Part 3

=Abrasion.= In _numismatics_, the 'wear and tear,' or waste of the substance of coins, in the pocket and circulation. It forms a large item in the expense of a metallic currency. The means employed to obviate, or to reduce it, consist in either alloying the metal to render it tougher and harder, or raising the borders so as to lessen the surface exposed to friction. In well-formed coin both methods are adopted.

=Abrasion.= In _pathology_ and _surgery_--1. A superficial removal or injury of the skin by fretting or friction.

_Treat., &c._ When the injured surface is large, or exposed, it should be protected from dirt and further injury, by applying a piece of lint or soft linen rag, covered with spermaceti cerate, or some other simple ointment; over which a piece of strapping, or bandage of any sort, may be placed to keep it on. In many cases, a piece of common sticking-plaster will be found quite sufficient.

2. A very superficial ulceration or excoriation of the intestinal or other mucous membrane. _Treat_. Aperients of castor oil, demulcents, and a light nutritious diet. See EXCORIATIONS.

=ABRUS PRECATORIUS.= (Ind. Ph.) Indian Liquorice Plant. _Habitat._ Tropical portions of both hemispheres, _Officinal part._ The root (_Abri Radix_, _Indian Liquorice_). Occurs in pieces of various lengths, from 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter; pale brown externally, yellowish internally; inodorous, taste sweetish and mucilaginous, much resembling officinal liquorice root. _Properties and uses._ Similar to those of liquorice, for which it forms an excellent substitute. _Preparation._ EXTRACT OF ABRUS (_Extractum Abri_). Prepared as Extractum Glycyrrhizæ.

=ABSCESS.= A formation of matter or pus, resulting from inflammation, either acute or chronic. The symptoms are pain, swelling, heat, and redness, a conical projection on the swelling, often with a white point at the apex. Abscess or suppuration may come on any part of the body. When the local inflammation does not yield to cold lotions, apply poultices; a pledget of lint dipped in cold water and kept moist by means of oil-silk; a slice of bread softened with boiling water or milk, or linseed meal, make the best poultices. Should the pain be severe add laudanum, and additionally rub it round the swelling. Or apply common white paint by laying it on gently with a brush, or else tincture of marigold or arnica in the same manner. Chronic abscesses in the glands in the neck are usually scrofulous, and should be opened. Abscesses in the breast should not be opened too early, or others are formed. Those in the gums may be cut early, not so if in the tonsils. After opening with a needle or lancet-point external abscesses, continue to poultice till the hardness disappears, then dress with spermaceti ointment spread on lint. When the abscess is of a dangerous nature, lose no time in consulting a medical practitioner.

_Treatment for horses and cattle._ Mr Finlay Dun prescribes fomentations, poultices, counter-irritants, the knife, cauterisation, carbolic-acid dressing, stimulating injections, and the administration of sulphites and chlorate of potash.

