Part 76

_Obs._ By increasing the proportion of alum or red-liquor the colour verges on purple; and by employing a little acetate of iron or green copperas, the darker shades of blue are produced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and alkalies, turn it more on the blue; whilst a mordant of tin imparts a violet cast. If much more chromate be used than that ordered the result is a blue-black. See DYEING, INDIGO, LOGWOOD, MORDANTS, PRUSSIAN BLUE, &c.

=Blue Pig'ments=. _Syn._ CÆRU'LEA, &c., L. The preparation of the principal blue pigments of commerce is described under their respective names. In the following list those for which directions are given are of a miscellaneous and less usual character.

=Az'ure.= _Syn._ Azure Blue. A name frequently given to smalts. That of the oil-painter is ultramarine; that of the ancients is noticed below. See ULTRAMARINE, &c.

=Blue, Barth's=. See INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Berlin.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Bice.= Native blue carbonate of copper, prepared by grinding and elutriation. That of the shops is generally a factitious compound made from smalts.

=Blue, Carmine.= See CARMINE and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Char'coal.= Carbonised vine-stalks are triturated with an equal weight of salt of tartar or pearlash, the mixture put into a crucible, and heated over the fire until it ceases to swell, the mass being kept well stirred all the time; when cold, it is dissolved in water, and the excess of alkali saturated with dilute sulphuric acid. The liquid becomes blue, and a dark precipitate falls down, which turns of a brilliant blue colour when dried and cautiously heated.

=Blue, Chi'na.= _Syn._ Roy'al Smalts. The crude oxide of cobalt, or zaffre, is ground with an equal weight of potash, and about eight times its weight of felspar, the mixture submitted to fusion in a crucible, and when cold reduced to an impalpable powder. Used to paint pottery, and as a blue pigment.

=Blue, Co'balt.= _Syn._ Cobalt'ic Az'ure. This is commonly prepared by one or other of the following formulæ:--

1. Zaffre, 1 lb., is dissolved in nitric acid (diluted with an equal weight of water), 3/4 lb., by digestion for some hours; the solution is evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum redissolved in warm water; to this solution, after filtration, a solution of phosphate of soda is added as long as a precipitate forms; this last is collected on a filter, washed with cold water, and mixed, whilst still moist, with 8 times its weight of fresh-precipitated hydrate of alumina; the paste is then dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat in a crucible, after which the mass is cooled and reduced to a very fine powder.

2. A solution of nitrate of cobalt is precipitated with ammonia-alum, and the precipitate washed, dried, and exposed to a cherry-red heat, as before. The products of the above formulæ are very beautiful and permanent. See COBALTO-ULTRAMARINE.

=Egyp'tian Az'ure.= Alexan'drian Frit, Azure of the Ancients. A mixture of carbonate of soda, 1 _lb._; calcined flints, 1-1/2 _lb._; copper filings, 1/4 _lb._ (all in fine powder); fused together in a crucible for 2 or 3 hours, and when cold, reduced to an impalpable powder. A beautiful and unchangeable sky-blue colour. Used in both oil and fresco painting; and as a substitute for smalts, of which, indeed, it is a variety.

=In'digo= (which _see_).

=Blue, I'ron.= Fer'ric blue. Ordinary phosphate of iron prepared by precipitating a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of phosphate of soda, the resulting powder being washed, and dried at a gentle heat. A lively sky-blue colour, but without much depth or body.

=Blue, Lake.= See LAKES and INDIGO, SULPHATE OF.

=Blue, Molybde'num.= From sulphuret of molybdenum, dissolved in nitric acid, and some tin filings and a little muriatic acid added. After digestion for some time the clear liquid is poured off, and evaporated to dryness. The resulting powder is then mixed with moist hydrate of alumina (as in making cobalt blue), heated to a very dull red, and when it has again become cold, reduced to powder. Used both as a paint and an enamel-colour.

=Blue, Moun'tain.= Native carbonate of copper, mixed with more or less earthy matter, reduced to fine powder. That of the shops is often factitious.

=Blue, Par'is.= Prussian blue.

=Blue, Pow'der.= Smalts.

=Blue, Prus''sian= (which _see_).

=Blue, Queen's.= See THUMB-BLUE (_below_).

=Blue, San'der's.= Ultramarine-ashes.

