Part 35

=Compound Tincture of Kariyát= (Tinctura Andrographis composita). Take of kariyát root, cut small, 6 ounces; myrrh and aloes, in coarse powder, of each 1 ounce; brandy, 2 pints. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient brandy to make two pints.--_Dose._ From 1 to 4 fluid drachms. Said to be tonic, stimulant, and gently aperient, and to prove valuable in several forms of dyspepsia, and in torpidity of the bowels.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) CITRATUM.= Lemon Grass. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Commonly cultivated in gardens in India; also in Ceylon, upon a large scale, for the sake of its volatile oil.--_Officinal part._ The volatile oil (Oleum Andropogi Citrati, Lemon Grass Oil, Oil of Verbena), obtained by distillation from the fresh plant; of a pale sherry colour, transparent, extremely pungent taste, and a peculiar fragrant lemon-like odour.--_Properties._ Stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic; locally applied, rubefacient.--_Therapeutic use._ In flatulent and spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in gastric irritability. In cholera it proves serviceable by aiding the process of reaction. Externally, as an embrocation in chronic rheumatism, neuralgia, sprains, and other painful affections.

_Dose._ From 3 to 6 drops, on sugar or in emulsion. For external application it should be diluted with twice its bulk of soap liniment or any bland oil.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) NARDUS.= CITRONELLE. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Madras Peninsula and Ceylon. The volatile oil of this plant has similar properties to _A. citratum_. and is used for the same purposes.

=ANDROPOGON PACHNODES.= (Ind. Ph.) The volatile oil of this plant possesses similar properties to that of _A. citratum_, and is used for the same purposes.

=ANELEC'TRIC= ([)a]n-e-). Non-electric; a non-electric.

=ANEMOM'ETER= ([)a]n-e-). _Syn._ ANEMOM'ETRUM, L.; ANÉMOMÈTRE, Fr.; WINDMESSER, Ger. An instrument or apparatus for measuring the force or velocity of the wind, or of a current of air. Various contrivances have been adopted for this purpose. The anemometer of Dr Lind being also applicable to the determination of the draught of a chimney, and the strength of air-current, in ventilation, may be usefully described here:--

_Uses and Appl._ The open end (_a_) is kept, by means of a vane, presented to the wind, which acting on the surface of the water, or other liquid in _b_, raises the level of the fluid in the arm (_c_). The difference of the level of the fluid in the two arms of the instrument is the measure of the force of the wind. To estimate the draught of a flue or chimney, the arm (_c_) is placed in the chimney, and the orifice (_a_) in the apartment.[61]

[Footnote 61: The anemometers now generally used in meteorological observations are those of Mr Follet Osler, Dr Robinson, and Dr Whewell. For a description of these instruments, see Phillip's 'Report on Anemometry,' the 'Trans. of the Brit. Assoc.,' 1846, 'Trans. Royal Irish Acad.,' &c.]

=ANEMOM'ETRY.= _Syn._ ANEMOME'TRIA, L.; ANÉMOMETRIE, Fr.; WINDMESSEN, Ger. In _meteorology_, _physics_, &c., the art or act of measuring the velocity or force of the wind, or of ascertaining its direction.

=ANEM'ONE= ([)a]-n[)e]m'-o-ne). _Syn._ ANEM'ONY; ANEM'ONE, L., Gr.; ANÉMONE, Fr. The wind-flower. In _botany_, a genus of beautiful flowering herbaceous plants, of the nat. ord. Ranunculaceæ. The double flowers of some of the species are among the most elegant ornaments of our gardens. Others are used in medicine. They are all acrid and stimulating.

=Anem'ones, Sea.= (-o-n[=e]z). _Syn._ AN'IMAL-FLOWERS[double-dagger], SEA SUN'FLOWERS[double-dagger]. Animals of the genus _actin'ia_, so called from the resemblance of their claws or tentacles, when expanded, to the petals of a flower. They are of various colours, are generally fixed by one end to rocks or stones in the sand, and are very voracious, being accused of occasionally swallowing a mussel or a crab as large as a hen's egg for a meal. They belong to the highly organised polypes of Cuvier.

=ANEMON'IC ACID.= See ANEMONINE.

=ANEMONIN.= A crystalline substance found in the leaves of several species of anemone, viz. _A. pulsatilla_, _A. pretensis_, _A. nemorosa_. Water distilled from these leaves, after some weeks, deposits a colourless inodorous substance, which softens at 150° C, giving off water and acrid vapours. It is purified by repeated crystallisation from boiling alcohol. Anemonin is a poisonous body. It causes slight irritation when applied to the skin. By the action of alkalies anemonin is transferred into anemonic acid.

