CHAPTER XXXII.

CYPRUS AND THE EUPHRATES VALLEY RAILWAY.

Again must Cyprus bear a prominent position in the eyes of the world. For many years eminent statesmen, soldiers, and engineers have been proclaiming the advisability of making Cyprus the point through which that grand scheme, the Euphrates Valley Railway, soon we hope to be a reality, would receive its principal sources of traffic, and forming it into the terminal station of a line of railway and steamers destined to chain us more firmly to our Indian possessions, and to open again the long-deserted or neglected land that lies between it and the Persian Gulf.

Major-General Sir F. Goldsmid, C.B., K.C.S.I., who has devoted a considerable portion of his time to this scheme, has thrown such valuable light upon the subject that we should be wanting in our duty to our readers if we did not give some brief idea of the information his valuable paper affords us.

The geographical position of Cyprus, now under British rule, makes the island a fitting guardian of Upper Syria, Cœlo Syria, and almost of Palestine, and in the hands of Great Britain is an invaluable acquisition, and worth any amount of land which might be purchased on the neighbouring Asiatic coast.

The distance to the several ports on the mainland is not great; indeed, the island is said to be visible on a clear day from Seleucia. A railway terminus for the Persian Gulf line might be reached in a very few hours, and fair weather boats, calculated to carry over a thousand passengers, troops or civilians, might be used at certain times at inconsiderable cost.

Of Larnaka, as a port, very little information can be obtained; but fifteen years ago it received 324 vessels of 54,340 tons, and sent out 321 vessels of 53,458 tons. In 1876 there were entered 457, and cleared 483 vessels of 92,926 and 91,690 tons respectively.

At Limasol, in 1863, 493 vessels were entered of 32,980 tons. The present harbour of Famagusta has a superficial extent of nearly eighty acres, to which a depth of five and a half fathoms might be readily given; but there is only a space of about five acres which can be relied upon for the actual reception of ships.

M. Collas, a French writer, experienced in Turkey and the Turks, thinks that, with ordinary engineering skill, a harbour might be formed here of more than 148 acres in extent. The opening of this harbour would also give, in the opinion of M. Collas, an immense impetus to the export of cotton, which might be grown up to the amount not far short of 30,000 tons, a high figure of productiveness.

Having thus shown how Cyprus is capable, so far as harbours are concerned, of fulfilling her position as the terminus of the Euphrates Valley Railway, let us look to some of the various routes suggested for this line. Five different schemes were selected as the most important by the Committee which sat in 1872.

1st. A line starting from Alexandretta or Suedia, near the mouth of the Orontes, passing through Aleppo to the Euphrates, at or near Jabah Castle, and thence carried down the right bank of the river to Kuwait, on the western side of the Persian Gulf.

2nd. A line starting from one of the same points, crossing the Euphrates at Belio, passing down the left bank of the river, or the right bank of the Tigris, to a point nearly opposite Baghdad, recrossing the Euphrates, and proceeding to Kuwait.

3rd. A line starting as before, crossing the Euphrates at Bir, thence going round to Orfah and Diarbekir, and following the right bank of the Tigris as the last.

4th. A similar line, only following the left bank of the Tigris.

5th. A line starting from Tripoli, and proceeding across the desert by way of Damascus and Palmyra to the Euphrates, whence it might follow one of the preceding routes.

Which of these routes will eventually be adopted, is still the subject of much discussion.

Mr. W. P. Andrew, F.R.G.S., who for thirty years has devoted much time and attention to endeavouring to carry out this design, has furnished us with an admirable report on this project. We will give a short sketch in his own words:

“In the proposal to restore this ancient route—once the highway of the world’s commerce and the track of the heroes of early history—by the construction of a railway to connect the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf, we have at hand an invaluable and perfectly efficient means at once of thwarting the designs of Russia, if they should assume a hostile character, of marching hand in hand with her if her mission be to carry civilisation to distant lands, and of competing with her in the peaceful rivalry of commerce.

“On every ground, therefore, the proposed Euphrates Valley Railway is an undertaking eminently deserving our attention, and the support and encouragement of our Government.

“The countries which our future highway to India will traverse have been, from remote antiquity, the most interesting in the world. On the once fertile plains, watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, the greatest and most glorious nations of antiquity arose, flourished, and were overthrown.

“Twice in the world’s history, mankind commenced the race of civilisation on the Mesopotamian rivers. Twice the human family diverged from their banks to the east, the west, and the north. Arts and sciences made the first feeble steps of their infancy, upon the shores of these rivers.

“Very early in history we know that Babylon was a great manufacturing city, famed for the costly fabric of its looms. At a more recent date the Chaldean kings made it a gorgeous metropolis—the fairest and the richest then on earth. Alexander of Macedon made it the port of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; and he proposed to render it the central metropolis of his empire.

“The countries through which the Euphrates flows were formerly the most productive in the world. Throughout these regions the fruits of temperate and tropical climes, grew in bygone days in luxurious profusion; luxury and abundance were universally diffused. The soil everywhere teemed with vegetation; much of this has since passed away. Ages of despotism and misrule have rendered unavailing the bounty of nature; but the land is full of hidden riches. The natural elements of its ancient grandeur still exist in the inexhaustible fertility of the country, and in the chivalrous character and bearing of many of the tribes; and the day cannot be far distant when it is destined to resume its place amongst the fairest and most prosperous regions of the globe.

“The wondrous fertility of Mesopotamia was, in early times, carried to its utmost limit by means of irrigation canals, with which the country was everywhere intersected, and some of the largest of which were navigable. These excited the wonder and interest of Alexander the Great, who, after his return from the conquest of India, examined them personally, steering the boat with his own hand. He employed a great number of men to repair and cleanse these canals.

“Herodotus, speaking of Babylonia, says: ‘Of all the countries I know, it is without question the best and the most fertile. It produces neither figs, nor vines, nor olives; but in recompense the earth is suitable for all sorts of grain, of which it yields always two hundred per cent, and in years of extraordinary fertility as much as three hundred per cent.’

“These regions need only again to be irrigated by the life-giving waters pouring down ever cool and plentiful from Ararat—that great landmark of primæval history, now the vast natural boundary-stone of the Russian, Turkish, and Persian empires—to yield once more in abundance almost everything that is necessary or agreeable to man. Many acres now wasted, save when in early spring they are wildernesses of flowers, may be covered with cotton, tending to the employment of the million spindles of our land.

“It is not too much to say that no existing or projected railroad can compare in point of interest and importance with that of the Euphrates Valley. It will bring two quarters of the globe into juxtaposition, and three continents, Europe, Asia, and Australia, into closer relation. It will bind the vast population of Hindustan by an iron link with the people of Europe. It will inevitably entail the colonisation and civilisation of the great valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, the resuscitation in a modern shape of Babylon and Nineveh, and the re-awakening of Ctesiphon and Bagdad of old.