=Blue, Sax'on.= Saxon Az'ure. A compound of hydrate of alumina and Prussian blue, prepared as follows:--

1. To sulphate of iron, 1 _oz._; and alum, 8 _oz._; dissolved in water, 1 gall.; add, simultaneously, separate solutions of prussiate of potash and common pearlash, until they cease to produce a precipitate; after repose collect the deposit, wash it well with water, and dry it.

2. A solution of sulphate of iron is precipitated with another of prussiate of potash, and instantly mixed with the precipitate which has just been obtained by treating a solution of alum with a solution of pearlash; the mixed precipitates being finally treated as before.

=Smalts= (which _see_; also CHINA-BLUE and EGYPTIAN AZURE, _above_).

=Blue, Thénard's.= See ULTRAMARINE (Cobaltic).

=Blue, Thumb'.= Cake'-blue, Crown'-blue, Fig'-blue, Knob'-blue, Mech'lenburg-blue, (m[=e]k'-), Queen's-blue, Stone-blue, &c. Names given to the lump-blue used in laundries, which vary according to the quality and the particular form given to it.

_Prep._ 1. A mixture of powdered starch with sufficient indigo (in impalpable powder) to give the necessary colour, made into a stiff dough with starch-paste, and then formed into lumps or cakes of the desired size and shape, and dried. This forms the ordinary 'washerwoman's blue' of the shops.

2. As the last, but substituting cæruleo-sulphate of potassa or blue carmine[226] for the 'powdered indigo' ordered in the last formula. Very fine.

[Footnote 226: See INDIGO (Sulphate of).]

3. As No. 1, but substituting whiting for the powdered starch and weak size, or a decoction of Irish moss for the starch-paste. Inferior.

_Uses, &c._ Employed by laundresses to impart a faint blue tinge to linen, in order to increase its apparent whiteness. The common forms given to it are that of small balls of about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter; the same, but rather larger, and pinched with the thumb and finger in three directions, so as to leave corresponding depressions (THUMB-BLUE); and cakes, which are cut out of the mass, previously rolled into a sheet, by a suitably shaped cutter.

=Blue, Turnbull's.= Ferridcyanide of iron (which _see_; also TURNBULL'S BLUE).

=Blue Verditer.= See VERDITER.

=Ultramarine'= (-r[=e]ne'), _U.-blue._ See ULTRAMARINE.

=BLUSH'ING.= _Syn._ RU'BOR, RUBE'DO, L. In _physiology_, &c., the red glow on the cheeks or face occasioned by confusion, bashfulness, surprise, or shame.

Blushing is caused by a sudden increase in the quantity and velocity of the blood in the capillaries, occasioning their turgescence; and, consequently, a heightening of the natural pale-reddish hue of the skin. It is referable to sudden mental emotions of an exciting character, such as surprise, confusion, consciousness of slight, injury, or indignity, and the like. Emotions of a depressing character frequently produce an opposite effect. This is termed pallor, and depends on the rush of blood from the skin and surface of the body upon the internal organs. The first, though often unpleasant, is never dangerous; the last always so. The cure of the habit of blushing consists in persisting efforts to maintain a sufficient degree of presence of mind and self-confidence to permit of reflection, or a calm view of the exciting circumstance, instead of sinking into a state of temporary mental imbecility and helpless confusion.

'=BLUTANDRANG UND LUFTROHREN-VERSCHLEIMUNG=' (remedy for congestion and obstruction of the air-vessels), manufactured and sold by the inventor, C. Tänzer, 18, Kesselstrasse, Berlin,' is the title of a twelve-page pamphlet. For cold in the head, the apparatus, which consists of a small linen cushion to bind over the mouth, is moistened with 10 to 15 drops of the fluid. The fluid (150 grammes) is a mixture of spirit of wine and acetic ether, in which some arnica, milfoil, &c., have been macerated. (Hager.)

=BLUTHENHARZ--FLOWER RESIN= (Kwizda, Kornenburg). Against barrenness in domestic animals. A mixture of 9 parts powdered Bergundy pitch with 1 part pine pollen, 3/4 oz. (Hager.)

=BOARDS, to make White.= Boards may be rendered white and clean by scrubbing them, instead of with soap, with a mixture composed of one part of freshly slaked lime and three parts of white sand.

=BOCKBIERESSENZ=, for the artificial imitation of bockbier. A tincture of 1 part lupulin, 2 parts pyroligneous acid, and 8 parts spirit of wine. (Hager.)

=BOG SPAVIN.= In horses, a distension of the bursa or sheath of the true hock joint. Mr Finlay Dun prescribes rest; high-heeled shoe, fomentation, cold water, spring truss, counter-irritation, firing-iron; seton.