=ABSINTHE.= [Fr.] ABSINTHIUM, L.; WORMWOOD, E.; WERMUTH, G. This article is met with in commerce in the form of the dried herb with the flowers of _Artemisia Absinthium_, having a whitish-grey appearance, a soft feel, an aromatic and unpleasant odour, and an extremely bitter and aromatic flavour. The plant is indigenous, and grows in thickets, in mountainous districts, and on waste ground. Its odour is due to its containing an essential oil; its bitterness is referable to _absinthin_, a crystallisable principle which may be extracted from the herb by water or spirit. The name _absinthe_ is also given to an intoxicating liqueur which is extensively drunk on the Continent, and which unfortunately appears to be rapidly attracting consumers in this country. The remarks on this subject by Blyth in his admirable 'Dictionary of Hygiène' are so pregnant with important facts that they will be here produced _verbatim et literatim_. "An analysis recently made at the _Conservatoire des Arts_ shows that absinthe now contains a large quantity of antimony, a poison which cannot fail to add largely to the irritant effects necessarily produced on the alimentary canal and liver by constant doses of a concentrated alcoholic liquid. And we have recently received the results of some experiments made by M. Magnan, of Paris. By means of successive distillations he has been able to isolate various products--(1) a blue oil; (2) a yellowish oil; (3) an oxygenated substance. There was besides a yellowish residue left in the glass. These various substances were tried on animals; ten grammes of the yellow sediment given to a small dog produced no effect; thirty centigrammes of the blue oil produced from eight to ten epileptiform attacks. The oxygenated product proved, however, the most powerful toxic agent. Fifteen centigrammes of it, injected into the veins of a large dog, caused the most violent epileptic attacks, which followed in rapid succession, and ended in death. There was an extraordinary rise of temperature, from 39° to 42° Centigrade, and the _post mortem_ showed various apoplectic centres. Dr Decaisne regards the terrible evil of this almost universal absinthe-drinking as the greatest national calamity that has ever befallen France, and has made an eloquent appeal to the Government to strike at once a decisive blow at the trade in this liqueur. Originally the only important ingredient in its composition besides alcohol was the essential oil of absinthium or wormwood; and though this without doubt added something to the mischievous effects of the liqueur, it would be impossible to trace to it, or to the other comparatively trivial ingredients, the more serious of the special results which are now observed to occur to victims of absinthe, though the habitual drinking even in small doses of _good_ absinthe is believed by Dr Decaisne, sooner or later, to produce disorders in the animal economy. Now various deleterious substances are added, the most important of these being antimony. As at present constituted, therefore, and especially when drunk in the disastrous excess now common in Paris, and taken, as it frequently is, on an empty stomach, absinthe forms a chronic poison of almost unequalled virulence, both as an irritant to the stomach and bowels, and also as a destroyer of the nervous system. The effect of absinthe is to produce a superabundant activity of the brain, a cerebral excitement, which at first is agreeable; intoxication comes on rapidly; the head swims, and the effect produced is nearly the same as that of poisoning by a narcotic, which certainly does not occur with an equal dose of brandy. With the absinthe-drinker, as with the opium-eater, the excitement the spirit produces diminishes daily in intensity. Each day he is obliged to augment the dose in order to bring himself up to the right pitch. The diseases brought on by the excessive drinking of ardent spirits are produced with greater rapidity by the use of absinthe." The amount of absinthe consumed in London has during the last few years been enormously on the increase. See LIQUEURS.

=ABSINTHIN.= C_{16}H_{22}O_{5}. The bitter principle of wormwood (_Artemisia absinthium_). A hard crystalline solid, having an intensely bitter taste; slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether. Its physiological effects resemble those of extract of wormwood. _Dose._ 1/2 gr. to 2 gr., or more; in dyspepsia; as a stomachic, to promote the appetite, &c.; as a substitute for quinine in intermittents; and in worms.

=ABSINTH'IUM.= [L.] See ABSINTHE.

=ABSOLUTE.= _Syns._ ABSOLUTUS, L.; ABSOLU, Fr.; UNDEBINGT, G. In _chemistry_, pure, unmixed; as _absolute alcohol_, pure spirit of wine, _i.e._ free from water.

=ABSORBED'= (-sorbd'). _Syn._ CHILLED; ABSORBÉ, Fr. In _painting_, a term among French connoisseurs, to represent that state of a picture in which the oil has sunk into the canvas or ground, leaving the colours 'flat,' and the touches indistinct. The remedy consists in rubbing the surface of the picture, previously well cleaned, with a soft sponge dipped in a little drying oil, and after some days varnishing it; when it should be kept in a warm room until perfectly dry.

=ABSORB'ENT.= _Syn._ ABSORB'ENS, L.; ABSORBANT, Fr.; ABSORBIREND, Ger. Imbibing; that imbibes or sucks up; variously applied in science and art. (See _below_.)

=Absorbent Ground.= In _painting_, a picture-ground prepared wholly or chiefly in distemper or water colour, in order that the redundant oil in the colours subsequently applied may be immediately 'absorbed,' by which expedition is permitted, and brilliancy imparted to them.

=Absorbent Surfaces.= In the _arts_, these are usually rendered non-absorbent, preliminary to their being bronzed, gilded, painted, or varnished, by giving them one, or more, coats of thin size, so as to destroy their porosity; care being taken to allow each coat to become thoroughly dry before the application of the next one; and also, finally, to remove any unabsorbed excess of size from the surface, by means of a sponge dipped in warm water. This applies to ALABASTER, PAPER, WOOD, PLASTER CASTS, &c.; and to WALLS and CEILINGS which are not exposed to the weather, and which there is not time to prepare with drying oil. See BRONZING, MAPS, VARNISHING, &c.

