Part 175

3. (CORNISH REDUCING FLUX.) Crude tartar, 10 parts; nitre, 4 parts; borax, 3 parts; triturate together.

4. (CORNISH REFINING FLUX, WHITE FLUX.) Crude tartar and nitre, equal parts, deflagrated together. See BLACK FLUX.

5. (CRUDE FLUX.) Same as BLACK FLUX, omitting the deflagration. Reducing.

6. (FRESENIUS'S FLUX.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 3 parts; cyanide of potassium, 1 part. For the arsenical compounds.

7. (LIEBIG'S FLUX.) Carbonate of soda (dry) and cyanide of potassium, equal parts. As the last. See ARSENIOUS ACID.

8. (MORVEAU'S REDUCING FLUX.) Powdered glass (free from lead), 8 parts; calcined borax and charcoal, of each, 1 part; all in fine powder, and triturated well together. Used as BLACK FLUX.

9. (WHITE FLUX.) See _above_.

10. (FLUXES FOR ENAMELS.) See ENAMELS.

11. (Various.) Borax, tartar, nitre, sal-ammoniac, common salt, limestone, glass, fluor spar, and several other substances, are used as fluxes in _metallurgy_.

_Obs._ On the large scale, crude tartar is employed in the preparation of fluxes; on the small scale, commercial cream of tartar or bitartrate of potassa.

=FLY.= The common house-fly (_Musca domestica_) causes considerable annoyance to the person in hot weather, as well as damage to handsome furniture, especially to picture frames, gilding, and the like. The best way to exterminate them is to expose on a plate one or other of the mixtures given under FLY POISON (_below_). The blow-fly (_Musca vomitoria_), and other insects, may be kept from attacking meat by dusting it over with black pepper, powdered ginger, or any other spice, or by skewering a piece of paper to it on which a drop or two of creasote has been poured. The spices may be readily washed off with water before dressing the meat.

It is a fact not generally known, that flies will not pass through a netting made of fine silk, thread, or wire, even though the meshes may be an inch apart, unless there is a window or light behind it. This affords us a ready means of excluding these insects from all our apartments which have windows only on one side of them, without keeping the latter closed. It is merely necessary to have an ornamental netting stretched across the opening, when, although flies may abound on the outside, none will venture into the room so protected. If, however, there is a window on the other side of the room, they will fly through the netting immediately. See _below_.

=Fly-blow in Sheep.= Oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; oil of amber, 1 oz.; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. The sublimate must be first dissolved in a pint of whey, and then mixed with the oils.

=Fly Papers.= Those papers which, a few years ago, were sold about the streets of London by harsh-voiced cries of "Catch 'em alive-oh!" and which might be seen in many shop-windows covered with dead and dying flies, were prepared by rubbing factitious birdlime over sheets of paper. It would be difficult to conceive a more cruel or more offensive mode of catching flies than that of glueing their living bodies to an adhesive surface. A preferable kind of fly-paper is that called 'PAPIER MOURE,' which contains a large quantity of arsenic in its substance.[317] This paper is kept wet when in use, and the flies, by sipping the moisture, are poisoned.

[Footnote 317: Mr Plowman, in a letter to the 'Pharm. Journ.,' June 22nd, 1878, says that in a specimen of "Papier Moure" examined by him he failed to detect the least trace of arsenic.]

=Fly Poison.= _Prep._ 1. A strong solution of white arsenic (say 1 dr. to the pint), sweetened with moist sugar, treacle, or honey. Sold under the name of 'FLY WATER,'

2. Treacle, honey, or moist sugar, mixed with about 1/12th their weight of King's yellow or orpiment.

_Obs._ Both the above are dangerous preparations, and should never be employed where there are children.

3. (Redwood.) Quassia chips (small), 1/4 oz.; water, 1 pint; boil 10 minutes, strain, and add of treacle, 4 oz. "Flies will drink this with avidity, and are soon destroyed by it."

4. Black pepper, 1 teaspoonful; brown sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; cream, 4 teaspoonfuls. See _below_.

=Fly Powder.= The dark grey-coloured powder (so-called 'sub-oxide') obtained by the free exposure of metallic arsenic to the air. Mixed with sweets, it is used to kill flies.

=Fly Water.= See FLY POISON (_above_).