“Where is there in the world any similar undertaking which can achieve results of such magnitude, fraught with so many interests to various nations? And who can foresee what ultimate effects may be produced by improved means of communication in the condition of Hindoos, Chinese, and other remote peoples?

“Although various routes have been suggested with a view of bringing Great Britain, by means of railway communication, into closer connection with India and her other dependencies in the East, and of securing at the same time the immense political and strategic desideratum of an alternative highway to our Eastern possessions, there is none which combines in itself so many advantages as the ancient route of the Euphrates; the route of the emperors Trajan and Julian, in whose steps, in more recent times, the great Napoleon intended to follow, when the Russian campaign turned his energies in another direction. The special advantages which render this route superior to all others are briefly these:

“It is the direct route to India. It is the shortest and the cheapest both for constructing and working a railway; so free from engineering difficulties, that it almost appears as though designed by the hand of nature to be the highway of nations between the east and the west; the most surely defensible by England—both of its termini being on the open seas; and the most likely to prove remunerative.

“Both in an engineering and a political point of view, the Euphrates route undoubtedly possesses great advantages over any of the others which have been proposed.

“All the routes which have been suggested from places on the Black Sea are open to the fatal objection that, while they would be of the greatest service to Russia, they would be altogether beyond the control of Great Britain, while the engineering difficulties with which they are surrounded, are of themselves sufficient to exclude them from practical consideration.

“This has been fully established by the evidence of the witnesses examined by the Select Committee of the House of Commons, which lately investigated the merits of the various proposals for connecting the Mediterranean and the Black Seas with the Persian Gulf.

“In the course of the investigation by the Committee, it was demonstrated that the proposed Euphrates Valley Railway is an eminently feasible undertaking in an engineering sense; that the route of the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is decidedly preferable in respect of climate to that by Egypt and the Red Sea; that as regards the safety and facility of the navigation, the Persian Gulf also has by far the advantage; that the proposed undertaking would be of great commercial moment, and if not immediately profitable, at all events that it would be so at a date not far distant; and, finally, that it would be of the highest political and strategic importance to this country.

“A railway through Mesopotamia, as a route to India, would not at first be productive of much income to a company from traffic, but in a few years—certainly before the railway could be finished—the cultivation of grain would increase a hundred-fold, and would go on increasing a thousand fold, and would attain to a magnitude and extension quite impossible to calculate, because bad harvests are almost unknown in these parts, for there is always plenty of rain and a hot sun to ripen the corn. Populous villages would spring up all along the line, as there is abundance of sweet water everywhere. Cereals can be grown there so cheaply, that no country the same distance from England—say for instance Russia—could compete with it at all. And if Great Britain finds it necessary to rely more on the importation of foreign corn, where could a better field be found than the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, which has all the advantages of climate, soil, and sun in its favour?

“The establishment of steam communication by the Messageries Maritimes on the route of the Red Sea to Calcutta and other Eastern ports, shows the importance attached by the French to the extension of their commercial relations with the East. A Russian line of steamers, also, has lately been established, to run between Odessa and Bombay by the Suez Canal route. Even those who see no danger in the policy of annexation pursued by Russia, will admit that the Russian roads and railways now being pushed towards Persia and Afghanistan, if designed with pacific intentions, prove, at all events, the anxiety of the Russian Government to compete with us for the trade of Central Asia, the Punjaub, and Northern India.

“The substitution of Kurrachee for Bombay as the European port of India would, even by the Red Sea route, give us an advantage of some five hundred miles; but if the Euphrates route were once established, the adoption of Kurrachee as the European port of India would necessarily follow, and India would thus be brought upwards of a thousand miles nearer to us than at present; while during the monsoon months, the gain would be still greater, as the route between the Persian Gulf and Kurrachee is not exposed to the severity of the monsoon, which, it is well known, renders a divergence of some five hundred miles necessary during a portion of the year on the voyage from Bombay to Aden.

“When the railway system of the Indus is completed, Kurrachee will be in continuous railway communication with Calcutta and with the gates of Central Asia at the Kyber and Bolan Passes, and it will thus become the natural basis of operations in the event either of any internal commotion in India, or of aggression on our north-western frontier.

“The grand object desired, is to connect England with the north-west frontier of India by steam transit through the Euphrates and Indus valleys. The latter will render movable to either the Kyber or the Bolan—the two gates of India—the flower of the British army cantoned in the Punjaub; and the Euphrates and Indus lines being connected by means of steamers, we should be enabled to threaten the flank and rear of any force advancing through Persia towards India. So that, by this great scheme, the invasion of India would be placed beyond even speculation, and it is evident that the great army of India of three hundred thousand men being thus united to the army of England, the mutual support they would render each other, would quadruple the power and ascendancy of this country, and promote powerfully the progress, the freedom, and the peace of the world.

“The Euphrates and Indus lines together would, moreover, secure for us almost a monopoly of the trade with Central Asia, enabling us to meet Russia, our great competitor in these distant fields of commercial enterprise, on more than equal terms.

“But it is not on commercial considerations that I would urge the claims of the Euphrates Valley Railway. It is on imperial grounds that the scheme commends itself to our support.

“I believe that the establishment of the Euphrates route would add incalculably to our prestige throughout Europe and the East, and would do more to strengthen our hold on India than any other means that could be devised.

“The Euphrates Valley Railway, as proposed from the Gulf of Scanderoon to the Persian Gulf, has been specially designed with a view to its ultimately forming part of a through line from Constantinople to the head of the Persian Gulf; while it is capable also of being in due time extended eastwards to Kurrachee, the port of India nearest to Europe.

“The line from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf has been demonstrated to be eminently practicable and easy, while the other portions of the route between Constantinople and India are not. While capable of forming part of a through line, it would at the same time be complete in itself, and independent of any disturbances in Europe—the only portion, in fact, of a through line of railway which would be always, and under all circumstances, at the absolute control of this country.

“It would always be to this country the most important portion of any through line; and, indeed, I believe a through line could not be constructed, except at overwhelming cost, without the assistance of a port in Northern Syria. It would, moreover, provide us with a complete alternative route to India, and would thus at once secure to this country advantages admitted to be of the highest national moment.

“It is for these reasons that during the long period in which I have devoted myself to the advocacy of the Euphrates route to India, I have thought it expedient to urge upon our own Government and that of Turkey, the special claims of that section only which would connect the Mediterranean with the Persian Gulf.

