ τῇ τῆς τύχης ἀγνωμοσύνῃ τὰ συμβάντα παθεῖν.

id. _ib._ § 207.

(26) οὐκ ἂν οἷα σὺ νῦν ἔλεγες, τοιαῦτα κατηγόρει, παραδείγματα πλάττων | καὶ ῥήματα καὶ σχήματα μιμούμενος κτλ.

id. _ib._ § 232.

(27) σὺ τοίνυν ταῦτ’ ἀφεὶς ἐμὲ τὸν παρὰ τουτοισὶ πεπολιτευμένον αἰτιᾷ, καὶ ταῦτ’ | εἰδὼς ὅτι, καὶ εἰ μὴ τὸ ὅλον, μέρος γ’ ἐπιβάλλει τῆς βλασφημίας ἅπασι, καὶ μάλιστα σοί.

id. _ib._ § 272.

Here may be added, from R. Y. Tyrrell’s edition of Eurip. _Bacchae_ p. 36, an interesting note suggested by the distance which parts μόσχων from ἀγελαῖα βοσκήματα in _Bacch._ 678: “The Greek writers are not nearly so sensitive about the order of words as we are. Surely we have something at least as strange in the order of words in 684 where ἐλάτης certainly depends on φόβην not on νῶτα. See Comm. on 860 for more curious inversions of the natural order; and compare in Soph. _Oed. R._ 1251 χὤπως μὲν ἐκ τῶνδ’ οὐκέτ’ οἶδ’ =ἀπόλλυται=; _O.C._ 1427 τίς δὲ τολμήσει κλύων | τὰ

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τοῦδ’ =ἕπεσθαι= τἀνδρός; Perhaps the best instance in Greek of a violent _hyperbaton_ is Ar. _Thesm._ 811 οὐδ’ ἂν =κλέψασα= γυνὴ =ζεύγει= κατὰ πεντήκοντα τάλαντα | ἐς πόλιν =ἔλθοι τῶν δημοσίων= ‘nor would a lady _ride in her chariot_ to the town after _pilfering the public exchequer_ to the tune of 50 talents.’” Probably the Greek authors, in such instances, were not blind to the liberties they were taking with the natural and lucid order of words; but they trusted to delivery’s artful aid. And about the order adopted in the passage quoted from the _Thesmophoriazusae_ there seems to be a touch of intentional comedy.

It is worth notice, in connexion with Thucydides and word-order, that the Vatican manuscript B, which is at its best from vi. 92 to the end of viii., frequently exhibits an order of words which is peculiar to it and may point to a reviser’s deliberate effort after greater lucidity. In reference to the text presented by the newly discovered Commentary on Thucydides ii., Grenfell and Hunt (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_ vi. p. 113) say: “As usual, the text of the papyrus is of an eclectic character and does not consistently agree with either family [of the MSS. of Thucydides]; but it supports the ABEFM group seven times against only four agreements with the other [viz. CG]. Several new readings occur of which we append a list.”

With regard to the 27 passages quoted above from various authors it may be remarked in general that, while in some of them there are real obscurities, in others the ambiguity is purely grammatical. And it might almost be laid down as a principle of Greek language that grammatical rules may be freely neglected where the neglect of them does not make the meaning seriously ambiguous, and is desirable in order to secure emphasis, euphony, or some similar object.

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APPENDIX B

ILLUSTRATIONS OF WORD-ORDER IN GREEK AND MODERN LANGUAGES

A few modern translations of some short Greek passages may be appended, in order to exemplify some of the leading differences, in regard to word-order, between ancient and modern languages. From these it will be seen how much English, French, and German differ among themselves; and, indeed, how great is the variety presented by good English versions of one and the same Greek passage. Dionysius himself (p. 266 _supra_) refers to the opening of Plato’s _Republic_, and that opening passage may here be given at sufficient length to illustrate sentence-order and clause-order as well as word-order. Then will be added, from the _de Corona_ (which Dionysius regards as the greatest of all speeches), the opening, the conclusion, and a famous piece of narrative.

MODERN TRANSLATIONS

I. OPENING OF PLATO’S _REPUBLIC_

(1) Κατέβην χθὲς εἰς Πειραιᾶ μετὰ Γλαύκωνος τοῦ Ἀρίστωνος προσευξόμενός τε τῇ θεῷ καὶ ἅμα τὴν ἑορτὴν βουλόμενος θεάσασθαι τίνα τρόπον ποιήσουσιν ἅτε νῦν πρῶτον ἄγοντες. καλὴ μὲν οὖν μοι καὶ ἡ τῶν ἐπιχωρίων πομπὴ ἔδοξεν εἶναι, οὐ μέντοι ἧττον ἐφαίνετο πρέπειν ἣν οἱ Θρᾷκες ἔπεμπον. προσευξάμενοι δὲ καὶ θεωρήσαντες ἀπῇμεν πρὸς τὸ ἄστυ. κατιδὼν οὖν πόρρωθεν ἡμᾶς οἴκαδε ὡρμημένους Πολέμαρχος ὁ Κεφάλου ἐκέλευσε δραμόντα τὸν παῖδα περιμεῖναί ἑ κελεῦσαι. καί μου ὄπισθεν ὁ παῖς λαβόμενος τοῦ ἱματίου, Κελεύει ὑμᾶς, ἔφη, Πολέμαρχος περιμεῖναι. Καὶ ἐγὼ μετεστράφην τε καὶ ἠρόμην ὅπου αὐτὸς εἴη. Οὗτος, ἔφη, ὄπισθεν προσέρχεται· ἀλλὰ περιμένετε. Ἀλλὰ περιμενοῦμεν, ἦ δ’ ὃς ὁ Γλαύκων.

(2) _J’étais descendu hier au Pirée avec Glaucon, fils d’Ariston, pour faire notre prière à la déesse et voir aussi comment se passerait la fête, car c’était la première fois qu’on la célébrait. La pompe, formée par nos compatriotes, me parut belle, et celle des Thraces ne l’était pas moins. Après avoir fait notre_

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_prière et vu la cérémonie, nous regagnâmes le chemin de la ville. Comme nous nous dirigions de ce côté, Polémarque, fils de Céphale, nous aperçut de loin, et dit à son esclave de courir après nous et de nous prier de l’attendre. Celui-ci m’arrêtant par derrière par mon manteau: Polémarque, dit-il, vous prie de l’attendre. Je me retourne et lui demande où est son maître: Le voilà qui me suit, attendez-le un moment. Eh bien, dit Glaucon, nous l’attendrons._

VICTOR COUSIN.

(3) _Ich ging gestern mit Glaukon, dem Sohne des Ariston, in den Peiraieus hinunter; theils um die Göttin anzubeten, dann aber wollte ich auch zugleich das Fest sehen, wie sie es feiern wollten, da sie es jetzt zum ersten Mal begehen. Schön nun dünkte mich auch unserer Einheimischen Aufzug zu sein; nicht minder vortrefflich jedoch nahm sich auch der aus, den die Thrakier geschickt hatten. Nachdem wir nun gebetet und die Feier mit angeschaut hatten, gingen wir fort nach der Stadt. Wie nun Polemarchos, der Sohn des Kephalos, uns von fern nach Hause zu steigen sah, hiess er seinen Knaben laufen und uns heissen, ihn erwarten. Der Knabe also fasste mich von hinten beim Mantel und sprach: Polemarchos heisst Euch, ihn erwarten. Ich wendete mich um und fragte, wo denn er selbst wäre. Hier, sprach er, kommt er hinter Euch, wartet nur. Nun ja, wir wollen warten, sagte Glaukon._

FRIEDRICH SCHLEIERMACHER.

