Part 48

=ART.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARS (gen., ar'tis; pl., ar'tes), L.; [Greek:¬technê], (tech'ne), Gr.; KUNST, Ger. Primarily, strength, power, and hence also mental strength, skill; the application of knowledge or power to effect a desired purpose; the power or ability of doing something not taught by nature or instinct; practical skill guided by rules. SCIENCE is knowledge--ART, practical skill in applying this knowledge. ART is applied science; whilst SCIENCE is knowledge obtained by observation, experience, and ratiocination. This distinction is nowhere more fully seen than within the domain of chemistry, where knowledge, deduction, great power of generalisation, and great expertness are necessary elements of success. Art has filled the world with luxuries, conveniences, and comforts; and art--the ARTS--useful or fine--are the safest and surest civilisers of our race. See SCIENCE.

=ARTESIAN WELL.= A cylindrical perforation bored vertically down through one or more strata of the earth till it reaches a porous bed of gravel containing water, this fluid being placed under such incumbent pressure that it rises up the perforation either to the surface, or to a convenient height for the operation of a pump. When they rise to the surface these wells are called spouting or flowing. The name of these wells is taken from Artois, a province in the Departement du pays de Calais, where their use was revived. They have been in use for a long time in Italy and in the East. The accompanying drawing represents the manner in which rain may be supposed to distribute itself when it falls upon a portion of the surface of our globe. The figure represents a geological section, showing the succession of the different strata.

The figure is supposed to represent two beds, A, B, more porous, and consequently more absorbent than the rocks by which they are interstratified. The condensed dews and rains falling upon the distant hills pass rapidly by the outcrops of the strata to the lower levels, until the entire mass becomes thoroughly saturated with water. Supposing two such beds as are represented in the section to exist, fully charged with water, it is evident that if we bored down into them through the rocks as represented at C, D, the water would rise through those wells or borings, and spring out in the form of a jet to such a height above the surface as is due to the height of the hills from which the water has been obtained. The fountain derived from B would necessarily flow as much higher as that derived from the bed A, as is the height of B above A.

For particulars as to the modes of constructing artesian wells, the reader is referred to 'Traité sur les puits Artesiens,' by M Gamier, and to 'Considérations Géologiques et physiques sur la théorie des puits forcés, ou fontaines Artésiennes,' by M. le Vicomte Hericart de Thury, and to 'Rudimentary Treatise on Well-digging, Boring, &c.,' by J. G. Swindell, and also to Ure's 'Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,' edited by Mr Robert Hunt.

=ARTHANI'TINE= (-t[)i]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ARTANITI'NE; ARTHANITI'NA, L. A peculiar substance first obtained by M. Saladin, by the action of alcohol on the tuberous stems of the herb _arthrani'ta_, or sow-bread. It is acrid, colourless, and crystalline, and imparts its acridity to the plant.

=AR'TICHOKE.= _Syn._ CIN'ARA, CYN'ARA; SCOL'YMUS, L.; ARTICHAUT, Fr.; ARTISCHOCKE, Ger. The _cynara scol[)y]mus_ (Linn.), a thistle-like perennial plant of the _nat. ord._ Compositæ (DC.). _Hab._ Southern Europe; but now extensively cultivated in our gardens, for its 'bottom,' or the sweet fleshy receptacle of its flowers, which is eaten as a pot herb. These are soaked in brisk boiling in water, stalk-ends uppermost, until tender; and take 1/2 to 1 hour according to their age. Sometimes they are preserved in brine (PICKLED ARTICHOKES); and also after depriving them of the 'choke' and spiny hairs and blanching them by immersion in boiling water, by drying in the sun (DRIED ARTICHOKES; CULS D'ARTICHAUT, Fr.), by which they retain their flavour for some time. Infusion of the flowers, used with rennet.

As an esculent the artichoke resembles asparagus in its general properties; but it is said to be more nutritious, and even more diuretic.

=Artichokes, Jeru'salem.= The _helianthus tuberosus_ (Linn.), a perennial plant of the sun-flower family, and quite distinct from the preceding. _Hab._ The Brazils. The appellation "Jerusalem" is believed to be a corruption of the Italian word _girasole_--"a sunflower," to which botanical family the plant belongs. It is cultivated in England for culinary purposes. Roots (tubers) resemble the artichoke in flavour; but are considered far from wholesome, being apt to produce flatulence and dyspepsia. They are diuretic, and impart the odour of turpentine to the urine. They are cooked by boiling (15 to 25 minutes, according to size), or frying; in the former case served with melted butter. They are also served mashed, like turnips. The flowers yield a volatile oil resembling that of turpentine.