“The objection that, although the Euphrates Valley Railway would afford us the undoubted advantage of an alternative, a shorter, and a more rapid means of communication with India, it would still leave a considerable portion of the journey to be accomplished by sea, and that consequently it would accelerate our communications with the East in a minor degree only, is sufficiently disposed of by the circumstances already pointed out; that a railway from a point on the Mediterranean, at or near Scanderoon, to the head of the Persian Gulf, would naturally form part of a through line of railway from Constantinople to India, if at a future time it should be considered necessary or desirable to construct the remaining sections.”

APPENDIX.

EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.

Cyprus (χυπρος), called by the Turks Kibris, is a large island in the Mediterranean, lying near the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor. It is supposed to have an area of about 4500 square miles, but all the different measurements given vary considerably. Its length is about 145 miles, from the extreme north-east point, Cape St. Andreas, to Cape Arnauti, on the west coast. Its greatest breadth is about fifty miles from north to south; but it narrows towards the east, where in some parts it is not more than five miles wide, and, at the most extreme east point, Cape Andreas, it is only about sixty-five miles distant from Latakia, the nearest point of the Syrian coast. The nearest land on the coast of Karamania, or Cilicia, Cape Zephyrium, is about forty-two miles north by west of the point of land in Cyprus, which is near the ancient Carpasia.

SURFACE.

There are two ranges of mountains in Cyprus, one extending along the northern coast, and the other stretching across the southern part of the island. The highest summit is the “Troados,” or “Olympus,” which Löher measured, and found to be 6160 feet above the sea level. The other principal peaks of this range are Mount Stavrovuni, or Sante Croce, Mount Makhaeras, and Mount Adelphi; the heights of these are uncertain. Equally uncertain are the elevations of the peaks of the northern range, the chief of which is Mount Pentedaktylo, between Kerinia and Makaria.

The most extensive plain is on the eastern part of the island, and is watered by the river Pedias. In 1330, this river was so swollen by heavy rain, that it inundated Nikosia, to the great destruction of life and property. The other plains of any size are those of Lefkosia in the centre, and Kerinia, to the west of the island.

RIVERS.

The Pedias, or Pedæus, the principal river, rises on the range of Olympus, and waters the plains of Lefkosia and Messaria, and empties itself into the sea, on the east coast, at the ancient port of Salamis Constantia. The Morpha has its source among the same mountains as the Pedias, waters the plain of Kerinia, and falls into the sea on the north-west coast, about the centre of the Gulf of Morpha. There are no other rivers of much importance; the principal are, the Ezusa, or ancient Borgarus, the Diorizos, and the Khapotini, all of which take their source in the neighbourhood of Mount Olympus, and fall into the sea on the south-west coast; the Kurios, which empties itself into the Gulf of Piskopi, on the south coast; the Garilis, rising in the Makhaeras mountains and falling into the sea at Limasol, also on the south coast; while the Pentaskhino, a small stream, enters the sea near Dolos point, on the south-east coast.

CAPES.

Cape Kormaciti, the ancient Crommyon, at the extreme north-west; Cape Andreas, the ancient Dinaretum, at the extreme north-east point of the island; Cape Arnauti, or St. Epiphanio, the ancient Akamas, at the most western point; Cape Gatto, and Cape Zevgari, the ancient Kurios, are the furthest points on the south coast; Cape Greco, the ancient Pedalion, lies at the south-eastern extremity. On the north coast are Cape Plakoti; on the west, Capes Drepani, Kokino, Limmity, Baffo (Papho); on the east coast, Cape Elaea, and on the south, Capes Pyla, the ancient Throni, Bianca, and Citi.

GULFS AND BAYS.

Famagusta Bay, or Bay of Salamis, at the east; Gulf of Morpha, or Pendagia, at the north-west; Gulf of Chrysochou, at the west; and at the south, the Gulf of Piskopi, and bays of Larnaka and Akroteri.

HARBOURS AND ROADSTEADS.

Larnaka and Limasol possess good roadsteads.

The ancient harbours are destroyed and filled with sand.

TOWNS AND IMPORTANT PLACES.

The following were the towns of Cyprus (A.D. 25). On the north coast of Cape Acamas, were Arsinoe, and Sali, with a harbour founded by Phalerus and Acamas of Athens, then east of Cape Crommyon, Lapethus, built by the Lacedemonians; next Agidus, Aphrodisium, and Carpasia; east of the last, was a mountain and a cape called Olympus, with a temple to Venus upon it, which women were forbidden to enter. Facing the cape are two small islands, called Keides, or “the keys of Cyprus.” Turning thence towards the south, was Salamis, at the mouth of the Pedæus, one of the principal cities of the island, said to have been built by Teucer, an emigrant from the island of Salamis.

Proceeding south was another Arsinoe, with a port; next came Leucolia, near Cape Pedalium, a lofty table-land, called the Table of Venus; west of Pedalium was Citium (the ancient Chittim), with a harbour that could be closed. Citium was a large town, and the birthplace of Zeno the Stoic (301 B.C.) From Citium to Berytas (Bairout) in Syria, the distance was about 130 miles. West of Citium was Amathus, and inland was Palœa Limisso. Sailing round by Cape Curias to the west, was the town of Curium, with a port built by the Argivi. Here the coast turns to the north-west, looking towards Rhodes, and on it were the towns of Ireta, Boosura, and Old Paphos; then Cape Zephyrium; and next to it another Arsinoe, with a port and temple, sacred grove, and New Paphos, built by Agapenor, five miles by land from Old Paphos.

Most of the above towns, and others which Strabo has omitted, have long since disappeared.

The present capital is Nikosia, the residence of the late Turkish governor. It lies near the centre of the island, close to the site of the ancient Letra, or Leucotra, on a plain surrounded with mountains. The streets are narrow and dirty, and many of the grand old mansions falling into decay. It is a truly Oriental city, and is very prettily situated; the air is balmy, dry, and redolent of the odour of laurel and myrtle. Every court-yard has its apple and pear-tree, and in between these masses of rosemary, peeping from beneath the flourishing fig. Its population does not exceed 16,000.

Lefkosia was the residence of the kings of the Lusignan dynasty, and was then much larger than it is at present, the Venetians having destroyed part of it in order to strengthen the remainder.

The church of St. Sophia, a fine Gothic building, is converted into a mosque; the monuments it contains of the Lusignans are sadly mutilated. There is also a fine bazaar, a khan, or enclosed court, surrounded by apartments for travellers, and the palace of the governor, on the portal of which is still seen the Venetian lion in stone; there are also several other churches and mosques. The bastioned walls, erected by the Venetians, are still standing.