(4) _I went down yesterday to the Piraeus with Glaucon the son of Ariston, to offer up prayer to the goddess, and also from a wish to see how the festival, then to be held for the first time, would be celebrated. I was very much pleased with the native Athenian procession; though that of the Thracians appeared to be no less brilliant. We had finished our prayers and satisfied our curiosity, and were returning to the city, when Polemarchus the son of Cephalus caught sight of us at a distance, as we were on our way towards home, and told his servant to run and bid us wait for him. The servant came behind me, took hold of my cloak, and said, ‘Polemarchus bids you wait.’ I turned round and asked him where his master was. ‘There he is,’ he replied, ‘coming on behind: pray wait for him.’ ‘We will wait,’ answered Glaucon._

DAVIES and VAUGHAN.

(5) _I went down yesterday to the Piraeus with Glaucon the son of Ariston, that I might offer up my prayers to the goddess; and also because I wanted to see in what manner they would celebrate the festival, which was a new thing. I was delighted with the procession of the inhabitants; but that of the Thracians was equally, if not more, beautiful. When we had finished our prayers and viewed the spectacle, we turned in the direction of the city; and at that instant Polemarchus the son of Cephalus chanced to catch sight of us from a distance as we were starting on our way home, and told his servant to run and bid us wait for him. The servant took hold of me by the cloak behind, and said: Polemarchus desires you to wait. I turned round, and asked him where his master was. There he is, said the youth, coming after you, if you will only wait. Certainly we will, said Glaucon._

B. JOWETT.

(6) _I went down to the Peiraeus yesterday with Glaucon, the son of Ariston. As this was the first celebration of the festival, I wished to make my prayers_

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_to the goddess and see the ceremony. I liked the procession of the residents, but I thought that the Thracian ordered theirs quite as successfully. We had offered our prayers and finished our sight-seeing, and were leaving for the city, when from some way off, Polemarchus, the son of Cephalus, saw that we were starting homewards, and sent his slave to run after us and bid us wait. The lad caught my cloak from behind and said: ‘Polemarchus bids you wait.’ I turned round and asked him where his master was. ‘He is coming behind,’ he said; ‘but will you please wait?’ ‘Surely we will,’ said Glaucon._

A. D. LINDSAY.

II. OPENING OF DEMOSTHENES’ SPEECH ON THE CROWN

(1) Πρῶτον μέν, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοῖς θεοῖς εὔχομαι πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις, ὅσην εὔνοιαν ἔχων ἐγὼ διατελῶ τῇ τε πόλει καὶ πᾶσιν ὑμῖν, τοσαύτην ὑπάρξαι μοι παρ’ ὑμῶν εἰς τουτονὶ τὸν ἀγῶνα, ἔπειθ’ ὅπερ ἐστὶ μάλισθ’ ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν καὶ τῆς ὑμετέρας εὐσεβείας τε καὶ δόξης, τοῦτο παραστῆσαι τοὺς θεοὺς ὑμῖν, μὴ τὸν ἀντίδικον σύμβουλον ποιήσασθαι περὶ τοῦ πῶς ἀκούειν ὑμᾶς ἐμοῦ δεῖ (σχέτλιον γὰρ ἂν εἴη τοῦτό γε), ἀλλὰ τοὺς νόμους καὶ τὸν ὅρκον, ἐν ᾧ πρὸς ἅπασι τοῖς ἄλλοις δικαίοις καὶ τοῦτο γέγραπται, τὸ ὁμοίως ἀμφοῖν ἀκροάσασθαι. τοῦτο δ’ ἐστὶν οὐ μόνον τὸ μὴ προκατεγνωκέναι μηδέν, οὐδὲ τὸ τὴν εὔνοιαν ἴσην ἀποδοῦναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ καὶ τῇ τάξει καὶ τῇ ἀπολογίᾳ, ὡς βεβούληται καὶ προῄρηται τῶν ἀγωνιζομένων ἕκαστος, οὕτως ἐᾶσαι χρήσασθαι.

(2) _Athéniens, j’adresse d’abord une prière à tous les dieux, à toutes les déesses. Si j’ai toujours voulu le bien de la république et de vous tous, fassent ces dieux qu’aujourd’hui, dans cette lutte, je trouve en vous la même bienveillance! Puissent-ils vous persuader aussi, comme le veulent votre intérêt, votre religion, votre gloire, que, sur la manière de m’entendre, ce n’est pas mon adversaire qu’il est juste de consulter,—ma condition en deviendrait trop dure,—ce sont les lois et votre serment! Votre serment, où sont écrites ces paroles, pleines d’équité, comme tout le reste: écouter également les deux parties. Cela ne veut pas dire seulement: nous n’apporterons aucune prévention, et nous donnerons à tous deux une faveur égale. Cela veut dire aussi: nous ne contraindrons personne, ni dans la disposition de ses moyens ni dans l’ordre de sa défense; quel que soit le plan adopté par celui qui vient plaider sa cause, nous lui permettrons de le suivre en toute liberté._

RODOLPHE DARESTE.

(3) _Für das Erste, Ihr Männer Athens, flehe ich alle Götter und Göttinnen an, dass so viel Wohlwollen, als ich jederzeit der Stadt und Euch allen bewiesen, mir in gleichem Maasse von Euch für den gegenwärtigen Handel zu Theil werde; dann, dass die Götter Euch das in den Sinn geben, was Euch und Euerm Gewissen und Ansehn am meisten ziemt: nicht von dem Gegner Rath zu nehmen, wie Ihr mich anhören sollt—denn arg wäre das—sondern von den Gesetzen und dem Eide, in welchem, ausser allen andern Rechten, auch diess verordnet ist: beiden Parteien auf gleiche Weise Gehör zu geben. Diess heisst aber nicht bloss, keine Meinung vorher zu fassen; auch nicht, beiden gleiches Wohlwollen zu schenken; sondern ebenfalls, Jedem der Streitenden_

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_diejenige Anordnung und Vertheidigungsart zu gestatten, die er gut gefunden und gewählt hat._

FRIEDRICH JACOBS.

(4) _I begin, men of Athens, by praying to every God and Goddess, that the same goodwill, which I have ever cherished towards the commonwealth and all of you, may be requited to me on the present trial. I pray likewise—and this specially concerns yourselves, your religion, and your honour—that the Gods may put it in your minds, not to take counsel of my opponent touching the manner in which I am to be heard—that would indeed be cruel!—but of the laws and of your oath; wherein (besides the other obligations) it is prescribed that you shall hear both sides alike. This means, not only that you must pass no pre-condemnation, not only that you must extend your goodwill equally to both, but also that you must allow the parties to adopt such order and course of defence as they severally choose and prefer._

C. R. KENNEDY.

III. CONCLUSION OF DEMOSTHENES’ SPEECH ON THE CROWN

(1) Μὴ δῆτ’, ὦ πάντες θεοί, μηδεὶς ταῦθ’ ὑμῶν ἐπινεύσειεν, ἀλλὰ μάλιστα μὲν καὶ τούτοις βελτίω τινὰ νοῦν καὶ φρένας ἐνθείητε, εἰ δ’ ἄρ’ ἔχουσιν ἀνιάτως, τούτους μὲν αὐτοὺς καθ’ ἑαυτοὺς ἐξώλεις καὶ προώλεις ἐν γῇ καὶ θαλάττῃ ποιήσατε, ἡμῖν δὲ τοῖς λοιποῖς τὴν ταχίστην ἀπαλλαγὴν τῶν ἐπηρτημένων φόβων δότε καὶ σωτηρίαν ἀσφαλῆ.