=ANEM'OSCOPE= ([)a]n'-e--Brande, Mayne). _Syn._ ANEMOSCO'PIUM, L.; ANÉMOSCOPE, Fr.; ANEMOSKOP, Ger. An instrument to measure the force and velocity of the wind. See ANEMOMETER.

=AN'EROID= (-royd)[62]. In _physics_, &c., not fluid, or not depending on water or a fluid for its action; applied to a certain form of barometer (which _see_)

[Footnote 62: That is--[Greek: a], _without_, [Greek: nêros], (the) _watery_, [Greek: eidos], _form_, as correctly given by Brande. By some strange mistake, Dr Mayne, in his new 'Expository Lexicon,' gives "[Greek: a], priv., [Greek: aêr], air, terminal _-ides_," as the derivation of this word; and marks it '_ane'roid_,']

=ANEURISM.= A tumour on an artery, produced by the rupture of the inner coat of the vessel, and the blood getting between it and the outer coat.

=ANGEL'ICA= (-j[)e]l'-). [L., Port., Sp.; Ph. E. & D.] _Syn._ GARDEN ANGELICA; ANGÉLIQUE, Fr.; ANGELIKA, A.-WURZEL, ANGELKRAUT, Ger. The _angelica archangel'ica_ of Linnæus, an aromatic herbaceous plant with a biennial, fleshy root, indigenous to the north of Europe, but frequently found wild in England, and largely cultivated in our gardens. Dried root (ANGELICA, Ph. E.), aperient, carminative, diaphoretic, and tonic; much esteemed by the Laplanders, both as food and medicine;--fruit or seed (ANGELICA, Ph. D.) resembles the root, but is weaker. The whole plant has been extolled as an aromatic tonic. As a masticatory, it leaves an agreeable glowing heat in the mouth. The aromatic properties of this plant depend on a peculiar volatile oil and resin.

_Uses, &c._ It has been recommended in diarrh[oe]a, dyspepsia, debility, and some fevers; but is now seldom used in medicine. _Dose_, 30 gr. to 1 dr. The dried root and seeds are used by rectifiers to flavour gin and liqueurs; and the fresh root, tender stems, stalks, &c., are made by the confectioners into an aromatic candy. See CANDYING, LIQUEURS, &c.

=Angelica Atropurpu''rea.= [Linn.] _Syn._ AMER'ICAN ANGELICA; ANGELICA, Ph. U. S. _Hab._ North America. Resembles garden angelica, but placed by some botanists in a separate, though allied genus. It is a popular remedy for flatulent colic, indigestion, and cardialgia, in the United States; and is there regarded as tonic, cordial, and aphrodisiac.

=ANGEL'IC ACID. HC_{5}H_{7}O_{2}.= A volatile substance, noticed by L. A. Buchner, jun., in angelica-root. It has a pungent sour smell, and a biting acid taste; is sometimes fluid and oleaginous, and sometimes crystallised in striated prisms.[63]

[Footnote 63: Schmidt's 'Jahrb.,' 1842.]

=ANGO'LA= _Syn._ ANGO'LA-WOOL, ANGO''RA-W., ANGO'NA-W., &c.; POIL DE CHEVRON D'ANGORA, Fr.; (Engoor', Engour', or Engu'ri) TIFTIC, Tur. The wool of 'ca'pra Angoren'sis' or the Angora-goat, of which the shawls of Cashmere are made, and others in imitation of them. It is also used to make plush, light cloths for paletôts which are repellent of wet, &c.; and is extensively employed in France in the manufacture of lace more brilliant than that of Valenciennes and Chantilly, and at half the price. See ALPACA, SHAWLS, WOOL, &c.

=ANGOSTU'RA, Angustu'ra.= (-t[=u]re'-[)a]). See CUSPARIA.

=Angostura, False.= See BRUCEA, CUSPARIA and STRYCHNOS.

=ANGOSTU''RINE=, =Angustu'rine= (-[)i]n). See CUSPARIN.