The Greek Archbishop of Nikosia is metropolitan of the whole island. Cesnola, informs us, that, after sundown, no person is allowed to leave or enter the town without special permission from the governor-general. When such a case occurs, the soldiers are put under arms, and the drawbridge is lowered, with as much ceremony as if we were still in mediæval times. The seraglio, where the late Turkish governor resided, is described by the same authority, as a large quadrangular building, two stories high, and in sad want of repair; it has a large court-yard, enclosed by walls twenty-five feet high.

The principal manufactures of the town are carpets, cotton prints, and morocco leather. The workmen of Nikosia pretend that they have a particular manner of dressing the leather, which they keep a profound secret; anyhow, the leather is said to be better dressed, more brilliant in colour, and more durable than that which is made in Turkey. There is also a little trade in raw cotton and wine.

Larnaka, or Larnika, on the site of old Citium, near the south coast, is the most thriving, bustling place, in the island, being the residence of the European consuls and factors, and the chief seat of trade. The port of Larnaka is at Salines, about a mile and half distant; a Greek bishop resides there, and there are also some Latin churches in the town. The houses are chiefly built of clay and only one story high, on account of the earthquakes, to which the island is subject. The interiors of the houses are comfortable; the apartments are paved with white marble, and almost every house has a garden.

This is the chief sea-port in the island, and has a fair anchorage for vessels in the roadstead. Near Larnaka is the well-known inland lake, whence in ancient days, the Phœnicians obtained the best salt. During the rainy season, this is swollen with water; in May and June it gradually evaporates, and under the fiery sun, and burning heat of July and August, the water almost boils off, and leaves behind a thick cake of nearly pure salt. This once yielded a yearly income of three hundred thousand ducats. This town is connected by telegraph with Latakia, on the Syrian coast, the wires passing through Nikosia.

Famagusta, on the south-east coast, a few miles south of old Salamis, and not far from the ancient Tamassus, occupies the site of Ammochostos, one of the ten royal cities, which paid tribute to Esarhaddon, and possesses the only harbour between Salamis and Leuculla, and was probably the city called Arsinœ under the Ptolemies.

“The city of Famagusta,” says Cesnola, “built by the Christians eight hundred years ago, from the ruins of Salamis, and destroyed by the Turks in 1571, after the terrible siege in which the Venetian soldiers so heroically defended their position, once counted its beautiful churches by hundreds and its palatial residences by thousands. Once it had been one of the principal commercial cities of the Levant, with a harbour, in which rode large fleets, but which now, through neglect, has become filled with sand, and is able only to float ships of light draught. It was just outside the mouth of this closed harbour, that the vessels containing the Venetian families and their most precious personal and household effects were sunk by the faithless Mustapha Pacha, after he had killed the Venetian generals.”

“As you approach the massive walls of the city, which are nearly seventeen feet thick, and of solid stone, all taken from the ruins of Salamis, you see how impossible it was to take such a city except by famine or treachery. The walls stand now as impregnable and intact as when raised by the Lusignans.

“The old bronze guns of the Republic of Venice are still on the bastions, in their original place, looking formidably towards the sea, and the plain of Salamis, but spiked and out of service since 1571. There are a half dozen rusty iron guns of Turkish manufacture, pretty much in the same condition.

“The ruins of Famagusta are not grand and imposing, yet they are most beautiful and touching. It is impossible to see the still existing walls of many of its fine mediæval churches, with frescoes plainly visible in the interiors—here a rectory, there evidences of elegant homes—without a feeling of intense sadness. Only two out of the three hundred churches, which are said to have existed in Famagusta, were left standing. The principal one, formerly the cathedral and now used as a mosque, is paved with mortuary marble slabs engraved with the names and arms of Italian noblemen, once buried beneath them, whose bones were exhumed, and thrown into the sea, by order of the fanatical and ferocious Mustapha Pacha, the day after he captured the city. The other church, used as a granary and a stable by the Turks, contains also a few tombstones, now all worn out by the horses’ hoofs. There I discovered an inscription, recording the day on which, by the abdication of Katharine Cornaro, the Venetians became the rulers of Cyprus.

“Within the city walls resides the caimakan[15] of the province of Carpass, with the Cadi of Famagusta, and the usual mejilis. There is also a military governor of the fortress, and a company of artillery. This governor resides with his troops in a small fort overlooking the sea, and flanked by a large round tower called by the natives ‘Torre del Moro’ (Tower of the Moor). Tradition asserts that in this tower were the head-quarters of the Venetian Lord-Lieutenant of Cyprus, Cristoforo Moro, during the years 1506 to 1508. In the latter year, on the 22nd of October, Cristoforo Moro was recalled from Cyprus, and returned to Venice; and from documents which I have been allowed to peruse, it would appear that this man was married four times, and that his private life was not very exemplary. This Cristoforo Moro was the ‘Othello’ of Shakespeare.

“The fortress of Famagusta contained some of the worst criminals of the Turkish Empire. Many of them are condemned for life, others are sentenced to from fifteen to twenty-five years’ imprisonment, and all are heavily shackled.”

The harbour of Famagusta would be excellent, if it were cleared of the filth with which it is blocked up; but at present it can only accommodate a few small vessels.

Limasol, on the south coast, is the most European town in the island, and has a good harbour; but the old parts of the town are a heap of ruins. It is still of considerable importance, and is the chief place of export for the wines of the country, which are much in demand in the Levant. The surrounding country is rich in fruit trees, of which the carob-tree is the most conspicuous.

Near the town formerly stood the Commandery of the Knights Templars (Commandery of Kolossi), extending from Mount Olympus to Baffo and Limasol.

Baffo, or New Paphos, was under the Romans the principal town in the western part of the island, and is famous in ancient poetry as the favourite residence of Aphrodite or Venus, and here was her most celebrated temple.

During the reign of the Emperor Augustus, this town was destroyed by an earthquake, and was afterwards rebuilt.

Here St. Paul converted Sergius Paulus, the Roman deputy-governor, besides many others, preaching in the Jewish synagogues, of which there were several.

Here Elymas, the sorcerer, was struck blind for endeavouring to frustrate St. Paul’s attempts to Christianise the people.