Composition of the Jerusalem artichoke from an analysis by Payen, Poisot, and Fevry:--

Nitrogenous matter 3·1 Sugar 14·7 Inulin 1·9 Pectic Acid 0·9 Pectin 0·4 Cellulose 1·5 Fatty matter 0·2 Mineral matter 1·3 Water 76·0 ----- 100·0

From the above it will be seen that this esculent contains no nitrogen.

=ARTIFICIAL FOODS.= See FARINA.

=ASARABAC'CA= ([)a]s-[)a]-). _Syn._ AS'ARUM, A. EUROPÆ'UM: (Linn.), NAR'DUS MONTA'NA*, &c., L.; ASARET, A. D'EUROPE, CABARET, AZARUM C., NARD SAUVAGE, OREILLE D'HOMME, &c., Fr.; HAZELWURTZEL, Ger. The [Greek: asaron] of Dioscorides, a small round, hard, stemless, hardy herbaceous plant, bearing chocolate-coloured flowers; and of the nat. ord. Aristolochieæ (DC.). It grows freely in central France, and is found in woods and shady places in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and other parts of England. _Hab._ Europe, between 37° and 60° latitude.--Root & rhizome (AS'ARI RA'DIX) has a pepper-like odour and an acrid taste:--Leaves (A. FO'LIA) less odorous, though bitter-tasted, acrid, and aromatic; formerly officinal in the pharmacop[oe]ias:--Whole plant (ASARABACCA of the shops) nauseant, emetic, and purgative. Before the introduction of ipecacuanha it was the common emetic (6 to 9 of the green leaves in whey); but, owing to the violence of its action, it has long fallen into disuse. Its common name in France (CABARET, or public-house plant) is said to have arisen from its frequent employment to relieve the stomach of those who had drunk too hard. It is now almost solely used as a sternutatory or errhine, and is probably one of the best.

According to Gräger[84], asarabacca contains three volatile, oily principles, which may be obtained by distillation with water:--VOLATILE OIL (o'leum as'ari):--AS'ARITE, an odourless, tasteless, and crystalline solid; fusible and volatilisable, yielding white and very irritating fumes:--AS'ARUM-CAM'PHOR, differing chiefly from the last in being precipitated, by water, from its alcoholic solution in cubes or six-sided prisms, instead of delicate flexible needles. Also a brownish, bitter, crystallisable principle (AS'ARINE, AS'ARUM-BIT'TER), which is soluble in alcohol.

[Footnote 84: Gobel and Kemze, 'Pharm. Waarenk,' 1830-1.]

_Uses, Dose, &c._ Dried leaves, 20 to 30 gr., or root, 10 to 12 gr.; as a purge or emetic. As an errhine--leaves, 3 to 5 gr.; root, 1 to 3 gr.; in powder, snuffed up the nose every day, or every other day, at bedtime. It excites irritation and a copious watery discharge, more or less muculent, which frequently continues to flow for several days, and occasionally proves highly useful in certain affections of the brain, eyes, mouth, nose, ear, and throat, on the principle of counter-irritation. It has been found "particularly serviceable in cephalalgia (headache), obstinate headache, chronic ophthalmia (inflammation of the eyes), and some other lethargic affections." (Dr A. T. Thomson.) In dimness of sight (especially that arising from fatigue or congestion), deafness, and slight paralytic affections of the mouth, tongue, lips, or eyelids, not of a serious organic character, and particularly in chronic earache, it also sometimes affords relief after other remedies have failed. It constitutes the basis of several CEPHALIC SNUFFS, ASARABACCA-SNUFF, BARON MCKINSEY'S MEDICINAL POWDER (or SNUFF), and several other like nostrums, which are much extolled by their venders, and sold at marvellously high prices. See PATENT MEDICINES, POWDERS, SNUFFS, &c. (also _below_).

=AS'ARIN= (-r[)i]n). C_{20}H_{26}O_{5}. _Syn._ ASARONE. A species of stearopten, discovered by Görtz, in asarabacca. It has an aromatic taste and an odour resembling camphor, and is said to be emetic. It is probably a mixture of asarum-camphor and some partially oxidised volatile oil. (See _above_.)

=As'arine= (of Gräger). _Syn._ ASARI'NA, L. The crystallisable bitter principle of asarabacca, noticed above. It is said to greatly resemble cytisine.

=AS'ARITE= (-r[=i]te). See ASARABACCA.