Absorption and consequent adherence in porous moulds, as those of plaster, are usually prevented by thoroughly saturating the pores of the mould with melted tallow, or a mixture of tallow and bees' wax; or for delicate objects or the electrotype, with white wax. The 'dry moulds' are either heated before the application of these substances, or they are boiled in them; any portion that may finally remain unabsorbed, being carefully removed with cotton-wool or a soft rag. Another method is to wash the moulds over two or three times with drying oil, or to boil them in it; after which they must be exposed to the air for some days, to dry and harden. Before being used for plaster, composition, &c., the surface of these prepared moulds require to be slightly moistened with sweet oil.

_Plaster moulds_ are generally prepared for sulphur, wax, and gutta percha casts, by simply placing them (upright) with the back immersed in a little water, contained in any shallow vessel, as a saucer or plate; and letting them remain there until moisture begins to appear on the surface. The materials to be cast, or moulded, should then be used at the lowest possible temperature, to prevent the formation of air-bubbles.

The adherence of wax or mixtures containing it, and of gutta percha, is best prevented by moistening the surface of the mould (whether of plaster, metal, or gutta percha), immediately before use, with soft soap reduced to the consistence of thin cream with water. See CASTS, MOULDS, ELECTROTYPE, &c.

=ABSORB'ENTS.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, two distinct sets of small, delicate, transparent vessels, which imbibe or suck up fluid substances, and convey them to the blood. They are termed lacteals or lymphatics; the former take up the chyme from the alimentary canal, the latter pervade almost every part of the body in which they absorb lymph.

=Absorbents.= In _botany_ and _vegetable physiology_, the origins of the different vessels constituting the vascular tissue, as they are found in the root, where they imbibe or suck up the nutritive fluids from the soil. See PLANTS and VEGETABLES.

=Absorbents.= In _agriculture_ and _chemistry_, substances which possess the power of withdrawing moisture from the atmosphere; as soils, argillaceous earths, &c. Also (but less frequently) substances which neutralise acids; as chalk, lime, and magnesia. Absorbents differ from 'deliquescent salts'; the latter attract moisture and dissolve in it; whilst the former merely suck it into their pores, as a sponge does water. See ABSORPTION.

=Absorbents.= _Syn._ ABSORBEN'TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances which remove acidity from the stomach and bowels. Of these the principal are--magnesia, carbonate and bicarbonate of magnesia, prepared chalk, and the carbonates and bicarbonates of potash, soda, and ammonia. The first four are popularly called earthy absorbents; and the others, alkaline absorbents. See ANTACIDS.

The following absorbent mixtures are taken from Dr Kirby's valuable work, 'Selected Remedies':

1. Infusion of rhubarb, 1-1/2 oz.; compound spirit of ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.

2. Bicarbonate of potash, 1-1/2 dr.; syrup, 2 drs.; compound spirit ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.

3. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 dr.; spirits of chloroform, 1-1/2 dr.; infusion of calumba to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.

=ABSORP'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABSORP'TIO, L.; EINSAUGUNG, Ger. The act or the power of absorbing, in various applications. (See _below_.)

=Absorption.= In _agriculture_, the power possessed by soils of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The more a soil is divided by labour and vegetation, the greater is its absorbent power, and, consequently, its fertility. Indeed, the latter chiefly depends on its capacity for imbibing moisture, and may be illustrated by reference to recent and disintegrated lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided state, most penetrable by the delicate fibres of plants, appears to derive its superior power of acting on atmospheric vapour from the augmentation of its surface and the multiplication of its points of contact. (Ure.) This method of increasing the fertility of a soil is well known to scientific farmers, and seldom neglected by them. (Loudon.) That soil must be regarded as the most fertile which possesses this power in the greatest degree. Garden-mould has the highest absorbent power of any mineral substance. (Leslie.)