=ANHYDRIDE.= Most, if not all modern chemists, adopting GERHARDT'S practice of limiting the title of acid to a particular class of substances which contain hydrogen, now regard all true acids as salts of hydrogen. Formerly many bodies, such as silica or white arsenic, were looked upon as acids, though if we adopt the foregoing definition they are not really so until they have combined with water. Such bodies, because they contain no hydrogen, are now distinguished as anhydrides; the substances, for example, familiarly known as carbonic, sulphurous, and phosphoric acids, must, upon the above principle, be designated carbonic, sulphurous, and phosphoric anhydrides. We may also define an anhydride to be an oxide which forms an acid on treatment with water.

=ANHY'DROUS= (-dr[)u]s; _an'hydrous_, as marked by Brande, is less usual). _Syn._ AN'HYDRUS, L.; ANHYDRÉ, Fr.; WASSERFREI, Ger. Free from water; dry. In _chemistry_ and _mineralogy_, a term frequently applied to substances, as acids, alcohol, gases, salts, minerals, &c., which do not contain either free or combined water. GASES may generally be rendered anhydrous by passing them through a tube containing fused chloride of calcium, or (_e.g._ AMMONIA and two or three others) quick-lime, in coarse powder; and some of them, by passing them through concentrated sulphuric acid. SALTS may generally be dried by cautiously submitting them to the action of heat, or by exposure to a very dry atmosphere; and alcohol, and many other volatile fluids, by careful distillation from chloride of calcium, or some other highly hygrometric substance.

=AN'IL.= [Fr., Sp., L.] The indigof'era anil of botanists--one of the plants yielding 'indigo'--a native of America, but now largely cultivated in the East Indies. See INDIGO (and _below_).

=AN'ILINE=[64] (-een). [Eng., Fr.] C_{6}H_{7}N. _Syn._ PHENYL'AMINE; ANILI'NA, ANILI'NUM, &c., L. A peculiar volatile organic base first noticed by Unverdorben in empyreumatic bone-oil, and afterwards obtained by Runge from coal-tar, and by Fritzsche, Zinin, A. W. Hofmann, and others, as a product of various reactions, processes, and decompositions, particularly those attending the destructive distillation of organic bodies.

[Footnote 64: For a detailed account of the methods of preparing aniline commercially, and of the dyes obtained therefrom, _see_ 'Dictionnaire de Chimie,' par A. Wurtz.]

PREP. Aniline is now almost invariably obtained, on the large scale, either directly or indirectly from coal-tar or indigo; and chiefly from the basic oil or naphtha, or the nitrobenzol, of which the former is the principal source. The following are the leading commercial and experimental processes:

1. From COAL-TAR or COAL-TAR NAPHTHA:--The basic oil or basic portion of coal-tar or coal-tar naphtha, forming the latter, denser, and least volatile products of the distillation or rectification of these substances, is strongly agitated, for some time, along with hydrochloric acid in slight excess, a glass globe, or, on the large scale, a suitable vessel of lead, or of enamelled iron, being employed for the purpose; the clear portion of the liquid (containing the hydrochlorates of the bases present) is then decanted and carefully evaporated over an open fire until acrid fumes begin to be disengaged, when it is again decanted or filtered; the clear liquor, or filtrate is next treated with potash or milk of lime in excess, by which the bases--chiefly aniline and chinoline--are liberated under the form of a brownish oil; the whole of the resulting mixture is now submitted to distillation, the portion which passes over at or about 360° Fahr., and which consists chiefly of crude aniline, being collected separately; the product is purified by rectification and recollection, once or oftener, at the same temperature, and, lastly, by fresh treatment with hydrochloric acid and careful distillation with excess of potash, or milk of lime, as before.

2. From NITROBENZOL:--_a._ (Zinin.) An alcoholic solution of nitrobenzol, after saturation with ammonia, is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, until, after some hours, a precipitation of sulphur takes place; the brown liquid is then repeatedly saturated with fresh sulphuretted hydrogen, until no more sulphur separates, the reaction being aided by occasionally heating or distilling the mixture; an excess of acid is next added, and, after filtering the liquid, and the removal of the alcohol and unaltered nitrobenzol by ebullition or distillation, the residuum is lastly distilled with caustic potash, in excess. The ANILINE found in the receiver may be rendered quite pure by forming it into oxalate of aniline, repeatedly crystallising the salt from alcohol, and finally distilling it with excess of caustic potassa, as before.