=ASBES'TOS.= _Syn._ ASBES'TUS ([Greek: asbestos], incombustible, unconsumable, Gr.), AMIANTH'US, LA'PIS A., &c., L.; ASBESTE, AMIANTE, Fr.; ASBEST, STEINFLACHS, Ger. In _mineralogy_, a soft, fibrous substance, composed of flexible or elastic filaments which, in their most highly developed form, greatly resemble those of flax or silk, and which bear exposure to a very considerable degree of heat without suffering decomposition. It has been proposed to clothe our firemen in dresses of asbestos; but without freedom of respiration could be insured in a heated and poisonous atmosphere, this envelope would be of little service. Gloves are sometimes made of it, for holding red-hot crucibles. It is also used as a filtering medium for corrosive liquids. A kind of felt made of asbestos is now used as a substitute for wire gauze to support beakers, retorts, &c., over lamps.

_Var._ Of these there are several; as AM'IANTH or ELAS'TIC ASBESTOS, LIG'NIFORM A., MOUNTAIN-CORK, M.-LEATHER, M.-WOOD, &c.; varying from a grey, brown, or green colour, to pure white, and from extreme flexibility and softness, to rigidity and hardness, as indicated by the respective names.

=ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES.= A parasite belonging to the genus _entozoa_, commonly known as the round worm, and found in the intestines of man, the horse, the ox, the pig, and some other of the lower animals. It is of a greyish-red colour and in size and general appearance like the common earthworm.

Children are very frequently infested by them. Their usual habitat is the small intestines. But they are occasionally found in the stomach, and have been known to transport themselves into the gall-ducts, frontal sinuses, nostrils, and mouth. The males are smaller than the females and much more rare. The females produce eggs in great numbers, but it is doubtful if the young are ever developed in the intestine in which the parent worm dwells.

It is probable that the ova gain access to the intestines of the animals of which they eventually become the pests from various outer sources. They are said to be very frequent in persons who partake much of raw leaves and roots. Dr Paterson, of Leith, noticed that families who drank certain water from a well supplied from a dirty pool, which contained various vermiform animalcules, were much infested with this particular species of intestinal worm; whilst others in the same street, who had recourse to a different water supply, entirely escaped. For medicinal treatment, see WORMS.

=ASCARIS MYSTAX.= A parasitic round worm infesting the cat. It has been also occasionally found in man.

=ASH.= _Syn._ FRAX'INUS, L.; FRÊNE, Fr.; ESCHE, Ger. The popular name of several species of valuable hardy trees bearing apetalous flowers (except in the 'flowering ash'), belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ (DC.), and gen. Fraxinus; but appropriately the--

=Ash.= _Syn._ COMM'ON ASH; FRAX'INUS, F. EXCEL'SIOR (Linn.), F. APET'ALA (Lamb.), F. OR'NUS (Scop.), L.; FRÊNE, F. COMMUN, Fr.; GEMEINE ESCHE, Ger. A large tree common to our woods and hedges; timber (ASH or ASH-WOOD) used by carpenters, cabinet-makers, and machinists, and much esteemed for its great toughness and elasticity; bark febrifuge, diuretic, resolvent, and tonic; has been successfully exhibited in agues; seeds acrid, bitter, and diuretic; leaves purgative, diuretic, and febrifuge; sometimes used instead of senna. In southern Europe it exudes an inferior kind of MANNA, and its medicinal properties are much greater than in our climate.--_Dose._ (Leaves) 1/4 _oz._ to 1-1/2 _oz._ (made into an infusion), as a purge; seeds, 1 dr., as a diuretic, &c.

=Ash, Flow'ering.= _Syn._ MAN'NA-ASH; FRAX'INUS OR'NUS (Linn.), L. A small tree of southern Europe. Yields MANNA. The 'round'-leaved flowering-ash' (CALA'BRIAN-ASH; FRAX'INUS ROTUNDIFO''LIA, Lamarck) is a smaller variety of the preceding, and a native of Calabria and the Levant. Said to yield the best MANNA. The 'small'-leaved flowering-ash' (FRAX'INUS PARVIFO''LIA, Lam.) is another manna-yielding species, indigenous to Asia Minor.

=ASH.= Ashes (which _see_).

=ASH-BALLS.= The ashes of land-plants, especially ferns, damped and made into balls. Used as a substitute for soap in washing, and in cleaning paint.

=ASH'ERY.= [Amer.] A place where potash or pearlash is made or kept.