_Process of ascertaining_ the ABSORBENT POWER OF SOILS, _and other substances._ Thoroughly dry the article by the suitable application of a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr., continued for several hours, and transfer it, while still warm, into a clean dry phial furnished with a perfectly tight ground-glass stopper. When cold, quickly and cautiously introduce it, along with a delicate hygrometer, into a large wide-mouthed glass bottle, the atmosphere of which has been previously rendered as damp as possible, by suspending a piece of moistened rag or filtering paper in it. It must now be kept closed for some hours, when the hygrometer will indicate the degree of dryness of the enclosed air, and, consequently, the absorbent power of the substance examined.

_Obs._ Experiments of this nature are only relatively correct, and must be performed under exactly similar circumstances, to furnish reliable comparative results. The whole process, in each case, must be as similar as careful manipulation can possibly make them. With this reserve, they will be found invaluable to the agriculturist.

=Absorption.= In _chemistry_ the passage of gases and vapours into liquid and solid substances. Thus, water absorbs the oxygen of the air, lime absorbs water, charcoal absorbs ammoniacal and other gases.

=Absorption.= In _medicine_ and _toxicology_, see MEDICINES and POISONS.

=Absorption.= In _perfumery_, see ENFLEURAGE.

=Absorption.= In _physics_, see HEAT, LIGHT, REFRIGERATION, &c.

=Absorption.= In _physiology_ (animal and vegetable), the function of sucking, or taking up, of appropriate substances, by the 'absorbent vessels.' It is one of the chief vital functions, the primary object of which is to convey to the circulatory organs the proper supply of the materials necessary for the support and growth of the body; and subsequently, to remove and convey to these organs its effete and useless portions, in order to their ultimate elimination from the system.

=Absorption.= In _surgery_, the natural process by which tumours and their contents, morbid growths, and, sometimes, even healthy glands, &c., are gradually taken up and disappear, by the action of the 'absorbents.'

=Absorption= (of Surfaces, Moulds, &c). See ABSORBENT SURFACES.

=ABSTERG'ENTS.= _Syn._ ABSTERGEN'TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances which cleanse or clear away foulness from the surface of the body or sores; as soap, lotions, &c. See DETERGENT, which has a nearly similar meaning, and is in more general use.

=AC'ARI= (-r[=i]). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ACAR'IDANS; ACAR'IDES (d[=e]z); ACARID'IÆ. (-e-[=e]). In _entomology_, a division of arachnidans, including the _mite_ and _tick_. All the species are either microscopic or extremely minute, and possess such tenacity of life as to resist for some time the action of boiling water, and to live with comparative impunity in alcohol. Leuwenhoek had one that lived eleven weeks glued on its back to the point of a needle, without food. The following are well known--ACARUS AUTUMNA'LIS, the _harvest-bug_ or _wheal-worm_; A. DOMES'TICUS, the _domestic tick_; A. DYSENTE'RIÆ, the _dysentery-tick_; A. FARI'NÆ, the _meal mite_ (fig. _a_); A. RI''CINUS (r[)i]c-), the _dog-tick_; A. SAC'CHARI, the _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_); A. SI''RO, the _cheese-mite_ (fig. _c_); A. SCABIE'I, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_).

The irritation of the skin, caused by these vermin, may be relieved by a lotion of equal parts of sal volatile and water; and they may be destroyed by tobacco water, or a lotion or ointment of stavesacre. See ITCH, MANGE, PARASITES, PEDICULI, SCAB, &c.

=Acarus Farinæ=, or _meal-mite_ (fig. _a_). This insect is found only in damaged flour, and is more frequently met with in the flour of the _leguminosæ_ (beans, peas) than in that of the _gramineæ_ (wheat, rye, oat).

Now and then a single acarus may occasionally be found in good flour, but even one should be regarded with suspicion, and the flour should afterwards be frequently examined to see if they are increasing.

=Acarus Sacchari=, or _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_).

Most of the brown sugars of commerce are infested by this pest, which is of a size sufficiently large to be visible to the naked eye. The following method of proceeding will lead to its detection:

Dissolve 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar in a large wineglass of tepid water, and let the solution remain for an hour or so, at the expiration of which time the acari may be found, some on the surface of the liquid, some attaching themselves to the sides of the glass, and some at the bottom, mixed up with the copious and dark sediment, made up of fragments of cane, woody fibre, grit, dirt, and starch granules, which usually subside on dissolving even a small quantity of sugar in hot water. When first hatched this acarus is hardly visible.