The Church of St. Paul is the only Venetian building now standing. Baffo has a small but unsafe port, and is the see of a Greek bishop. Kerinia, Cerini, or Ghirneh, on the north coast, has a harbour, from which a limited trade is carried on with the opposite coast of Karamania. Its ruins would seem to indicate that it was formerly a fine town. It is fortified, and the second stronghold of the island, and like Lapethus (the original capital of the district of Kerinia), is traced to the Dorian colonists, under Praxander and Cepheus. This formed one of the royal cities of the island. “I passed near this town,” says Cesnola, “several times during my northern excursions, but never had the curiosity to enter it. The village itself, with the exception of the citadel, is a small dirty place, almost exclusively inhabited by Mussulmans, who, with the garrison, enjoy a very bad reputation—second only to that of their co-religionists at New Paphos. The ancient site of Kerinia is a little to the west of the present town, and more inland. For a considerable distance along the western shore, there are to be seen here and there large caverns excavated in the rock; some, though not all, seem to have been tombs. South-east of the town, about an hour’s ride from it, and midway up the mountains, stands an imposing mediæval ruin called ‘Lapais.’ It was an abbey, built by King Hugo the Third, and belonged to the Latin Church, but was destroyed by the Turks when they captured the fortress of Kerinia. It is a fact worth noticing, that all the churches belonging to the Latins were destroyed by the Turks when they took possession of the island. In this I have no doubt they were gladly assisted, or at least encouraged, by the Greeks, who detested the Franks even more than the Turks. This abbey occupied one of the most picturesque and lovely spots of the whole island; a large hall is still standing, one hundred feet long, thirty-two feet wide, and about forty feet high, which was probably the refectory of the French abbots; beneath it is another apartment of like dimensions, divided into two chambers, the vault of which is supported by massive columns.”

“In the court-yard, piled the one upon the other, are two large marble sarcophagi of late Roman work, one of which has garlands of flowers, nude figures, and large bulls’ heads in bold relief. Both bear evidence of having been used for a long time as troughs. Upon the lintel, over the door of the great hall, are engraved three shields; one represents the Jerusalem cross, another the royal arms of the Lusignans, and the third a lion rampant. The Gothic chapel of the abbey has been partly repaired with sun-dried bricks and plaster, and is now used by the Greeks, living in the neighbourhood, as their place of worship; portions of the court-yard serve as their cemetery. On two high peaks in this range of mountains stood two feudal or royal castles, one called St. Hilarion, and the other Buffavento, which served as state prisons and places of refuge to some of the Latin kings of Cyprus. They were both dismantled by order of the Venetian Admiral Prioli.”

CLIMATE.

The climate is generally healthy excepting on some parts of the coast, but this is entirely due to the neglected state of the country; if the much-needed drainage was properly carried out the most satisfactory result would ensue. As in most Eastern countries, the rain falls at stated periods, commencing about the middle of October and continuing until the end of April. After June slight showers fall from time to time, but have little power to modify the heat, which is, however, tempered occasionally by a cool wind. In September the great heat sets in, but does not continue for any length of time. At Larnaka, the mean temperature in February is about 52 deg., and in August 81 deg. The winters are milder, and the summers cooler than on the coast of Syria opposite.

The average rainfall is about fourteen inches in the year. Of late years, droughts have been of frequent occurrence, owing, no doubt, to the destruction of the woods and forests.

The north coast is liable to hot winds from the north-east, from the desert of Arabia in the south-east, and in the south and south-west from Egypt and Lybia.

Speaking of one of these winds, Dr. Clarke says, “We found it so scorching that the skin instantly peeled from our lips; a tendency to sneeze was excited, accompanied by great pains in the eyes, and chapping of the hands and face. The mercury, exposed to its full current, rose 6 deg. Fahrenheit in two minutes—from 80 deg. to 86 deg.”

Dr. Unger says, that it is so hot in summer as to make occupation irksome, and so cold in winter that the absence of spring and autumn makes the transition, from one extreme to the other, very sudden. The climate is, of course, cooler in the more mountainous portion of the west, than in the flat eastern side, where the temperature in the height of summer amounts to 90 deg. in the shade; during the winter, in the lower parts of the land, it seldom falls to freezing point. During October, November, and December the rain falls, and entirely ceases during the summer, when there is generally a blue sky over the island. The drier the summer, the damper the winter; and sometimes it then rains for forty days together. At such periods the thirsty land recovers itself. On the other hand, there are winters when no rain falls, and drought is severely felt during the summer. In the time of Constantine, we are told that no rain fell on the island for thirty-six years.

By the middle of May the harvest is over, and wherever the eye rests the grass is withered and parched. The temperature now reaches 80 deg. in the shade, and sometimes, in the middle of the day is even higher; the atmosphere grows thick, and a veil seems to fall over all surrounding objects; all rivers are dry; the dew ceases in June or July, and the hot winds, make the air more oppressive; finally come hosts of annoying insects, from which one may seek in vain to escape. At this season, all work is done in the evening and at night.

POPULATION.

The number of inhabitants is very uncertain. It is variously estimated between 100,000 and 250,000 souls, of whom 40,000 to 60,000 are Mohammedans, including the Linopambagi or “men of linen and cotton,” as they are called in derision, who outwardly conforming to the tenets of Mohammed, are in reality Christians. The majority of the people belong to the Greek Church, and the remainder are either Armenians or Maronites, whose peculiar religion we will endeavour to describe. These number about 2800.

The Maronites are a tribe of people inhabiting the western declivity of Mount Lebanon, and figure in history as a sect of Christians. By adopting the Monothelitic doctrine soon after it had been condemned, in A. D. 680, by the Council of Constantinople, they came to be distinguished as a distinct religious party, and having as their first bishop, a certain monk, John Maro, they were called Maronites. Maro assumed the title of “Patriarch of Antioch,” and asserted the ecclesiastical independence of the tribe.

This sect defended their freedom first against the Greeks, and afterwards against the Saracens. At length, in 1182, they renounced the opinions of the Monothelites, and were re-admitted within the pale of the Romish Church; the terms of reconciliation being that the religious tenets, moral precepts, and ancient rites of the country should remain unaltered. The Maronites adopted no Popish opinion, except the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff. By this slight tie they still continue united to the Church of Rome. In return for their imperfect allegiance, the Pope is obliged to defray the expenses of their public worship and to maintain a college at Rome for the education of their priests. He has the power of sanctioning the appointment of their patriarch, after he has been selected by their bishops. This dignitary has his head-quarters in the monastery of Lebanon, and holds the title of Patriarch of Antioch, and by adopting the name of Peter, claims to be the successor of that apostle. Like the bishops who compose his synod, he is bound to remain in perpetual celibacy, a law, however, which the rest of the clergy do not observe. The Maronite monks are of the order of St. Anthony, and live in monasteries scattered among the mountain solitudes.

Slavery exists, but owing to the increasing poverty of the Turks, the number of slaves is very much diminished.

CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.

Herr von Löher describes the bulk of the population as devoid all energy, of sluggish temperament, and obstinately addicted to ancient customs. They are powerful, hospitable, and exceedingly amiable in their domestic relations. The women are very good housewives and very active. The girls are full of life, especially on festive occasions, are fond of gaudy colours, and dress very fantastically.