=ASH'ES.= (-[)i]z). [Eng. pl.] _Syn._ ASH; CI'NIS, L.; CENDRES (_pl._), Fr.; ASCHE, Ger. The remains of anything burned. In _antiquity_, the remains of a body consumed on the funeral pyre; and hence, figuratively, the remains of the dead. The word, in English, has properly no singular; although 'ash' is very commonly heard; and is now almost exclusively used in composition, as in pearlash, potash, soda-ash, &c.

=Ashes.= In _commerce_, the residuum of the combustion of vegetable substances containing either carbonate of potassium ('land-plants'), or carbonate of sodium ('marine plants'), and from which the commercial alkalies are obtained. Their value depends upon their richness in 'alkali,' which is determined in the manner explained under ALKALIMETRY. The word is also commonly employed as a general term for the crude carbonates of potash of commerce (which _see_).

=Ashes of Plants.= See following page, on which will be found a table giving the chemical composition of the ashes of a few well-known plants used as food for men and animals. See also MANURES, PLANTS, VEGETATION, &c.

A careful determination of the ash of different substances is of great use to the analyst, by enabling him to detect adulteration; for instance, almost every plant on being burnt yields a very constant amount of ash, and not alone the quantity is constant, but the different proportions of the various components are also, within certain limits, tolerably unvarying. Many plants have the power of extracting from the soil certain elements; for instance, the ash of the tobacco contains lithium; tea, manganese; seaweed, iodine. It seems by no means improbable that by the examination of the ashes of plants by means of the spectroscope new elements may be discovered. Appended is a short list of the amount of ash, contained in a few important substances:--

Total Ash. Cayenne pepper, from 5 to 6 per cent. Chicory " 5 " Cocoa " 3 to 4 " Coffee " 4 " Flour " ·7 to 1·5 " Mustard " 3 to 4·5 " Pepper " 4·3 to 5 " Rice " 5 " Tea " 5·6 " Turmeric " 5 to 6 "

The ashes of plants are employed by the agriculturist according as the nature and proportion of the different salts they contain is suited to the soil and to the crops it is desired to raise. M. SOULANGE BODIN says that ashes hold the middle place between stable-dung and pasture manure. They act mechanically by dividing soils that are too compact, hygroscopically by absorbing moisture, and they appear to have an action similar to lime in accelerating the decomposition of the mould. They also probably exercise a stimulating effect on the soil. In the case of low-lying lands they are particularly suited for very damp clayey soils. In Picardy the ashes of turf are made use of; in England, the low countries and the north of France, coal ashes are employed.