(2) _Dieux puissants! n’écoutez pas ces vœux impies! inspirez plutôt à ces hommes un autre esprit et des pensées meilleures! Ou, si leur méchanceté est incurable, frappez-les, exterminez-les sur terre et sur mer. Pour nous, délivrez-nous au plus tôt des dangers qui nous menacent, sauvez-nous, protégez-nous à jamais!_

R. DARESTE.

(3) _Möchte doch, o all’ Ihr Götter! keiner von Euch dieses billigen, sondern Ihr vor allen Dingen auch diesen hier einen bessern Sinn und besseres Gemüth verleihen; wenn sie aber unheilbar sind, sie allein für sich dem Verderben überliefern, uns, den Übrigen, aber die schnellste Befreiung von den obschwebenden Besorgnissen und unerschütterte Wohlfahrt gewähren._

F. JACOBS.

(4) _Never, Powers of Heaven, may any brow of the Immortals be bent in approval of that prayer! Rather, if it may be, breathe even into these men a better mind and heart; but if so it is that to these can come no healing, then grant that these, and these alone, may perish utterly and early on land and on the deep: and to us, the remnant, send the swiftest deliverance from the terrors gathered above our heads, send us the salvation that stands fast perpetually._

R. C. JEBB.

(5) _Never, ye gods, vouchsafe assent to such a prayer! Rather, if it may be, inspire even these men with a better mind and heart; but, if they are indeed past healing, bring them, and them alone, to swift and utter ruin by_

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_land and sea; and to us who yet remain grant the speediest release from the terrors that hang over us; grant us a sure salvation!_

S. H. BUTCHER.

IV. NARRATIVE PASSAGE FROM DEMOSTHENES’ SPEECH ON THE CROWN

(§§ 169, 170)

(1) Ἑσπέρα μὲν γὰρ ἦν, ἧκε δ’ ἀγγέλλων τις ὡς τοὺς πρυτάνεις ὡς Ἐλάτεια κατείληπται. καὶ μετὰ ταῦθ’ οἱ μὲν εὐθὺς ἐξαναστάντες μεταξὺ δειπνοῦντες τοὺς τ’ ἐκ τῶν σκηνῶν τῶν κατὰ τὴν ἀγορὰν ἐξεῖργον καὶ τὰ γέρρ’ ἐνεπίμπρασαν, οἱ δὲ τοὺς στρατηγοὺς μετεπέμποντο καὶ τὸν σαλπιγκτὴν ἐκάλουν· καὶ θορύβου πλήρης ἦν ἡ πόλις. τῇ δ’ ὑστεραίᾳ, ἅμα τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, οἱ μὲν πρυτάνεις τὴν βουλὴν ἐκάλουν εἰς τὸ βουλευτήριον, ὑμεῖς δ’ εἰς τὴν ἐκκλησίαν ἐπορεύεσθε, καὶ πρὶν ἐκείνην χρηματίσαι καὶ προβουλεῦσαι πᾶς ὁ δῆμος ἄνω κάθητο. καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα ὡς ἦλθεν ἡ βουλὴ καὶ ἀπήγγειλαν οἱ πρυτάνεις τὰ προσηγγελμέν’ ἑαυτοῖς καὶ τὸν ἥκοντα παρήγαγον κἀκεῖνος εἶπεν, ἠρώτα μὲν ὁ κῆρυξ “τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται;” παρῄει δ’ οὐδείς. πολλάκις δὲ τοῦ κήρυκος ἐρωτῶντος οὐδὲν μᾶλλον ἀνίστατ’ οὐδείς, ἁπάντων μὲν τῶν στρατηγῶν παρόντων, ἁπάντων δὲ τῶν ῥητόρων, καλούσης δὲ τῆς κοινῆς τῆς πατρίδος φωνῆς τὸν ἐροῦνθ’ ὑπὲρ σωτηρίας· ἣν γὰρ ὁ κῆρυξ κατὰ τοὺς νόμους φωνὴν ἀφίησι, ταύτην κοινὴν τῆς πατρίδος δίκαιον ἡγεῖσθαι.

(2) _C’était le soir. Arrive un homme qui annonce aux prytanes que l’Élatée est prise. Aussitôt les uns se lèvent de table, chassent les marchands de la place publique et brûlent leurs tentes; les autres mandent les stratéges, appellent le trompette; ce n’est que trouble dans toute la ville. Le lendemain, au point du jour, les prytanes convoquent le conseil. Vous, de votre côté, vous vous rendez à l’assemblée, et avant que le conseil eût rien agité, rien résolu, tout le peuple était rangé à ses places sur la colline. Bientôt après, les membres du conseil arrivent; les prytanes déclarent la nouvelle, et font paraître celui qui l’a apportée; cet homme parle lui-même. Le héraut demande: ‘Qui veut monter à la tribune?’ Personne ne se lève. Il recommence plusieurs fois. Personne encore. Et tous les stratéges, tous les orateurs étaient présents; et la patrie, de cette voix qui est la voix de tous, appelait un citoyen qui parlât pour la sauver; car la voix du héraut qui se fait entendre, quand les lois l’ordonnent, c’est la voix de la patrie._

R. DARESTE.

(3) _Es war Abend. Da kam Einer mit der Meldung zu den Prytanen, dass Elateia eingenommen sey. Hierauf standen diese sogleich von der Mahlzeit auf, trieben die Leute aus den Buden auf dem Markte fort, und steckten das Holzwerk davon in Brand; andere schickten nach den Strategen, und riefen den Trompeter herbei. Die Stadt war in grösster Bewegung. Am folgenden Morgen, bei Tages Anbruch, riefen die Prytanen den Senat auf das Stadthaus, Ihr aber begabt Euch in die Versammlung, und ehe der Senat noch sein Geschäft vollbracht und einen vorläufigen Beschluss gefasst hatte, sass das ganze Volk schon oben. Und als hierauf der Senat eintrat, und die Prytanen das, was ihnen gemeldet worden war, öffentlich bekannt machten, und den_

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_Überbringer der Nachricht vorführten, und auch dieser gesprochen hatte, fragte der Herold: Wer will sprechen? Niemand aber meldete sich. Wiewohl nun der Herold seine Frage oft wiederholte, trat darum, doch Keiner auf, obgleich alle Strategen gegenwärtig waren, und alle Redner und das Vaterland mit gemeinsamer Stimme einen Sprecher für seine Rettung aufrief; denn die Stimme, die der Herold dem Gesetze gemäss ertönen lässt, kann mit allem Rechte für die Stimme des gesammten Vaterlandes gehalten werden._

F. JACOBS.

(4) _It was evening when a courier came to the presidents of the assembly with the news that Elateia had been seized. The presidents instantly rose from table—they were supping at the moment: some of them hastened to clear the market-place of the shopmen, and to burn the wickerwork of the booths: others, to send for the generals and order the sounding of the call to the Assembly. The city was in a tumult. At dawn next day the presidents convoked the Senate, you hurried to the Ekklesia, and before the Senate could go through its forms or could report, the whole people were in assembly on the hill. Then, when the Senate had come in, when the presidents had reported the news that they had received, and had introduced the messenger, who told his tale, the herald repeatedly asked,_ Who wishes to speak? _But no one came forward. Again and again he put the question—in vain. No one would rise, though all the generals, though all the public speakers were present, though our Country was crying aloud, with the voice that comes home to all, for a champion of the commonwealth—if in the solemn invitation given by the herald we may truly deem that we hear our Country’s summons._

R. C. JEBB.

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APPENDIX C

GREEK PRONUNCIATION: SCHEME OF THE CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION

In October 1908 the Classical Association adopted a number of recommendations made by its Greek Pronunciation Committee, and has since published them for the use of teachers and others. They are put forward “not as constituting a complete scientific scheme, but as approximations which, for teaching purposes, may be regarded as practicable, and at the same time as a great advance on the present usage, both for clearness in teaching and for actual likeness to the ancient sounds.” The period (the early fourth century B.C.) to which they are intended mainly to apply is one whose literature Dionysius studied rather than that in which he lived (cp. pages 43-46 above). But his scattered hints are of great moment in the whole inquiry; and if they are read with care and with reference to their bearing, not only on disputed points, but on points which (largely through the evidence they furnish) are undisputed, it will be seen how much we owe to them when making any attempt to reconstruct the pronunciation of the classical period. The principal passages of Dionysius’ text which throw light upon the question of Greek pronunciation and accentuation will be found on pages 126-130, 136-150, 218-224, 230 above. The following are the suggestions made by the Classical Association:—

VOWELS

ᾱ and α, ῑ and ι, ε and ο, η and ω may be pronounced as the corresponding vowels in Latin, i.e.