=BOIL= (boyl). _Syn._ FURUN'CULUS, L.; FURONCLE, Fr.; BEULE, EITERSTOCK, Ger. In _surgery_, a well-known inflammatory tumour, of a superficial and more or less temporary character, which generally terminates by suppuration.

Boils (_furun'culi_) generally attack the healthy and robust during the period of youth and early manhood, and seldom trouble persons who have arrived at the middle age of life.

_Treatm., &c._ When boils begin to appear, and exhibit persistency by daily enlargement and increasing pain, suppuration should be promoted by warm poultices of bread and linseed-meal, to which a little fat or oil may be added, to prevent their getting hard. If poultices are inconvenient, warm and stimulating embrocations, or exposure to the vapour of hot water, or the application of stimulating plasters, may be adopted instead. When the tumour is sufficiently 'ripe,' the matter should be evacuated by gentle pressure, and the wound dressed with a little simple ointment spread on a piece of clean lint or linen. The diet may be full and liberal until the maturation of the tumour and the discharge of the matter, when it should be lessened, and the bowels kept gently open by saline purgatives, as Epsom-salt or cream of tartar. When there is a disposition in the constitution to the formation of boils, the bowels should be kept at all times regular, and tonics, as bark or steel, had recourse to, with the frequent use of sea-bathing when possible. An occasional dose of the Abernethy medicines (which _see_) also often prevents their recurrence. A course of sarsaparilla may be likewise taken with advantage. See ABSCESS, TUMOURS, &c.

Dr Sydney Ringer prescribes a 1/16th grain of sulphide of sodium, mixed with sugar of milk, three or four times a day on the tongue; but this should only be administered under medical supervision.

_Treatment_ for HORSES and CATTLE.--Fomentations; poultices containing belladonna, cold water, carbolic acid dressing, counter-irritants, laxatives, sulphites, and chlorates.

=BOIL'ERS.= See INCRUSTATION and STEAM.

=BOIL'ING.= In _cookery_, the operation of dressing food in water at the point of ebullition, or one very closely approaching it. The practice of cooking animal food by boiling, although exceedingly simple, and often most convenient, is neither judicious nor economical when the broth or liquid in which it has been dressed is to be rejected as waste; as in this way the most nutritious portion of the flesh of animals, consisting of soluble saline and other matter required for the formation of bone, and the nutrition of the muscular tissues, &c., is to a great extent lost. This particularly applies to small pieces so dressed, and to those presenting a large surface to the action of the water in proportion to their weight. Large pieces of meat suffer less in proportion than smaller ones, for the same reason; but even with them the outside should be rejected, as it is both insipid and innutritious compared with the interior portion. To reduce the solvent and deteriorating action of the water to the lowest possible point, the articles to be boiled should not be put into the water until it is in a state of full ebullition, which should be maintained for 5 or 6 minutes afterwards, by which time the surface and the parts lying immediately beneath it will have become, to a certain degree, hardened, and will then act as a protective shield to the inner portion of the mass. The boiling being continued for 5 or 6 minutes cold water is added, until the temperature becomes about 150° F., and the cooking of the joint is carried on at this heat until the meat is done: meat loses nearly a fourth of its weight in boiling, salt meat, which is intended to be eaten cold, should be allowed to cool in the water in which it has been boiled. The practice of dressing meat by putting it into cold water, which is then gradually raised to the boiling-point, cannot be too much censured. A 1/4 of an hour per lb. for dressing young meat, poultry, and small pieces, and 20 minutes per lb. for old, tough, and larger ones are the usual times allowed by cooks for the purpose. See BOUILLI, FOOD, &c.

=BOIL'ING-POINT.= See EBULLITION.

=BOIS DURCE= (bwah d[)u]r-s[=a]). [Fr.] The substance invented in France, and to which this name is given, is made from sawdust, which, under the influence of a high temperature and the enormous pressure of 600 tons, acquires a degree of hardness very much exceeding that of ordinary wood. It has a very fine grain, and is unaffected by atmospherical variations; but its principal merit is its adaptation to moulding, so that by the most economical processes forms and impressions are given to it which it would require, in any other way, considerable labour and workmanship.