Elementary schools are established in all the larger villages, and others of superior class in the three principal towns of the island. The Greek bishops and many of the popes have been educated in these latter, or at Athens, and are generally men of culture; but most of the village priests and monks are as ignorant as the peasants amongst whom their lives are past.

Greek is the language used throughout Cyprus, and has even found its way into many of the Turkish houses.

AGRICULTURE.

The cultivation of the country appears to be in a very primitive condition, and owing to the lightness and fertility of the soil but slight labour is required in producing the necessary crops. The cultivable surface of the island is estimated at 2,500,000 acres, of which not more than 130,000 acres are under tillage. The annual average yield of corn is said not to exceed 120,000 quarters, and we are told that the disposal of the whole has been a monopoly between the Turkish mulasallin and the Greek archbishop, who either export or retail it at an arbitrary price. The vegetation resembles that of the other islands of the Mediterranean. There is no meadow land, but a great deal of waste, which is either quite bare, or only covered with heather and aromatic plants.

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

The principal productions are cotton, hemp, silk, corn, opium, tobacco, turpentine, liquorice, madder, several dye-woods, gum-tragacinth, and colocynth. Fruits of all kind, in particular grapes, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, olives, walnuts, figs, mulberries, apricots, &c.; the carob-tree (_Ceratonia siliqua_) abounds in some districts. There were once extensive plantations of sugar-cane. Large quantities of fine vegetables are grown. Cyprus was celebrated for roses; hyacinths, anemones, ranunculuses, narcissus, poppies, &c., grow wild. Trees and shrubs of all kinds grow luxuriantly, including pines, firs, cypresses, ashes, oaks, beeches, elms, myrtles, evergreens, oleanders, &c.

One of the most important plants of the island is the Ferula Græca; of the stalks of which the Cypriotes form a great part of their household furniture, and the pith is used instead of tinder for conveying fire from one place to another.

MANUFACTURES.

Wines of three kinds are made, namely, Commanderia, Muscadine, and Mavro. Cotton, silk, and woollen goods of various qualities are manufactured on a small scale. Olive oil, pitch, resin, cheese, raisins, and pottery (for home consumption) are also made. Nikosia is noted for its Morocco leather. The peasantry distil rose, orange, and lavender waters, myrtle and laudanum oil.

MINERALS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

Cyprus is rich in metals and minerals, including copper, silver, malachite, lead, and quicksilver. There are also quarries of asbestos, talc, sulphur, red jasper, agate, rock crystal, and marble. Soda is also found. The salt works, near Larnaka, produce a revenue of 20,000_l._ per annum. Gold is occasionally met with in the streams. Diamonds, emeralds, opals, amethysts, and other precious stones are sometimes found.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The principal animals in the island are oxen, sheep, and goats, which thrive well and are abundant. The most common of the wild animals are the fox, hare, and wild-cat. The hare feeds on fragrant herbs, which impart a most agreeable flavour to its flesh. All the birds that winter in Africa are to be found in Cyprus. Beccaficos and ortolans are very common and remarkably plump. Water-fowl are very numerous; game, such as partridges, quails, woodcock, and snipe, very plentiful.

Serpents of various species are commonly met with; these are stated to be, we believe erroneously, poisonous.

Dr. Clarke states that tarantulas, having black bodies covered with hair and bright yellow eyes, are not uncommon. A large venomous spider is sometimes seen, called by Sonnini, the Galcode of the Levant; its body, which is about an inch long, is a bright yellow, and covered with long hairs; this creature runs with extraordinary swiftness; its bite rarely produces death, but causes acute pain. The extent to which Cyprus was formerly devastated by locusts has been spoken of in another chapter. Bees are kept in great numbers in many parts of the island. Of these Dr. Clarke gives the following interesting account:

Speaking of the village of Attién, he says, “In these little cottages we found very large establishments for bees, but all the honey thus made is demanded by the governor; so that an apiary is only considered as the cause of an additional tax. The manner, however, in which the honey is collected is curious, and worthy of imitation, and it merits a particular description: the contrivance is simple, and was doubtless suggested by the more ancient custom still existing in the Crimea, of harbouring bees in cylindrical hives made from the bark of trees. They build up a wall formed entirely of earthen cylinders, each about three feet in length, placed one above the other horizontally, and closed at their extremities with mortar. This wall is then covered with a shed, and upwards of one hundred hives may thus be maintained within a very small compass.”

REVENUE.

Herr Löher found it difficult to obtain trustworthy information respecting the revenue of the island. The best estimate obtainable calculated it at about sixteen and a half millions of piastres. Half a million of this, being derived from a consideration paid by Christians for exemption from military service, would have to be immediately surrendered by a Christian Government. Three, at least, of the remaining imposts, yielding an estimated return of two millions of piastres, are so execrable in principle that they ought to be abandoned with the least possible delay. These are the capitation tax on sheep, and the export duties on wine and silk. It is satisfactory to learn, on the other hand, that the annual cost of administration is not supposed to exceed at present from two to three millions of piastres, the balance of the revenue being confiscated by certain high functionaries now discharged; and that the apparent receipts do not represent the amount actually collected from the population, seeing that they have to pay half as much again in bribes. These abuses will henceforth cease; the customs revenue will be largely augmented by importations on account of the occupying force, and from the stimulus given to commerce in general; and it may even be possible, by prudent diplomacy, to make the _vacouf_, or Mohammedan ecclesiastical property, contribute its fair share towards the expenses of the State.

SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY.

According to Josephus, Cyprus was first colonised by Cittim, a grandson of Japhet, who settled in the island, and founded Chittim, in emulation of his brother Tarshish, who had built the town of Tarsus, on the opposite coast of Cilicia. The Phœnicians, it is supposed, invaded Cyprus at a very early date, and retained possession of the whole, or a portion of the island, until the reign of Solomon. Greek colonists also settled on the coast. Herodotus states that Amasis, King of Egypt, invaded Cyprus, and took Citium (Herod., ii. 162). The island then submitted to the Persians, and afterwards surrendered to Alexander the Great, on whose death it fell, with Egypt, to the share of Ptolemy Soter, “the son of Lagus.” Having overcome Cyrene, which had revolted, Ptolemy (b.c. 313) crossed over to Cyprus to punish the kings of the various little states upon that island for having joined Antigonus, one of Alexander’s generals. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, conquered the fleet of Ptolemy near the island of Cyprus, took 1600 men prisoners and sunk 200 ships.