ᾱ, as =a= in _f_=a=_ther_,

α, as =a= in =a=_ha_.

ῑ, as =ee= in _f_=ee=_d_.

ι, as =i= in Fr. _p_=i=_quet_, nearly as Eng. =i= in _f_=i=_t_.

ε, as =e= in _fr_=e=_t_.

ο, as =o= in _n_=o=_t_.

η (long _e_), as =e= in Lat. _m_=ē=_ta_, Eng. =a= in _m_=a=_te_.

ω (long _o_), as =o= in Lat. _R_=ō=_ma_, Eng. _h_=o=_me_.

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The pronunciation recommended for η and ω is dictated by practical considerations. But in any school where the pupils have been accustomed to distinguish the sounds of French =è= and =é=, the Committee feels that the open sound (of =è= in _il mène_), which is historically correct for η, may well be adopted. In the same way there is no doubt that the pronunciation of ω in the fifth century B.C. was the open sound of _oa_ in Eng. _broad_, not that of the ordinary English _ō_. But since the precise degree of openness varied at different epochs, the Committee, though preferring the open pronunciation, sees no sufficient reason for excluding the obviously convenient practice of sounding ω just as Latin _ō_. For both Greek and Latin the diphthongal character of the English vowels in _m_=a=_te_ and _h_=o=_me_, i.e. the slight _ĭ_ sound in _mate_ and the slight _ŭ_ sound in _home_, _own_, is incorrect. But the discrepancy is not one which any but fairly advanced students need be asked to notice, unless indeed they happen to be already familiar with the pure vowel sounds of modern Welsh or Italian.

υ as French =ŭ= in _d_=u= _pain_. ῡ as French =ū= in _r_=u=_e_ or Germ. =ü= in _gr_=ü=_n_.

In recommending this sound for the Greek υ, the Committee is partly guided by the fact that its correct production is now widely and successfully taught in English schools in early stages of instruction in French and German. But in any school where the sound is strange to the pupils at the stage at which Greek is begun, if it is felt that the effort to acquire the sound would involve a serious hindrance to progress, the Committee can only suggest that, for the time, the υ should be pronounced as Latin _u_ (short as _oo_ in Eng. _took_, long as _oo_ in Eng. _loose_), though this obscures the distinction between words like λύω and λούω.

DIPHTHONGS

αι = α + ι nearly as =ai= in _Is_=ai=_ah_ (broadly pronounced), Fr. _ém_=ai=_l_.

οι = ο + ι as Eng. =oi= in =oi=_l_.

υι = υ + ι as Fr. =ui= in _l_=ui=.

In ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ the first vowel was long, and the second only faintly heard.

ει. The precise sound of ει is difficult to determine, but in Attic Greek it was never confused with η till a late period, and to maintain the distinction clearly it is perhaps best for English students to pronounce it as Eng. _eye_, though in fact it must have been nearer to Fr. _ée_ in _passée_, Eng. _ey_ in _grey_. The Greek Ἀλφειός is Latin _Alphēus_.

αυ = _au_, as Germ. =au= in _H_=au=_s_, nearly as Eng. =ow= in _g_=ow=_n_.

ευ = _eu_, nearly as Eng. =ew= in _f_=ew=, =u= in _t_=u=_ne_.

ου as Eng. =oo= in _m_=oo=_n_, Fr. =ou= in _r_=ou=_e_.

CONSONANTS

π, β, τ, δ, κ, and γ as _p_, _b_, _t_, _d_, _k_, and _g_ respectively in Latin; except that γ (before γ, κ, and χ) is used to denote the nasal sound heard in Eng. _ankle_, _anger_.

ρ, λ, μ, ν as Lat. _r_, _l_, _m_, _n_.

σ, ς always as Lat. =s= (Eng. =s= in _mou_=s=_e_), except before β, γ and μ, where the sound was as in Eng. _has been_, _has gone_, _has made_: e.g. ἄσβεστος, φάσγανον, ἑσμός.

ξ as Eng. =x= in _wa_=x=, and ψ as Eng. =ps= in _la_=ps=_e_.

ζ as Eng. =dz= in _a_=dz=_e_, =ds= in _trea_=ds= _on_.

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ASPIRATES

The Committee has carefully considered the pronunciation of the aspirated consonants in Greek. It is certain that the primitive pronunciation of χ, θ, φ was as =k.h=, =t.h=, =p.h=, that is as =k=, =t=, =p= followed by a strong breath, and the Committee is not prepared to deny that this pronunciation lasted down into the classical period. Further, there is no doubt that the adoption of this pronunciation makes much in Greek accidence that is otherwise obscure perfectly comprehensible. If φαίνω be pronounced π_h_αίνω, it is readily understood why the reduplicated perfect is πεπ_h_ηνα; but if it be pronounced _f_αινω, the perfect, pronounced πε_f_ηνα, is anomalous. The relation of ἀφίστημι and the like to ἵστημι, of φροῦδος to ὁδός, of θρίξ to τρίχα becomes intelligible when it is seen that θ, φ, and χ contain a real =h=-sound. This advantage seems to be one of the reasons why it has been adopted in practice by a certain number of English teachers.

In the course of time the pronunciation of the aspirates changed by degrees to that of fricatives, which is now current in most districts of Greece, φ becoming =f=, θ pronounced as =th=, in English =th=_in_, and χ acquiring the sound of the German =ch=.[208]

If the later sounds are accepted, no change in the common pronunciation of θ and φ in England will be required, but it will remain desirable to distinguish between the sounds of κ and χ, which are at present confused: ἄκος and ἄχος, καίνω and χαίνω being now pronounced alike. This may be done by giving χ the sound of =kh=, or of German =ch=, as in au=ch=. The Committee would, on the whole, recommend the latter alternative as being more familiar in German, Scotch, and Irish place-names.[209]

The Committee, though loath to do anything to discourage the primitive pronunciation of the aspirates, has not been able to satisfy itself that it would be easy to introduce this pronunciation into schools to which it is strange; and it is of opinion that it is not advisable to recommend anything at present that might increase the labour of the teacher or the student of Greek. It therefore abstains from recommending any change in the common pronunciation of the aspirates except in the case of χ.

ACCENTUATION

There is no doubt that in the Classical period of Greek the accented syllables were marked by a _higher pitch_ or _note_ than the unaccented, and not by more _stress_, not, that is, with a stronger current of breath and more muscular effort. Therefore, unless the student is capable of giving a _musical_ value to the Greek signs of accent, it is doubtful whether he should

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attempt to represent them in pronunciation; for in many cases we should make our pronunciation more, not less remote from that of the Greeks themselves if we gave to their accented syllables the same _stress_ as we do to the accented syllables in English; for example, in paroxytone dactyls (κεχρημένος) when the penult is stressed, the quantity of the long antepenult is apt to be shortened and its metrical value destroyed.[210] But where there is no conflict between accent and quantity (ἀγαθός), something may be said for stressing moderately the accented syllable, and so distinguishing e.g. καλῶς and κάλως, Διός and δῖος, ταὐτά and ταῦτα.[211]

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: _Regarded from this point of view, the Chronological Table given on page 50 is full of interest._]

[Footnote 2: _Reference may also be made to pages 27-29, 33, 34, 40-55, 74-85, 92-95, 98 ff., 122-127, 134-137, 154-167, 184-193, 200-207, 236-241, 264-281. Especially to be noticed is that warm praise of simplicity (pp. 76-85, 134-137) which should suffice to prove that Dionysius is not a ‘rhetorician’ in any invidious sense._]

[Footnote 3: See Glossary, s.v. σύνθεσις.]