+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+-------- | | | Red | |Wheat | | | |Turnip | Peas.|Beans.|Clover.|Sainfoin.|Grain.|Straw.|Barley.|Oats.| Root. -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+-------- Potassa | 42·43| 36·72| 18·44| 31·90 | 29·76| 10·51| 20·07 |17·70| 23·70 Soda | 3·27| 0·14| 2·79| ... | 5·26| 1·03| 4·56 | 3·84| 14·75 Lime | 5·73| 12·06| 35·02| 24·30 | 2·88| 5·91| 1·48 | 3·54| 11·82 Magnesia | 5·92| 6·00| 11·91| 5·03 | 11·06| 1·25| 7·45 | 7·33| 3·28 Sesquioxide| | | | | | | | | of Iron | 0·44| 0·65| 0·98| 0·61 | 0·23| 0·07| 0·51 | 0·49| 0·47 Sulphuric | | | | | | | | | acid | 6·23| 4·28| 3·91| 3·28 | 0·11| 2·14| 0·79 | 1·10| 16·13 Silica | 1·74| 1·52| 4·03| 3·22 | 2·23| 73·57| 32·73 |38·48| 2·69 Carbonic | | | | | | | | | acid | 4·38| 1·63| 12·92| 15·20 | 0·22| ... | ... | ... | 10·47 Phosphoric | | | | | | | | | acid | 29·92| 33·74| 5·82| 9·35 | 48·21| 5·51| 31·69 |26·46| 9·31 Chloride of| | | | | | | | | potassium| ... | ... | ... | 6·24 | ... | ... | ... | 0·92| ... Chloride of| | | | | | | | | sodium | ... | 3·26| 4·13| 0·78 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 7·05 -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+-------- Total | | | | | | | | | amount | 99·96|100·00| 99·95| 99·96 | 99·96| 99·99| 99·98 |99·96| 99·93 Per-centage| | | | | | | | | of dry ash| | | | | | | | | in dry | | | | | | | | | substance | 2·60| 2·90| 7·87| 6·37 | 2·05| ... | 2·50 | 2·50| 6·00 Per-centage| | | | | | | | | of ash in | | | | | | | | | the fresh | | | | | | | | | substance | 2·24| 2·54| 6·77| 5·65 | 1·81| ... | 2·25 | 2·27| 0·75 -----------+------+------+-------+---------+------+------+-------+-----+-------- -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+------- | | | | |Lettuce | | | | | | | | |Leaves |Olive- | | | |Turnip | Beet |Carrot|Pota- | and | tree | | |Clupea |Leaves.| Root.| Root.|toes. |Stalks. |Wood. |Hops. |Hay. |Sprouts. | | | | [85] | [86] | [87] | [88] | [89] | [90] -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+------- Potassa | 11·56 | 21·68| 37·55| 25·41| 22·37 | 20·60 | 24·88 | 11·93| 17·23 Soda | 12·43 | 3·13| 12·63| ... | 18·50 | ... | ... | 1·07| 1·19 Lime | 28·49 | 1·90| 9·76| 2·34| 10·43 | 63·02 | 21·59 | 14·76| 23·57 Magnesia | 2·62 | 1·79| 3·78| 4·17| 5·68 | 2·31 | 4·69 | 5·30| 3·01 Sesquioxide| | | | | | | | | of Iron | 3·02 | 0·52| 6·74| 0·50| 2·82 | ... | 1·75 | 2·75| 0·28 Sulphuric | | | | | | | | | acid | 10·36 | 3·14| 6·34| 4·71| 3·85 | 3·09 | 7·27 | 0·20| ... Silica | 8·04 | 1·40| 0·76| 3·64| 11·86 | 3·82 | 19·71 | 53·43| ... Carbonic | | | | | | | | | acid | 6·18 | 15·23| 15·15| ... | ... | ... | 2·17 | ... | ... Phosphoric | | | | | | | | | acid | 4·85 | 1·65| 8·37| 10·38| 9·38 | 4·77 | 14·47 | 6·34| 43·52 Chloride of| | | | | | | | | potassium| ... | ... | ... | 12·40| ... | 1·09 | ... | ... | ... Chloride of| | | | | | | | | sodium | 12·41 | 49·51| 4·91| Trace| 15·09 | ... | 3·42 | 2·27| 11·19 -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------- Total | | | | | | | | | amount | 99·96 | 99·96| 99·99|100·00| 99·99 |100·00 | 99·95 |100·00|100·00 Per-centage| | | | | | | | | of dry ash| | | | | | | | | in dry | | | | | | | | | substance | 16·40 | 11·32| 5·12| 4·86 | ... | 0·58 | 5·95 | 6·97| ... Per-centage| | | | | | | | | of ash in | | | | | | | | | the fresh | | | | | | | | | substance | 1·97 | 1·02| 0·77| ... | ... | ... | ... | 6·15| ... -----------+-------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+------+-------

[Footnote 85: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 86: Griepenkerl.]

[Footnote 87: A. Müller.]

[Footnote 88: Way.]

[Footnote 89: Hubert.]

[Footnote 90: Way.]

Coal ashes, when mixed with excrement, besides disinfecting the latter, make an excellent manure.

=ASPAR'AGIN= (-[)a]-j[)i]n). C_{4}H_{8}N_{2}O_{3}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ALTHE'INE, ASPAR'AMIDE, MAL'AMIDE*; ASPARAGI'NA, ASPARAGI'NUM, L.; AGÉDOÏLE, Fr.; SPARGELSTOFF, Ger. A peculiar azotised principle discovered by Vauquelin and Robiquet in asparagus, and since found in the potato, marsh-mallow, liquorice, climbing vetch, and several other plants. Many plants which do not naturally contain it may be made to yield it by growing them in dark damp cellars; whilst many which only normally contain it in very small quantities are found to yield much more when allowed to vegetate in the same manner.

_Prep._ 1. From ASPARAGUS-SPROUTS:--The expressed juice, after being heated to the boiling-point (to coagulate albumen) and carefully skimmed and filtered, is evaporated, at a gentle heat, to a syrupy consistence, and then abandoned to spontaneous evaporation in a warm dry atmosphere for several days; the resulting crystals being purified by cautious washing with very cold water or very strong alcohol, re-solution, and re-crystallisation.

The following are cheaper and more convenient processes.

2. From MARSHMALLOW-ROOT:--_a._ The root (chopped small, or grated) is macerated for several days in milk of lime, in the cold; the filtered liquid precipitated with carbonate of ammonium, and the clear solution evaporated in a water-bath, and otherwise treated as before.

_b._ From the expressed juice, 2 parts; milk of lime, 1 part; agitated well together; the liquid portion, after some hours, being decanted, filtered, and evaporated, &c., as before.