The following is a cheaper and more convenient process; and probably the best, or one of the best, that has yet been invented for obtaining aniline:--

_b._ (M. Béchamps.) From nitrobenzol distilled along with basic protacetate of iron; or, what is better, by distilling a mixture of iron-filings, 2 parts, and acetic acid, 1 part, with about an equal volume of nitrobenzol, the reaction being assisted, whenever the effervescence flags, by the application of a gentle heat. The liquor found in the receiver consists of aniline and water, from which the first, forming the lower portion, is obtained, after sufficient repose in a separator; or more easily, by adding a very little ether, which by dissolving in the aniline, causes it to rise to the surface, when it is at once decanted. A very spacious glass or earthenware retort must be employed in the process, as the mass swells up violently; and it must be connected with the receiver, on the small scale, by means of a Liebig's condenser, and, on the large scale, by an ordinary worm-pipe and tub, kept in good action by a sufficient flow of cold water.

The apparatus for carrying out Béchamp's method was devised by Nicholson, and is exhibited in the subjoined plate.

"It consists essentially of a cast-iron cylinder (A) of 10 hectolitres (220 cubic gallons) capacity. A stout iron tube is fitted to this vessel, reaching nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. The upper part of this tube is connected with the machinery (G), while the surface of the tube is fitted with steel projections. The tube serves to admit steam, as well as acting as a stirring apparatus. Sometimes, instead of this tube, a solid iron axle is employed, and in this case there is a separate steampipe (D). Through the opening at K the materials for making aniline are put into the apparatus, while the volatile products are carried off through E. H serves for emptying and cleaning the apparatus. The S-shaped tube connected with the vessel B acts as a safety valve. When it is intended to work with this apparatus there is poured into it through K 10 parts of acetic acid at 8° B. (sp. gr. 1·060), previously diluted with six times its weight of water; next there are added 30 parts of iron filings, or cast-iron borings, and 125 parts of nitrobenzol, and immediately after the stirring apparatus is set in motion. The reaction ensues directly, and is attended by a considerable evolution of heat and vapours. Gradually more iron is added until the quantity amounts to 180 parts. The escaping vapours are condensed in F, and the liquid condensed in R is from time to time poured back into the cylinder A. The reduction is finished after a few hours."

3. From INDIGO:--Powdered indigo is added to a boiling and highly concentrated solution of caustic potash, as long as it dissolves and hydrogen gas is liberated; the resulting brownish-red liquid is evaporated to dryness, and the residuum is submitted to destructive distillation in a retort, which, owing to the intumesence of the mass, should be strong and spacious. The ANILINE is found in the receiver under the form of a brownish oil mixed with ammoniacal liquor, and by separation from the latter, and subsequent rectification, is obtained nearly colourless. It may be further purified, as in the preceding processes.--_Prod._ 18 to 20% of the indigo employed.

4. By fusing, with proper precautions, a mixture of isatine and hydrate of potassium (both in powder); a retort connected with a well-cooled receiver, being employed as the apparatus. Said by Profs A. W. Hofmann and Muspratt to be "the most eligible process for isolating" aniline.[65]

[Footnote 65: Muspratt's 'Chemistry,' i, 599.]

5. From anthranilic acid mixed with powdered glass or sand, and rapidly heated in a retort.

6. By treating an alcoholic solution of benzine with a little zinc and hydrochloric acid.

7. By heating phenyl-alcohol with ammonia in sealed tubes.

In Zinin's process the nitrobenzol is dissolved in alcohol, and the solution, after the addition of ammonia, is saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. After standing some time the solution deposits a large quantity of sulphur, and the liquid yields aniline.

Many other reducing agents have been proposed for the conversion of nitrobenzol into aniline, such as arsenite of sodium, powdered zinc, &c., but on the large scale they have all been found inferior to the process of Béchamp. Kremer's process consists in heating one part of nitrobenzol in a proper apparatus with five of water and two and a half of zinc dust. When the reaction is completed the aniline, amounting to about 65% of the weight of the benzol, is distilled off in a current of steam.

_Prop., &c._ A thin, oily, colourless liquid, with a faintly vinous odour, and a hot and aromatic taste; very volatile in the air; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; very slightly soluble in water; neutral to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alkaline reaction to dahlia-petal infusion and paper; dissolves camphor, sulphur, and phosphorus, and coagulates albumen; possesses a high refractive power; and precipitates the oxides of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions of their salts, and neutralises the acids, like ammonia. With the acids it forms numerous crystallisable compounds of great beauty, and which are easily formed, and are precisely analogous to the corresponding salts of ammonia. These, on exposure to the air, acquired a rose colour, in many cases gradually passing into brown. Its boiling-point is 359° to 360° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·028.