=BOLAS.= Sweet light cakes which, according to Mrs Rundell, are prepared as follows:--Into flour, 2 lbs., pour of warm milk, 3/4 pint, a small teacupful of yeast, and 6 eggs; make a dough, add of butter 1 lb. (by degrees), and set it in a warm place to rise for an hour; then mix in of powdered sugar 1 lb.; and make the mass into cakes; put these into cups or tins previously well buttered, and ornament the top with candied orange or lemon peel; lastly bake them. See CAKES.

=BOLDO= (nat. ord. Monimiaceæ). A shrub growing in the Chilian Andes. The bark is used in tanning, and the wood makes a good charcoal. It is reported to be useful in affections of the liver and digestive organs. It has been employed as a tonic in cases where quinine is inadmissible. In large doses it provokes vomiting. The powder of the dried leaves is a sternutatory. See a paper by M. Claude Verne, translated into the 'Pharm. Journ.,' 3rd series, v, 405.

=BOLE.= _Syn._ BO'LUS, L.; TERRE BOLAIRE, &c., Fr. The name of several argillaceous minerals, varying in colour from white to yellow, red, and brown, which they owe chiefly to iron. See OCHRES and RED and BROWN PIGMENTS.

=BOLOG''NA PHI'AL= (-lawn'-y[)a]). See PHIALS.

=BO'LUS=, [L., Eng.] _Syn._ BOL, Fr. Boluses, in _pharmacy_ and _medicine_, are small, roundish masses of medicinal substances, which are taken in the same manner as pills, which they resemble, except in their larger size. Those persons who object to swallowing them in their common state may wrap them in soft paper, or introduce them into the emptied husks of raisins or grapes.

Boluses (bo'l[=i], L.) are prepared with the same ingredients, and in a similar manner to pills (which _see_).

=Bolus, Guaiacum= (HORNE). Guaiacum resin 1/2 drachm, elder rob, enough to make into a bolus. Formerly given in quinsy.

=Bolus for Ague.= (The _bolus ad quartanum_ of the French Hospital). Peruvian bark 1 ounce; carbonate of potash 1 drachm; tartarised antimony 15 grains; syrup, a sufficient quantity, one to be taken every four hours during the intermission.

=Bolus, Vermifuge= (Dr Campbell). Basilie powder one scruple, conserve of wormwood, a sufficient quantity to make into one bolus for an adult. (FOY.) Powdered pomegranate root 1 drachm, assaf[oe]tida half a drachm, croton oil 3 or 4 drops, syrup sufficient. Divide into 15 boluses; 5 daily for tapeworm. (FRENCH HOSPITAL.) Wormseed 1 scruple, calomel 5 grains, camphor 15 grains, syrup sufficient. Make into 3 doses; one, two, or three in the day.

=BON'-BON= (b[=o]n_g_'-b[=o]n_g_). [Fr.] A sugarplum. See CONFECTIONERY and SUGARPLUMS.

=BONBONS VERMIFUGES OF GAROZ.= A bonbon containing 15 centigrammes of scammony, and 2 centigrammes of santonin. (Reveil.)

=BONE.= _Syn._ Os, L., Fr.; BEIN, KNOCHEN, Ger.; BÁN, Sax. The hard substance forming the interior skeleton of animals, or any single part of it.

_Comp._ According to Berzelius:--

Human bones. Ox bones.

Animal matter soluble in boiling water 32·17} 33·30

Vascular substance 1·13}

Phosphate of calcium, with a little fluoride of calcium 53·04 57·35

Carbonate of calcium 11·30 3·85

Phosphate of magnesium 1·16 2·05

Chloride of sodium and other salts 1·20 3·45 -------- -------- 100· 100·

The soluble animal matter is chiefly fat and gelatin.

_Uses, &c._ The bones of animals are employed for various purposes in the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy. Those of good meat form most excellent materials for making soups and gravies, as is well known to every cook. In France, soup is extensively made by subjecting bruised bones to a steam heat of 2 or 3 days' continuance. In England the same is commonly effected in an iron Papin's digester. When the earthy matter of a bone is dissolved out by digesting it in a large quantity of very dilute hydrochloric acid, a lump of gelatine is obtained, which, after being well washed with water, is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of making soups and jellies. The following is the process recommended by Proust for making the best of bones, in hospitals, gaols, and similar establishments:--

The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled for 15 minutes in a kettle of water, and the fat (which is fit for all common purposes) skimmed off as soon as cold. The bones are then to be ground, and boiled in 8 to 10 times their weight of water (of which that already used must form a part), until half of it is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will be obtained. Iron vessels should alone be used in this process, as the jelly and soup act upon copper, brass, and the other common metals. The bones of fresh meat are the most productive; those of boiled meat come next, whilst those of roasted meat scarcely afford any jelly. As 'boning' meat before cooking is now a very general practice, a quantity of fresh bones may always be obtained.