Now that the fate of empires was to be settled by naval battles, the friendship of Cyprus became very important to the neighbouring states. The large and safe harbours gave to this island a great value in the naval warfare between Phœnicia and Asia Minor. Alexander had given it as his opinion that the command of the Mediterranean went with the island of Cyprus, and called it the key to Egypt. Under the Ptolemies Cyprus continued sometimes united to Egypt and sometimes governed by a separate prince of that dynasty. The last of these princes, brother to Ptolemy Auletes, King of Egypt, incurred the enmity of P. Clodius Pulcher, a Roman of illustrious family, who being taken prisoner by Cilician pirates, sent to the King of Cyprus for money to pay his ransom; the king sent an insufficient sum, and Clodius having recovered his liberty obtained a decree, as soon as he became tribune, for making Cyprus a Roman province. Marcus Cato, against whom he had a bitter enmity, was sent to take possession of the new territory, and achieved this difficult undertaking with unexpected success. The king, in despair at the attempt upon his kingdom, committed suicide. Cato at once seized upon the treasury and sent a large booty home. Cyprus thus became a Roman province, and on the division of that empire was allotted to the Byzantines, and long formed one of the brightest jewels of the imperial crown. At length, after many successive changes, it again became a separate principality, under a branch of the house of Comnena, from which it was finally wrested by the adventurous hand of Richard Cœur de Lion, who sold it to the Knights Templars. The new government proved so oppressive that the people were driven to open revolt, and Richard, having resumed the sovereignty, placed the crown, in 1192, upon the head of Guy de Lusignan, ex-king of Jerusalem.

John the Third, of Lusignan, died in 1458, leaving the kingdom to Charlotte, his only legitimate child, who married her cousin Louis, Count of Geneva, second son of the Duke of Savoy and of Anna of Cyprus. She was solemnly crowned at Likosia in 1460, but was soon afterwards expelled by her natural brother James, assisted by the Mamelukes of Egypt. James married Katharine Cornaro, the daughter of a Venetian merchant, who brought him a dowry of 100,000 golden ducats. On this occasion the Venetian Senate adopted Katharine Cornaro as daughter of St. Mark, and the marriage was celebrated in 1471. In 1473 James died, and his wife, soon after, was delivered of a son, of whom the Republic of Venice assumed the guardianship, and the Venetian troops were sent to garrison the towns of the island. The child dying whilst an infant, the Senate persuaded Katharine, in 1489, to abdicate the sovereignty in favour of the Republic, and to retire to Asolo, near Treviso, where she passed the rest of her days in a princely style on a liberal pension. Meantime, Charlotte Lusignan had retired to Rome, where she died in 1487, bequeathing her claims to Charles, Duke of Savoy, in consequence of which the sovereigns of that dynasty assume to this day the title of “Kings of Jerusalem and Cyprus.”

The Venetians kept possession of Cyprus till 1470, when Selim the Second sent a powerful force to invade the island. The Turks took Likosia by storm and massacred about 20,000 people. From that time until now the Turks have remained in possession of Cyprus.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] General Cesnola gives a most interesting description of Cyprian antiquities in a work published in 1877.

[2] The white mulberry-tree does not thrive in Cyprus.

[3] Emperor of Germany.

[4] Unger und Kotschy. “Die Inseln Cypern.” Wien, 1865.

[5] The defier of storms.

[6] Envoy.

[7] Mussulman priests.

[8] We are indebted to General Cesnola’s valuable work on the antiquities of Cyprus for a principal part of the above facts respecting the ruins of the Temple of Venus. Reference to his high authority was indispensable, and we have thought it best to give in a great measure his own words, instead of laying his account before the public in a garbled form.—M. A. J.

[9] A delicious species of nectarine.

[10] The Oriental or common well.

[11] That portion of Larnaka which lies along the sea-shore is called the “Marina,” while Larnaka proper is about three-quarters of a mile inland.

[12] In this play the King of Cyprus is described as reclining on a couch with doves flying over his head, and fanning him with their wings. Attendants were represented as standing around in order to keep the birds at a respectful distance from the prince. We mention this fact, as we have seen it recently stated that what was simply intended as a caricature was an actual custom in Cyprus.

[13] This wind has been erroneously called “limbat” from, we presume, a confusion of a French article with its noun, “l’imbat.”

[14] The cauliflower was introduced to Europe from Cyprus.

[15] Governor.

INDEX.

Aditum, 178.

Adonis, 215.

Akazi, 80.

Alexander the Great, 102.

Amalrick, 35.

Amathus, 98, 101, 193, 210.

Amber, 193.

Andrew. Mr. W. P., 272.

Antiquities, 4, 23, 30, 105, 144, 169, 174, 206, 214.

Aphrodite, 100, 147.

Aphroditissa, 105.

Apollo Hylades, 181.

Apostles, 29.

Arabs, 16, 108.

Armenians, 15.

Arsinoe, 175.

Asbestos, 193.

Astarte, 98.

Athienu, 9.

Baffo, 68, 167.

Baths, ancient, 171, 172.

Beef, 201.

Bees, 54.

Bellapais, 56.

Berenice, 175.

Bragadino, 11.

Bribery, 210.

Buffavento, 47, 54.

Byblos, 215.

Byzantines, 14, 106.

Caaba, 147.

Calico, 18.

Caloyers, 219.

Camels, 10.

Capo delle Gatte, 218.

Carob-tree, 194, 198.

Carvings, 2, 132.

Cathedral of St. Sophia, 26.

Cats, 219.

Charlotte Lusignan, 37.

Character of people, 155.

Churches, 5, 26, 81, 115, 137, 176, 205, 212, 230.

Chysorogiatissa, 117, 130.

Chytros, 101.

Clarke, Dr., 23.

Clemacides, 158.

Clergy, 27, 88, 139, 174, 223, 229.

Coal, 193.

Cold, 161.

Commerce, 26, 220, 270.

Consulates, 2, 70, 205, 207.

Copper mines, 193.

Costumes, 23.

Cotton, 194, 198.

Cultivation, 17, 56, 110, 194.

Curias, 218.

Customs, 25, 85, 89.

Cyrus, 101.

Dali, 13, 151.

Dancing girls, 226.

Diorizos River, 130.

Donkeys, 149.

Doves, 147.

Egyptians, 101, 103.

Embroidery, 199.

Enagoras, 102.

Episcopi, 131, 179, 212.

Eucalyptus, 126.

Evrychu, 83.

Excavations, 170.

Exports, 16.

Famagusta, 11, 32, 39, 72, 212, 260.

Farm-house, 222.

Felingher, Marshal, 240, 256.

Fevers, 162.

Fini, 114.

Fish, 209.

Flatterers, 158.

Flowers, 153, 180, 196.

Forests, 16, 121.

Fortresses, 11, 56, 184, 213, 246.