[Footnote 4: _de Isocrate_ c. 2, δουλεύει γὰρ ἡ διάνοια πολλάκις τῷ ῥυθμῷ τῆς λέξεως, καὶ τοῦ κομψοῦ λείπεται τὸ ἀληθινόν ... βούλεται δὲ ἡ φύσις τοῖς νοήμασιν ἕπεσθαι τὴν λέξιν, οὐ τῇ λέξει τὰ νοήματα.]

[Footnote 5: The Greek word (κεφάλαια, _capita_) corresponding to ‘chapters’ occurs several times in the _C.V._ (see Glossary, s.v.); and one (περιοχή) of the words corresponding to ‘paragraph’ is found in the _de Thucyd._ c. 25. The paramount importance and dignity of the πραγματικὸς τόπος is indicated in the _C.V._ =66= 9-15, and in the _de Demosth._ c. 58 fin.]

[Footnote 6: Quintilian (_Inst. Or._ ix. 4. 23) applies the term _naturalis ordo_ to such collocations as _viros ac feminas_, _diem ac noctem_, _ortum et occasum_. But even here the order, though perhaps natural, is certainly not necessary.]

[Footnote 7: A good example of the severance of χρόνος from its _article_ by an adjectival phrase will be found in the _C. V._ itself, =222= 22: ἡμιφώνῳ γὰρ ἄφωνον συνάπτεται τῷ ν̄ τὸ τ̄ καὶ διαβέβηκεν ἀξιόλογον διάβασιν =ὁ= μεταξὺ τοῦ τε προσηγορικοῦ τοῦ “πανδαίδαλον” καὶ τῆς συναλοιφῆς τῆς συναπτομένης αὐτῷ =χρόνος=. The convenience of this articular bracket is obvious.]

[Footnote 8: Cp. ὀρνίθων ... προκαθιζόντων, Hom. _Il._ ii. 459-63.]

[Footnote 9: Attention is called to the elaborate word-order by Mr. P. N. Ure in his edition of this portion of Thucydides. The extent to which prepositions can be parted from cases, in post-Homeric as well as in Homeric Greek, is worth notice as a somewhat different illustration of the freedom of Greek order. See, for example, the remarks in Liddell and Scott’s _Lexicon_ on the position of εἰς.]

[Footnote 10: In Caesar _B.G._ ii. 25 more than a hundred words come between the subject, _Caesar_ and the main verb _processit_.]

[Footnote 11: e.g. ‘A quarrel had arisen between a big and a little boy about a big and a little coat.’]

[Footnote 12: A good illustration of the freedom of order possible (at any rate theoretically) in Greek, even within the limits of verse, is supplied in a letter from Richard Porson to Andrew Dalzel: “There is a passage of Sophocles three times quoted by Plutarch, and always in a different order, but so as in the three variations to remain a senarian. Now the fragment consists of five words, and the sense is this: ‘(The physicians) wash away bitter bile with bitter drugs [πικροῖς πικρὰν κλύζουσι φαρμάκοις χολήν].’ The five words, you know, will admit of one hundred and twenty permutations, and what is extremely odd, these words will admit twenty transpositions [which Porson proceeds to indicate], and still constitute a trimeter iambic.”—Luard’s _Correspondence of Richard Porson_ pp. 91, 92.]

[Footnote 13: Horace _Ars Poetica_ 40,

cui lecta potenter erit res, nec facundia deseret hunc nec lucidus ordo.

Can the obscure _potenter_ here be a Latin translation of some such technical term (found by Horace or Neoptolemus in the Greek writers on literary criticism) as δυνατῶς or δεινῶς or πιθανῶς?]

[Footnote 14: Demetrius, for example, evidently expects to find more lucidity in the plain style (the ἰσχνὸς χαρακτήρ) of a Lysias than in the elevated style (μεγαλοπρεπὴς χαρακτήρ) of a Thucydides: see the summary in _Demetrius on Style_ pp. 33, 34. And a principal reason for this is that the former keeps more closely than the latter to the normal order of words in Greek (_de Eloc._ §§ 191 ff.). For Herodotus as compared with Thucydides cp. _de Imit._ ii. 3. 1 τῆς σαφηνείας δὲ ἀναμφισβήτως Ἡροδότῳ τὸ κατόρθωμα δέδοται (quoted in the editor’s _Dionysius of Halicarnassus: the Three Literary Letters_ p. 173).]

[Footnote 15: εὐαρίθμητοι γάρ τινές εἰσιν οἷοι πάντα τὰ Θουκυδίδου συμβαλεῖν, καὶ οὐδ’ οὗτοι χωρὶς ἐξηγήσεως γραμματικῆς ἔνια, _de Thucyd._ c. 51.]

[Footnote 16: οὐ γὰρ ἀγοραίοις ἀνθρώποις οὐδ’ ἐπιδιφρίοις ἢ χειροτέχναις οὐδὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις οἳ μὴ μετέσχον ἀγωγῆς ἐλευθερίου ταύτας κατασκευάζεσθαι τὰς γραφάς, ἀλλ’ ἀνδράσι διὰ τῶν ἐγκυκλίων μαθημάτων ἐπὶ ῥητορικήν τε καὶ φιλοσοφίαν ἐληλυθόσιν, οἷς οὐδὲν φανήσεται τούτων ξένον, _de Thucyd._ c. 50. A comprehensive condemnation of ἀσάφεια is found in the same essay, c. 52: ἡ πάντα λυμαινομένη τὰ καλὰ καὶ σκότον παρέχουσα ταῖς ἀρεταῖς ἀσάφεια.]

[Footnote 17: See, further, the Appendix headed “Obscurity in Greek.”]

[Footnote 18: In the same way, Dionysius must surely feel the loss both of clearness and of emphasis involved in transferring ἡ μόνη ἐλπίς (=112= 1 and 4) from the middle to the end of the sentence. χάρις and πάθος may cover these cardinal points: “no clearness no charm,” he might well say,—“no emphatic order no full expression of feeling.”]

[Footnote 19: Cp. _Demetrius on Style_ p. 278 (Glossary, s.v. ἔμφασις).]

[Footnote 20: Cp. Lewis Campbell in the _Classical Review_ iv. 301, and Goodell in the paper named on p. 33 _infra_. In the matter of emphasis, Greek sentences are usually constructed on a diminuendo, English sentences on a crescendo principle. The English of μὴ ’φευρεθῇς =ἄνους τε καὶ γέρων= ἅμα (Soph. _Antig._ 281) is, as Jebb gives it, “lest thou be found at once _an old man and foolish_.” As fuller examples, in prose and verse, Mr. L. H. G. Greenwood suggests the _Phaedrus_ 230 B, C (Νὴ τὴν Ἥραν ... Φαῖδρε) and the _Rhesus_ 78-85, 119-130.]

[Footnote 21: The views of Quintilian and Demetrius with regard to rhythm are applicable also to emphasis: Quintil. ix. 4. 67 “nam ut initia clausulaeque plurimum momenti habent, quotiens incipit sensus aut desinit: sic in mediis quoque sunt quidam conatus, iique leviter insistunt. currentium pes, etiamsi non moratur, tamen vestigium facit”; Demetrius (_de Eloc._ § 39) πάντες γοῦν ἰδίως τῶν τε πρώτων μνημονεύομεν καὶ τῶν ὑστάτων, καὶ ὑπὸ τούτων κινούμεθα, ὑπὸ δὲ τῶν μεταξὺ ἔλαττον ὥσπερ ἐγκρυπτομένων ἢ ἐναφανιζομένων.]