_Tests._--1. Chromic acid gives a deep greenish or bluish-black precipitate with aniline and its salts:--2. Hypochlorite of lime strikes an extremely beautiful violet colour, which is soon destroyed:--3. The addition of two or three drops of nitric acid to anhydrous aniline produces a fine blue colour, which, on the application of heat, passes into yellow, and a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed by explosion:--4. With bichloride of platinum it yields a double salt (platino-chloride of aniline) analogous to the like salt of ammonia. These reactions distinguish it from all other substances.

Commercial aniline is a mixture consisting in great part of aniline, paratoluidine (solid), and orthotoluidine in variable proportions. In addition it contains small amounts of metatoluidine, nitrobenzol, odorine, &c., but for all practical purposes it may be regarded as a mixture of aniline and toluidine. These anilines are obtained from a portion of the light coal-tar naphtha boiling between certain temperatures, by treating it first with nitric acid to convert it into the nitro-compounds, and then reducing these with iron and acetic acid, as already described under Béchamp's process. It is very plain that as the coal-tar naphtha contains variable proportions of benzol and toluidine, the resulting product must also vary in the quantities of aniline and toluidine it will contain. In order to distinguish between various samples of commercial aniline, Reimann submits them to fractional distillation and compares the results. He places 100 c. c. of the sample to be tested in a retort fitted with a thermometer and heated by means of an oil bath. The liquid as it distils is received in a narrow graduated cylinder, and the amount that passes over between every 5° C. (9° F.) is noted.

In order to obtain standards for comparison he first distilled a sample of light aniline, or kuphaniline, as he terms it, then one of heavy aniline or baraniline; afterwards mixtures of the two in varying proportions. In the accompanying table the results are given.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------ Centigrade {|K. 100 90 85 80 75 60 50 25 0 {|B. 0 10 15 20 25 40 50 75 100 -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------ Below 180° | 8-1/2 7 2-1/2 5-1/2 7 ... 7 5-1/2 ... 180°--185° | 54 50 29-1/2 22 5-1/2 7 4-1/2 2-1/2 2 185°--190° | 34 34 56-1/2 55-1/2 55-1/2 37 7-1/2 4-1/2 1-1/2 190°--195° | ... 5 7-1/2 8-1/2 15 33 42 17 8 195°--200° | ... ... ... ... 9 ... 19 36 18 200°--205° | ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 16 10 16 39 205°--210° | ... ... ... ... ... ... 3-1/2 8 19 210°--215° | ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 7 Residue | 3-1/2 4 4 8-1/2 3-1/2 7 6-1/2 5 5-1/2 -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------

To ascertain the quality of any sample it is only necessary to distil it in the manner already described, and compare the results with those in the above table.

(For further information consult Wagner's 'Chemical Technology,' Calvert's 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Stenhouse and Groves; Crooke's 'Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing,' Ure's Dictionary, edited by Hunt.)

_Uses_, _&c_. Chiefly in dyeing, for the production of colouring matter of various rich shades of purple and violet, some approaching pink, by the action of chromic acid; and of a splendid crimson, by the action of various oxidising agents. It forms the basis of the celebrated new dyes for silks lately patented by Mr W. H. Perkin, and others, and which are not only more delicate and gorgeous in tint, but also more permanent, than any produced by other substances.

Besides numerous salts, various substitution compounds of aniline have been formed, all of which possess vast scientific interest, and several are likely to prove of importance in the arts. See DYEING, INDIGO, TAR COLOURS, &c. (also _below_.)

=Aniline, Chro'mates of=. _Prep_. 1. (NEUTRAL CHROMATE.) From sulphate or oxalate of aniline and chromate of potash, by double decomposition.

2. (BICHRO'MATE:--Mr W. H. Perkin.) Sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potash, in equivalent quantities, are separately dissolved in water, and the solutions, after being mixed, are allowed to stand for several hours. The whole is then thrown upon a filter, and the black precipitate which forms is washed and dried. It is next digested in coal-tar naphtha (--? benzol), to extract a brown resinous substance; after which it is digested in alcohol, to dissolve out the colouring matter (BICHROMATE OF ANILINE), which is left behind on distilling off the spirit, as a coppery friable mass. Patented.

=Aniline, Cy'anide of=. Benzonitrile.

=Aniline, Ox'alate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. Obtained by saturating an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid with aniline; the salt separating as a crystalline mass. It is very soluble in hot water; much less so in cold water; only slightly soluble in alcohol; and insoluble in ether. It may be crystallised from hot water or boiling alcohol. Used chiefly to form other salts.