Acari of all sizes--that is, in all stages of growth--may be met with in most samples of sugar.

Dr Hassall, in seventy-two samples of sugar which he examined, found sixty-nine containing them.

=Acarus Siro=, the _cheese-mite_ (fig. _c_). The dry and powdery parts of decayed cheese, which by careful watching may very frequently be seen in movement, consist almost wholly of this insect and their eggs in different stages of development. The cheese-mite can hardly be seen without the aid of the microscope. They are very tenacious of life, even when kept without food. Mr Blyth says that under these circumstances "it is no uncommon sight to see them killing and devouring each other; and that cheese is rapidly destroyed by them; they crumble it into minute pieces, and emit a liquid substance which causes the decayed parts to spread speedily." They may be destroyed by being exposed to a strong heat, or by putting the cheese for a short time in whisky.

=Acarus Scabiei=, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_). The parasitic character of the disease known as the itch was first demonstrated by Dr Bononio, who on turning out the contents of one of the little bladders that show themselves between the fingers of those affected with the complaint, and placing the fluid under the microscope, discovered a minute animal, very nimble in its movements, covered with short hairs, having a short head, a pair of strong mandibles or cutting-jaws, and eight legs, terminating in remarkable appendages, each provided with a sucker and setæ.

It has no eyes; but when disturbed it quickly draws in its head and feet, and then somewhat resembles the tortoise in appearance, its march being precisely the same. It usually lays sixteen eggs, which are carefully deposited in furrows under the skin, and ranged in pairs; these are hatched in about ten days.

"To find the itch-insect," says Mr Jabez Hogg, "the operator must carefully examine the parts surrounding each pustule; he will then see a red line or spot communicating with it; this part, and not the pustule, must be probed with a fine-pointed instrument. The operator must not be disappointed by repeated failures."

=ACCIDENT'AL COLOURS.= See COLOURS (Complementary).

=ACCIDENTS.= _Black eye._ Bathe the eye frequently with a soft piece of linen rag dipped in a lotion composed of one part of tincture of arnica and seven parts of water.

_Burns and Scalds._ Refer to BURNS and SCALDS.

_Charcoal_, _combustion of_, _poisoning by._ Refer to CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.

_Choking, or suffocation from substances sticking in the throat._ Refer to CHOKING.

_Cut Finger._ Refer to CUTS.

_Precautions against Fires._ Refer to FIRES.

_Precautions against Lightning._ To take refuge under a tree during a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning is to expose oneself to a double danger--firstly, because by keeping the clothes dry these are prevented becoming the non-conductors they would be if damp; and secondly, because the tree, serving as a point of attraction for the lightning, conducts it to the ground, and in doing so frequently rends the trunks or branches, and kills any person or animal who happens to be close to, or in contact with, it at the time.

Never, therefore, if overtaken by a storm of thunder and lightning fly to the dangerous cover of a tree, pillar, hay-rick, wall, or hedge, but seek shelter in the nearest dwelling; or if this is not at hand, get to a part of the road or field where there is no object to attract the lightning, and there remain till the storm has expended itself. Also avoid particularly the proximity of iron gates, palisades, bronze statues, bell wires, iron railings, and such like. When in the house, do not sit or stand near the windows, doors, or walls, but place yourself in the middle of the room, unless there should be a lamp or chandelier hanging from the ceiling. Franklin recommends persons to keep away from the neighbourhood of fireplaces.

_Treatment of persons struck by lightning._ In case of any person being struck by lightning, immediately strip the body and throw bucketsful of cold water over it for ten or fifteen minutes; continued frictions and inhalations of the lungs must also be employed, and electricity should be tried if it be possible.

=Accidents by Poison.= The means to be adopted in cases where poison is taken, if the poison be known, are embodied in the antidotes, which will be found given in this volume under the respective poisons.

Under all circumstances, however, medical aid should be sought as expeditiously as possible, since many of the antidotes themselves being of a dangerous, if not poisonous, character, should only be administered under medical supervision. Pending the arrival of the doctor, no time should be lost in giving an emetic, consisting of a teaspoonful of flour of mustard in half a pint of warm water, supplemented by copious draughts of warm water, and tickling the throat with the finger if necessary.