[Footnote 22: The initial emphasis is here reinforced by μέν and δέ: elsewhere by the chiastic arrangement, as in (10).]

[Footnote 23: Compare the occasional postponement of a relative pronoun with the same object: e.g. Thucyd. i. 77 =βιάζεσθαι= γὰρ οἷς ἂν ἐξῇ, δικάζεσθαι οὐδὲν προσδέονται.]

[Footnote 24: Our poets can, and do, imitate the emphatic position of a word placed at the beginning of a line with a stop immediately following (as βάλλ’ in Hom. _Il._ i. 52, κόπτ’ in _Odyss._ ix. 290, and _haesit_ in Virg. _Aen._ xi. 803):—

And over them triumphant Death his dart Shook, but delayed to strike.

MILTON _Paradise Lost_ xi. 491.

Or (still nearer to the ‘me, me, adsum,’ of Virgil):—

_Me_, though just right, and the fixed laws of Heaven, Did first create your leader—next, free choice, With what besides in council or in fight Hath been achieved of merit—yet this loss, Thus far at least recovered, hath much more Established in a safe, unenvied throne, Yielded with full consent.

MILTON _Paradise Lost_ ii. 18-24. ]

[Footnote 25: Here τούτους is emphasized by καί as well as by its position well in front of the verb which governs it, while μισθοῦ depends for its emphasis on its position alone. ‘But even these hidden piles did divers (entering the water) saw off—for pay.’ Compare the analysis which Quintilian (ix. 4. 29) gives of Cicero’s “ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu populi Romani vomere _postridie_.”]

[Footnote 26: For the rhetorical and metrical effect Sandys (_ad loc._) compares Milton _Paradise Lost_ vi. 912, “Firm they might have stood, | Yet fell.”]

[Footnote 27: In this sentence the orator would probably pause slightly before γενναίως, and thus (1) emphasize it; (2) separate it from διδῷ. Other means (illustrated by various examples in this Introduction) of throwing a word into relief are: the interposition of a number of unemphatic words, the use of particles such as μέν and δέ, the placing of emphatic words in contrasted pairs near together or remote from one another.]

[Footnote 28: The order here (1) avoids the juxtaposition of too many accusative-terminations; (2) provides a conclusion which satisfies ear and mind alike.]

[Footnote 29: The position of τἄμ’ here may be compared with that of ἐμούς in Eurip. _Med._ 1045 ἄξω παῖδας ἐκ γαίας =ἐμούς= (‘for they are mine’). In English, too, both the end and the beginning may be emphatic: e.g. “_silver and gold_ have I _none_.”]

[Footnote 30: Quoted by Dionysius (_C.V._ c. 3), though without any special reference to the point of _emphasis_.]

[Footnote 31: Quoted by T. D. Goodell _School Grammar of Attic Greek_ p. 296. ἡμεῖς seems to owe some at least of its emphasis to its late insertion. If placed immediately after ηὐξήσαμεν, it would, surely, lose a little in weight. Goodell does right to include some treatment of the question of Greek word-order in a Grammar intended primarily for use in schools. It should be pointed out even to beginners that so simple a sentence as οἱ δ’ Ἀθηναῖοι ἐνίκησαν τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους can be arranged in half-a-dozen ways, each with its own separate shade of meaning. Compare the remarks of W. H. D. Rouse with regard to the teaching of Latin: “It is possible by question and answer to make clear from the first the essential structure of an inflected language, as depending for emphasis on the order of words; and this lies at the root of style. Thus a simple sentence may give matter for several questions. Take _Caesar Labienum laudat_. I may ask, _Quem laudat Caesar?_ Answer: _Labienum laudat Caesar._ Question: _Quid facit Caesar?_ Answer: _Laudat Labienum Caesar._ If all the texts read are treated in this way, the pupils become used to correct accidence, syntax, and order, and learn the elements of style” (_Classical Review_ xxi. 130; cp. also W. H. S. Jones _The Teaching of Latin_ p. 33). An instructive contrast might be drawn, with reference to the context in either case, between _Romanus sum civis_ in Livy ii. 12, and _Civis Romanus sum_ in Cicero _Verr._ II. v. 65, 66.]

[Footnote 32: With “verbi transgressio” cp. “verborum concinna transgressio” in Cic. _de Orat._ iii. 54. 207.]

[Footnote 33: A modern reader might be disposed to see an example of emphasis in the illustrative passage which “Longinus” here quotes from Herodotus vi. 11. In _hyperbata_ the _Treatise on the Sublime_ itself greatly abounds, being much influenced (in this as in other ways) by Plato. For examples of _hyperbaton_ in Plato see Riddell’s edition of the _Apology_, pp. 228 ff. Among modern English writers, Matthew Arnold had a curious and perhaps half-humorous trick of securing emphasis by a “bold and hazardous” _hyperbaton_ (cp. _de Sublim._ xxii. 4), which keeps back the verb till the end of the sentence: e.g. “And a good deal of ignorance about these there certainly, among English public men, is”; “the grand thing in teaching is to have faith that some aptitudes for this every one has”; “one thing that Protestants have, and that the Catholics think they have a right, where they are in great numbers, to have too, this thing to the Prussian Catholics Prussia has given.” Such oddities are, in English, usually of a playful and undress character: e.g. “it was really a party that one might feel proud of having been asked to; at least I might, and did, very” (_Life and Letters of Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb_ p. 93; cp. J. D. Duff’s remarks, on the same page, with regard to the literary adequacy of the following English translation of a pathetic sentence in one of Demosthenes’ greatest speeches: “this woman in the first instance merely quietly to drink and eat dessert they tried to force, I should suppose”).]

[Footnote 34: The immediately preceding sentence in Quintilian is “venio nunc ad ornatum, in quo sine dubio plus quam in ceteris dicendi partibus sibi indulget orator.” This may be compared with Dionysius’ view that it is the accessory arts (such as the _heightening_ of style) that best reveal the orator’s power: ἐξ ὧν μάλιστα διάδηλος ἡ τοῦ ῥήτορος γίνεται δύναμις (_de Thucyd._ c. 23). In this attitude there is always some danger (unless, like Dionysius himself, a writer has a saving belief in the virtue of simplicity) of falling into that vice of _écrire trop bien_, which, according to M. Anatole France, is the worst of all literary vices.]

[Footnote 35: If we were to say that in a Greek sentence there are two kinds of arrangement, viz. (1) grammatical arrangement which aims at clearness, and (2) rhetorical arrangement which aims at (α) emphasis, and (β) euphony; then it must be admitted that Dionysius’ real subject is (2) (β)]

[Footnote 36: The lines quoted from Homer in c. 16 are particularly telling.]

[Footnote 37: _C.V._ =244= 23. Perhaps ‘spontaneous’ or ‘subconscious’ would be a better translation than ‘instinctive.’ Dionysius certainly does not intend to exclude _training_.]

[Footnote 38: The judgment of the ear appears to be indicated by the words τοῦ πυκνὰ μεταπίπτοντος κριτηρίου at the end of c. 24.]

[Footnote 39: Cp. _C.V._ c. 6.]