Frederick the Second, Emperor of Germany, 235, 242.

Game, 9, 79, 199, 225.

Gardens, 16, 22, 171.

Germans, 109, 206, 208, 234, 240.

Giergil Oghlu, 72.

Goats, 203.

Gold, 193.

Goldsmid, Sir F., 269.

Governors, 20, 30, 62, 66, 68, 125, 128, 256.

Grecian settlers, 3.

Greek Church, 228.

Greeks, 99, 217.

Hafiz Mahommed Effendi, 66.

Halil Aga, 67.

Harbours, 173, 219.

Heat, 82, 118, 131, 161, 211.

Henry Sixth, Emperor of Germany, 35.

Hildesheim, Bishop, 36.

Horticulture, 16, 22.

Hunting, 31.

Ibelin, 237, 245, 260.

Ibrahim Bey, 71.

Idalion, 13, 98, 105.

Imbat, 165.

Inundations, 192.

Insurrections, 65, 67.

Izil Osman Aga, 63.

James the Second, 37.

Jews, 105.

John of Cæsarea, 265.

John de Ibelin, 45.

Justinian, Emperor, 15.

Kantara, 52.

Karubieh, 220.

Katherine Cornaro, 37.

Kattirdje Janni, 134.

Kerynia, 52, 67, 101, 247.

Kikku, 131.

Kimon, 102.

King of Cyprus and Jerusalem, 38.

Kior Mahommed Pacha, 72.

Kiti, 3, 98, 101, 212.

Knights Templars, 17, 34, 121, 187, 239, 243, 248.

Kolossin, 184.

Konou, 176.

Kotschy, Dr., 53.

Ktima, 138, 167.

Kuklia, 130, 138, 167, 176.

Kurion, 101, 182.

Labourers, 223.

Lagathos, 212.

Larnaka, 1, 9, 212.

Language, 3, 25.

Larks, 9.

Lapithos, 101.

Lebanon, 94.

Levkosia, 21.

Lepers, 19, 52.

L’Imbat, 165.

Limasol, 35, 202, 207, 212, 218.

Lion Mount, 47.

Literature, 16.

Locusts, 127, 129, 187.

Lycopotamos, 130.

Lycos, 182.

Manufactures, 103, 156.

Manure, 197.

Maria of Molino, 51.

Marshes, 8, 56, 204.

Matazos, 220.

Mattei, M., 129.

Mehemet Ali, 122.

Meleky Bey, 74.

Messaria, 10, 37, 56.

Meteoric stones, 148.

Middle Ages, 33.

Mineral wealth, 98, 101, 191, 193.

Monasteries, 51, 78, 112, 117, 203.

Monks, 2, 15, 50, 115, 132, 136.

Mosaics, 141.

Morfu, 13, 212.

Mountains, 10, 49, 59, 83, 90, 117, 131, 191, 224.

Mules, 149.

Mustapha, Seraskier, 11.

Natural products, 101, 194.

New Paphos, 101, 138.

Nikosia, 21, 29, 40, 62, 77, 260.

Nobility, 31, 207.

Oils (distilled), 198, 199.

Old Paphos, 138.

Olive trees, 195, 198.

Olympus, Mount, 10, 58, 77, 83, 90.

Oracles, 142.

Panagia (village), 131.

Paphos, 98, 103.

Paphos (son of Pygmalion), 216.

Paradise, 54.

Partridge, 10.

Pedios, 13, 48.

People, 60, 81, 84, 115, 145, 151, 155, 177, 225.

Perforated stones, 141.

Persians, 102.

Phaneromene Panagia, 7.

Philip of Macedon, 102.

Phœnicians, 2, 7, 74, 215.

Pictures, 116, 131.

Pirates, 107, 145, 182.

Plains of Cyprus, 77.

Plants, 118.

Population, 208.

Precious stones, 193.

Prisons, 30, 133.

Ptolemies, 103, 175, 216.

Pygmalion, 216.

Queen Alice, 237, 260, 264.

Queen’s Castle, 54.

Queen’s Cave, 144.

Rain, 152, 164, 203.

Regents, 244, 252.

Resin, 123.

Revenue, 195, 209, 239, 244, 261.

Richard Cœur de Lion, 33, 109, 218, 228.

Rivers, 13, 48, 130.

Robes of priests, 193.

Robbers, 133.

Rogio, 132.

Romans, 103.

Sacred road, 176.

Sacred stones, 105, 143, 147, 178.

Saints, 106.

St. Andronika, 60.

St. George, 227.

St. Hilarion, 52.

St. Helena, 224.

St. Katherine, 28.

St. Lazarus, 5.

St. Nicholas, 26.

St. Paul, 170.

St. Sophia, 26.

Salamis, 100.

Salt lake, 7.

Salt, 193, 209.

San Chrisostomo, 47.

Sarcophagi, 2.

Satrachos River, 13.

Schools, 5, 207.

Shepherds, 119, 137, 209.

Shipbuilding, 98, 101, 103, 121, 195.

Silk, 15, 18, 193, 199, 209.

Silver, 193.

Simony, 158.

Snakes, 180, 200.

Snow, 93.

Soil, 191, 221.

Soli, 101, 193.

Soliman Effendi, 68.

Statutes, 42.

Sugar, 7, 201.

Superstitions, 7, 113, 115.

Sultan, 108.

Summer residence, 152.

Syrians, 3, 15, 18, 98, 100.

Table rocks, 13.

Tamassus, 193.

Taxes, 42, 62, 69, 84, 105, 209.

Temple of Venus, 13, 145.

Temperature, 161.

Temples, 15, 145, 181.

Timber, 16, 88, 101, 117, 122, 171, 197.

Tombs, 3, 6, 145, 168, 174.

Tribute, 196.

Troaditissa, 92, 112.

Trojan War, 99.

Turks, 8, 38, 98.

Tyre, 102.

Unger, De, 53, 95.

Vandalism, 214.

Vases, 214, 218.

Vassalage, 42.

Vegetables, 200.

Velvet, 18.

Venetians, 30, 37, 39, 111, 193.

Venus, 13, 105, 138, 139, 147, 158, 175, 215.

Vespasian, 142.

Wanton mischief, 124.

Watch towers, 145, 182, 184.

Wealth, 31.

Weaving, 18.

Wind, 166, 199.

Wine, 17, 40, 115, 189, 194, 225.

Women, 23, 48, 136, 145, 156, 178, 182, 204, 207, 232.

Woods, 166, 199.

Zaptiehs, 79, 113, 177, 214.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY C. WHITING, BEAUFORT HOUSE, DUKE STREET, LINCOLN’S-INN-FIELDS