Bones are, for the most part, WROUGHT, TURNED, BLEACHED, and DYED in a similar manner to ivory, but with less care, owing to their inexpensive and coarser character. Before being submitted to any of these operations they are, however, first submitted to long boiling, to deprive them of grease.

The bones of living animals may be dyed by mixing madder with their food. The bones of young pigeons may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24 hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 days; but the bones of adult animals take a fortnight to acquire even a rose colour. The bones nearest the heart become tinged the soonest. In the same way extract of logwood tinges the bones of young pigeons purple. See BLEACHING, DYEING, IVORY, &c.

In all manufacturing processes in which bones are operated upon, foul vapours, unless special precautions are observed, will be thrown off, to the great annoyance and discomfort of those living near the building where the operations are performed.

To avoid this the offensive vapours should always be carried by a flue made for the purpose into the furnace-fire, and there consumed. But this will not remedy another source of annoyance which arises from the disgusting stench caused by the putrefaction of the flesh adhering to the bones, which lie in heaps about the premises.

The trade of a bone-boiler comes under the head of offensive trades (see 'Public Health Acts,' s. 112-114), and is under the control and regulation of an urban sanitary authority, which has also the power of preventing the bone-boiling being carried on within its district if it thinks proper.

=BONE'-ASH.= Impure triphosphate of calcium, obtained by calcining bones to whiteness, and reducing the ash to fine powder. Used to make pure phosphate of calcium, to form cupels, &c.; also sold for burnt hartshorn.

=BONE'-DUST.= _Syn._ BONE-MANURE. Bones (previously boiled for their grease) ground to different degrees of coarseness, in a mill. It is sown along with the seed in a drill. Wheat thus treated is said to yield 30 to 50 per cent, more weight in straw and grain than by the common methods. Turnip and other light soils it renders more than ordinarily productive. Bone manure is much used in the west of Yorkshire, Holderness, and Lincolnshire. The usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used alone; but when mixed with ashes or other common manure, 30 bushels per acre is said to be enough. When coarse, and applied in the same manner as other manures, it has been found to remain upwards of seven years in the ground, the productiveness of which it has increased during the whole time.

=BONE'-GLUE.= See GELATIN.

=BONE'-GREASE.= From refuse bones, bruised, boiled in water, and the broth skimmed when cold. _Prod._ 1/8th to 1/4th of the weight of the dry bones. (Proust.) Used for making soap and candles. See CHARCOAL, ANIMAL.

=BONE'-PHOSPHATE.= See TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

=BONE'-SHAVINGS.= _Syn._ BONE'-DUST (Turners'), BONE-TURNINGS. This, by boiling with water, yields a beautiful jelly, which is nearly equal to that produced from hartshorn and ivory shavings, for which it is very frequently sold. Used to make jellies and blancmanges, to stiffen straw bonnets, &c.

=BONE-SPAVIN.= A bony enlargement on the antero-internal parts of the hock in horses. In recent cases it is best to apply cold applications, but in protracted and chronic cases, hot fomentations will be found best. In case of these failing, recourse should be had to blistering or firing, or if need be to a seton.

=BOOK'BINDING= (-b[=i]nd-). Although a full description of the various operations of this well-known art, or handicraft, does not properly fall within the province of this work, a brief notice of them will probably, in many cases, prove useful to the amateur and the emigrant:--

The process of binding books is divided into several distinct operations, which, in large establishments, are usually performed by different persons; such a method being found to produce greater expedition, and better work, than when the whole is done by one person.

The sheets received from the hands of the printer are--

1. _Folded_, which is done correctly by observing the 'marks' or 'signatures' at the bottom of the pages. As the sheets are folded they are laid upon each other in proper order, and are ready to undergo--

2. The operation of beating. This is performed by either laying them upon a large stone and striking them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by passing them through a rolling-press. The former method is usually adopted in the small way, and the latter on the large scale.

3. The sheets are next fastened to bands, which is done by taking them up one by one, and sewing them to pieces of cord, stretched in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counter or table, called the sewing press. (See _engr._) The number of bands used is generally 6 for a folio, 5 for a quarto, and so on proportionally, less than 4 being seldom employed even for small sizes. The ends of the cords being cut off to within about 2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for--