[Footnote 40: Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 20. Dionysius Halic. _Ant. Rom._ i. 1 ἐπιεικῶς γὰρ ἅπαντες νομίζουσιν εἰκόνας εἶναι τῆς ἑκάστου ψυχῆς τοὺς λόγους. Buffon _Discours de réception à l’Académie_, 1753: “le style est l’homme même.” Cp. Plato _Rep._ iii. 400 D τί δ’ ὁ τρόπος τῆς λέξεως, ἦν δ’ ἐγώ, καὶ ὁ λόγος; οὐ τῷ τῆς ψυχῆς ἤθει ἕπεται;]

[Footnote 41: Cp. p. 24 _supra_. The desire to avoid monotony of termination would seem to be the main explanation of such collocations as οὗ τοῖς ἄλλοις εἴργεσθαι προαγορεύουσι τοῖς τοῦ φόνου φεύγουσι τὰς δίκας and τῷ αὐτῷ χρῶνται νόμῳ τούτῳ [Antiphon v.]. Additional emphasis, too, falls on τοῖς ἄλλοις and τῷ αὐτῷ, as on σωτηρίαν ἀσφαλῆ in Demosthenes’ peroration.]

[Footnote 42: In describing the smooth or elegant style of composition (as practised by Isocrates and his followers, including Theopompus), Dionysius notes, as one of its characteristics, the avoidance of hiatus. This avoidance is to be noticed in the recently discovered _Hellenica_; and without basing any positive conclusion on the fact, Grenfell and Hunt point out that the author usually avoids hiatus “even at the cost of producing an unnatural order of words, e.g. ἐπηρμένοι μισεῖν ἦσαν τοὺς Λακεδαιμονίους and ἴωμεν, ὦ ἄνδρες, ἔφη, πολῖται, ἐπὶ τοὺς τυράννους” (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_ v. 124).]

[Footnote 43: e.g. the greater tendency in Latin to place the principal verb at the end of the sentence. Cp. Quintil. ix. 4. 26 “verbo sensum cludere, multo, si compositio patiatur, optimum est. in verbis enim sermonis vis est. si id asperum erit, cedet haec ratio numeris, ut fit apud summos Graecos Latinosque oratores frequentissime. sine dubio erit omne quod non cludet, _hyperbaton_, et ipsum hoc inter tropos vel figuras, quae sunt virtutes, receptum est.” In Latin the words μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα οὐ πολλῷ ὕστερον Εὔβοια ἀπέστη ἀπ’ Ἀθηναίων would naturally run “haud multum postea Euboea ab Atheniensibus defecit” (J. P. Postgate _Sermo Latinus_ p. 7).]

[Footnote 44: On the other side, the classical writers not seldom yield to the temptation to write long and rambling sentences, whereas the best English authors are stimulated by the very absence of inflexions to arrange their thoughts with great care and clearness within the sentence and the paragraph. By these and other means English prose becomes, in the hands of a great master, an instrument of surpassing force and beauty. As there are differences in word-order between Greek and Latin, so are there among the modern analytical languages, though (in a comparison) it may be legitimate to group those languages together. An order regarded as natural (i.e. customary) in one modern language will not be so regarded in another. Further, a language like German (though it is often unable to follow the Greek order without ambiguity: cp. Lessing’s _Laocoon_ c. 18) possesses a greater number of inflexions than English or French. Welsh, too, has certain syntactical features which enable it often to reproduce the Greek order more faithfully than English can do. For example: in St. John’s Gospel xvii. 9 where the Greek has οὐ περὶ τοῦ κόσμου ἐρωτῶ, ἀλλὰ περὶ ὧν δέδωκάς μοι, ὅτι σοί εἰσιν, the Welsh version gives _Nid dros y byd yr wyf yn gweddio, ond dros y rhai a roddaist i mi; canys eiddot ti ydynt._ And Plato _Apol._ c. 33 καὶ ἐὰν ταῦτα ποιῆτε, δίκαια πεπονθὼς ἐγὼ ἔσομαι ὑφ’ ὑμῶν, αὐτός τε καὶ οἱ υἱεῖς: Welsh, _Ac os hyn a wnewch, yr hyn sydd gyfiawn fyddaf fi wedi ei dderbyn oddiar eich llaw, myfi a’m meibion._ [These Welsh instances are given on p. 38 of the present editor’s chapter on the Teaching of Greek, in F. Spencer’s _Aims and Practice of Teaching_.] In Appendix II. at the end of this volume will be found a few idiomatic modern renderings (in English, French, and German) from Greek prose originals.]

[Footnote 45: Lemaître _Les Contemporains_ i. 205.]

[Footnote 46: Boileau _L’Art poétique_ i. 133.]

[Footnote 47: Edinburgh edition of Stevenson’s works, iii. 236-61 (_Miscellanies_). “It is a singularly suggestive inquiry into a subject which has always been considered too vague and difficult for analysis, at any rate since the days of the classical writers on rhetoric, whom Stevenson had never read” (Graham Balfour’s _Life of Robert Louis Stevenson_ ii. 11). S. H. Butcher (_Harvard Lectures_ pp. 242, 243) regards the essay as “a pretty precise modern parallel to the speculations of Dionysius,” and quotes some passages in proof. The following is an example of such points of contact. Stevenson: “Each phrase in literature is built of sounds, as each phrase in music consists of notes. One sound suggests, echoes, demands and harmonizes with another; and the art of rightly using these concordances is the final art in literature.” Dionysius (_C.V._ c. 16): ὥστε πολλὴ ἀνάγκη καλὴν μὲν εἶναι λέξιν ἐν ᾗ καλά ἐστιν ὀνόματα, καλῶν δὲ ὀνομάτων συλλαβάς τε καὶ γράμματα καλὰ αἴτια εἶναι, ἡδεῖάν τε διάλεκτον ἐκ τῶν ἡδυνόντων τὴν ἀκοὴν γίνεσθαι. Compare p. 40 _infra_ as to the music of sounds; and see _Demetrius on Style_ p. 43, as to Stevenson and other English writers on style.]

[Footnote 48: Compare especially the speeches in _Il._ ix., and the warm eulogies they have drawn from Quintilian (x. 1. 47; cp. x. 1. 27, with reference to Theophrastus) and from many others since his time. Dionysius’ _versification_ of Demosthenes, and _prosification_ of Simonides, in c. 25 and c. 26, may not seem altogether happy, but one or two points should be remembered in his favour. He does not recognize merely mechanical conceptions of literature: such as are implied in the Latin-derived words _prose_ and _verse_, or in _literature_ itself. He would probably have agreed with Aristotle that “Homer and Empedocles have nothing in common but the metre, so that it would be right to call the one poet, the other physicist rather than poet” (Aristot. _Poet._ i. 9, S. H. Butcher). He might probably have also maintained that, in essentials, Theognis is less of a poet than Plato. And in modern times, if he had known them, he might have called attention to the rhymed rhetoric which often passed as poetry in eighteenth-century England, and have asked whether the elevation of thought and the measured cadences of Demosthenes did not entitle him to a higher poetic rank than that.]

[Footnote 49: Of Thucydides: ποιητοῦ τρόπον ἐνεξουσιάζων (_de Thucyd._ c. 24). Of Plato: ᾔσθετο γὰρ τῆς ἰδίας ἀπειροκαλίας καὶ ὄνομα ἔθετο αὐτῇ τὸ διθύραμβον, ὃ νῦν ἂν ᾐδέσθην ἐγὼ λέγειν ἀληθὲς ὄν. τοῦτο δὲ παθεῖν ἔοικεν, ὡς ἐγὼ νομίζω, τραφεὶς μὲν ἐν τοῖς Σωκρατικοῖς διαλόγοις ἰσχνοτάτοις οὖσι καὶ ἀκριβεστάτοις, οὐ μείνας δ’ ἐν αὐτοῖς ἀλλὰ τῆς Γοργίου καὶ Θουκυδίδου κατασκευῆς ἐρασθείς (_Ep. ad Cn. Pomp._ c. 2; _de Demosth._ c. 6. See further in _Demetrius on Style_ p. 14, n. 1).]

[Footnote 50: It will be noticed that the only question here is about differences of form. But it is one of Dionysius’ great merits to have proclaimed so clearly the leading part which beauty of form (not simply verse, but expression generally) plays in all high poetry. Aristotle was by no means insensible to this essential element, but he is apt to dwell more fully (though we must remember the fragmentary condition of the _Poetics_) on the associations of ποιητής than on those of ἀοιδός. It is in connexion with _prose_ rather than with poetry, that it seems necessary to lay most stress upon the intellectual and logical elements involved, and to pay heed not only to the nature of the subject matter itself but to the sustained argument in which it is presented. Reason in prose and emotion in poetry: these are perhaps the two leading elements, if any distinction of the kind is to be attempted.]

[Footnote 51: Aristot. _Rhet._ iii. 1. 9; 8. 1 and 3; 2. 1. Cp. Cic. _Orat._ 56. 187 “perspicuum est igitur numeris astrictam orationem esse debere, carere versibus; sed ei numeri poëticine sint an ex alio genere quodam deinceps est videndum”; 57. 195 “ego autem sentio omnes in oratione esse quasi permixtos et confusos pedes; nec enim effugere possemus animadversionem, si semper eisdem uteremur, quia nec numerosa esse, ut poëma, neque extra numerum, ut sermo vulgi, esse debet oratio: alterum nimis est vinctum, ut de industria factum appareat, alterum nimis dissolutum, ut pervagatum ac vulgare videatur.” Also _ibid._ 51. 172; 57. 194-196; 58. 198; 68. 227. Cicero’s correct attitude is the more noticeable that he is commonly supposed to have been swayed by Asiatic rather than by Attic influences.]

[Footnote 52: _C.V._ c. 25 χωρὶς δὲ τῆς Ἀριστοτέλους μαρτυρίας, ὅτι ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστιν ἐμπεριλαμβάνεσθαί τινας τῇ πεζῇ λέξει ῥυθμούς, εἰ μέλλοι τὸ ποιητικὸν ἐπανθήσειν αὐτῇ κάλλος, ἐκ τῆς πείρας τις αὐτῆς γνώσεται.]

[Footnote 53: The modern custom is to view with some suspicion these inversions when found in prose composition, though in German prose they are common enough. It would be interesting to take two such sentences of the New Testament as μεγάλη ἡ Ἄρτεμις Ἐφεσίων (Acts xix. 28, 34) and ἔπεσεν, ἔπεσεν Βαβυλὼν ἡ μεγάλη (Apoc. xiv. 8), and see how they have been rendered into various modern languages by translators generally (both in authorised and unauthorised versions). It would probably be found that the French language here has been true to what Dionysius would call its λογοείδεια, or essentially prose character. In English the justification of the inversion would be the emotional nature of the original passages, which may be held to raise them to the same plane as poetry. [It would, on the other hand, be not good but bad journalism to write, “Uproarious were the proceedings at yesterday’s meeting of the Grand Committee.”] For the effect of word-order in English verse see an extract from Coleridge’s _Biographia Literaria_ in the notes, p. 79 _infra_. Coleridge was fond of offering, as a rough definition of poetry, “the best words in the best order.”]

[Footnote 54: See the notes on c. 25; particularly that on =256= 11.]

[Footnote 55: The words “How art thou” are, it will be noticed, differently divided in these two lines with a kind of Dionysian freedom.]

[Footnote 56: Ruskin continually, and Carlyle often (e.g. _Sartor Resartus_ bk. iii. c. 8), provides examples of iambic rhythm. So George Eliot _Mill on the Floss_ bk. vii.: “living through again, in one supreme moment, the days when they had clasped their little hands in love, and roamed the daisied fields together.” And Blackmore, in _Lorna Doone_ c. 3: “The sullen hills were flanked with light, and the valleys chined with shadow, and all the sombrous moors between awoke in furrowed anger.” [Blackmore sometimes falls also into the hexameter rhythm, as in the same chapter: “And suddenly a strong red light, cast by the cloud-weight | downwards, | spread like | fingers | over the | moorland, || opened the | alleys of | darkness, and | hung on the | steel of the | riders.”]]

[Footnote 57: Cicero’s conception of the requirements of rhythmical prose (as compared with those of verbal fidelity) is curiously illustrated by the way in which he is supposed to have recast the letter sent by Lentulus to Catiline. Sallust _Cat._ 44 “quis sim ex eo quem ad te misi cognosces: fac cogites in quanta calamitate sis et memineris te virum esse: consideres quid tuae rationes postulent: auxilium petas ab omnibus etiam ab infimis.” Cicero _Cat._ iii. 12 “quis sim scies ex eo quem ad te misi: cura ut vir sis et cogita quem in locum sis progressus: vide ecquid tibi iam sit necesse et cura ut omnium tibi auxilia adiungas, etiam infimorum.” Cp. A. C. Clark (reviewing Zieliňski) _Classical Review_ xix. 172.]

[Footnote 58: Cp. _C.V._ =176= 20 οὐ γὰρ ἀπελαύνεται ῥυθμὸς οὐδεὶς ἐκ τῆς ἀμέτρου λέξεως, ὥσπερ ἐκ τῆς ἐμμέτρου. With regard to the occasional presence in prose of metrical or quasi-metrical lines, the likely explanation seems often to be one which Dionysius does not favour (πολλὰ γὰρ αὐτοσχεδιάζει μέτρα ἡ φύσις, =256= 19), rather than one which recognizes μέτρα καὶ ῥυθμούς τινας =ἐγκατατεταγμένους ἀδήλως= (=254= 3).]

[Footnote 59: D. B. Monro _Modes of Ancient Greek Music_ p. 118.]

[Footnote 60: From the essay (already mentioned) on _Style in Literature_.]

[Footnote 61: _de Demosth._ c. 22.]

[Footnote 62: So that, in =126= 15, τὸν ὀξὺν τόνον = ‘the high pitch’ = ‘the acute accent.’]

[Footnote 63: W. H. D. Rouse’s edition of _Matthew Arnold on translating Homer_ Introd. p. 7.]

[Footnote 64: A. J. Ellis and F. Blass (in the publications mentioned later).]

[Footnote 65: Arnold and Conway _Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin_ pp. iv. 3, 7, 20-26. Cp. also the pamphlet on the _Pronunciation of Greek_ issued by the Classical Association in 1908 (pp. 348-51 _infra_). In the _Contemporary Review_ of March 1897 the history of Greek pronunciation in England is ably sketched by J. Gennadius.]

[Footnote 66: Even the pronunciation of the poet’s name has changed with the lapse of centuries; and the spelling _Shakspere_ is preferred by some authorities not only because it has excellent manuscript authority, but because it may serve to remind us that “he and his fellows pronounced his name _Shahk-spare_, with the _a_ of father in _Shahk_, and with the French _e_ (our _a_) in _spare_” (Furnivall).]

[Footnote 67: Quintil. i. 10. 17 “siquidem Archytas atque Aristoxenus etiam subiectam grammaticen musicae putaverunt,” etc.]

[Footnote 68: _C.V._ =68= 7-11, ... τὴν περὶ τῆς συνθέσεως τῶν ὀνομάτων πραγματείαν ὀλίγοις μὲν ἐπὶ νοῦν ἐλθοῦσαν, ὅσοι τῶν ἀρχαίων ῥητορικὰς ἢ διαλεκτικὰς συνέγραψαν τέχνας, οὐδενὶ δ’ ἀκριβῶς οὐδ’ ἀποχρώντως μέχρι τοῦ παρόντος ἐξειργασμένην, ὡς ἐγὼ πείθομαι.]

[Footnote 69: Some reference to Quintilian’s own apparent indebtedness to the _de Imitatione_ of Dionysius will be found in _Demetrius on Style_ p. 25.]

[Footnote 70: _de Sublim._ xxxix. 1. In the editor’s article on the “Literary Circle of Dionysius of Halicarnassus” (_Classical Review_