=FOG.= The influence of very intense foggy weather upon the death-rate is well illustrated by a reference to the Registrar-General's returns for 1873. From the 8th to the 12th of December of that year an unprecedently thick fog prevailed in London. The mortality in the metropolis for the week ending December 6th was twenty-three persons per thousand; in the week following, during which the fog occurred, the death-rate rose to twenty-seven; and in the week after that, when the full effects of the fog could be estimated, the deaths were found to be thirty-eight in the thousand. In the same periods the deaths from phthisis and diseases of the respiratory organs were respectively 520, 764, and 1112. That this increased death-rate was not the result of the inclement weather by which the fog was accompanied is evidenced by the circumstance that in large provincial towns, where the weather was equally severe, but in which no fog occurred, the increase in the mortality, when compared to London, was slight.

The mean of the deaths registered in London, in the two weeks ending December 20th, showed an increase of 41 per cent. upon the number returned in the first week of the month; whilst during the same date the deaths in seventeen large English towns were only 8 per cent. This fatal fog occurred during the London cattle-show week, and killed a great number of the animals sent for exhibition.

In a specimen of the air of Manchester, obtained during the visitation of that city by a very dense fog, Dr Angus Smith discovered it contained a diminished amount of oxygen when compared with a favorable sample of air.

=FOILS.= These are thin leaves of polished metal, placed under precious stones and pastes, to heighten their brilliancy, or to vary the effect. Foils were formerly made of copper, tinned copper, tin, and silvered copper, but the last is the one wholly used for superior work at the present day.

Foils are of two descriptions:--white, for diamonds and mock diamonds, and--coloured, for the coloured gems. The latter are prepared by varnishing or lacquering the former. By their judicious use the colour of a stone may often be modified and improved. Thus, by placing a yellow foil under a green stone that turns too much on the blue, or a red one under a stone turning too much on the crimson, the hues will be brightened and enriched in proportion.

_Prep._ 1. (CRYSTAL, DIAMOND, or WHITE FOIL.)--_a._ This is made by coating a plate of copper with a layer of silver, and then rolling it into sheets in the flatting mill. The foil is then highly polished, or covered with crystal varnish.

_b._ The inside of the socket in which the stone or paste is to be set is covered with tin foil, by means of a little stiff gum or size; when dry, the surface is polished and the socket heated, and whilst it is warm, filled with quicksilver; after repose for two or three minutes the fluid metal is poured out, and the stone gently fitted in its place; lastly, the work is well fitted round the stone, to prevent the alloy being shaken out.

_c._ The bottom of the stone is coated with a film of real silver, by precipitating it from a solution of the nitrate in spirit of ammonia, by means of the oils of cassia and cloves.[318] This method vastly increases the brilliancy both of real and factitious gems, and the work is very permanent.

[Footnote 318: See SILVERING.]

2. (COLOURED FOILS.) The following formulæ produce beautiful coloured effects, when judiciously employed:--

_a._ (Amethyst.) Lake and Prussian blue, finely ground in pale drying oil.

_b._ (Blue.) Prussian blue (preferably Turnbull's), ground with pale, quick-drying oil. Used to deepen the colour of sapphires.

_c._ (Eagle marine.) Verdigris tempered in shell-lac varnish (alcoholic), with a little Prussian blue.

_d._ (Garnet.) Dragon's blood dissolved in rectified spirit of wine.

_e._ (Vinegar garnet.) Orange lake finely tempered with shell-lac varnish.

_f._ (Green.)--[Greek: a]. From pale shell-lac, dissolved in alcohol (lacquer), and tinged green by dissolving verdigris or acetate of copper in it.

[Greek: b]. From sesquiferrocyanide of iron and bichromate of potassa, of each 1/2 oz.; ground to an impalpable powder, first alone, and then with gum mastic (clean and also in fine powder), 2 oz.; a little pyroxilic spirit is next added, gradually, and the whole again ground until the mass becomes homogeneous and of a fine transparent green. The beauty increases with the length of the grinding. The predominance of the bichromate turns it on the yellowish green; that of the salt of iron on the bluish green. For use it is to be thinned with pyroxilic spirit. ('Chem.,' iii, 231.) Used for emeralds.

_g._ (Red.) Carmine, dissolved in spirit of hartshorn, or in a weak solution of salt of tartar, and a little gum (dissolved) added.

_h._ (Ruby.)--[Greek: a]. From lake or carmine, ground in isinglass.

[Greek: b]. Lake ground in shell-lac varnish. Both are used when the colour turns on the purple.

[Greek: g]. From bright lake ground in oil. Used when the colour turns on the scarlet or orange.

_i._ (Yellow.)--[Greek: a]. Various shades of yellow may be produced by tinging a weak alcoholic solution of shell-lac or mastic, by digesting turmeric, annotta, saffron, or socotrine aloes in it. The former is the brightest, and is used for topazes.

[Greek: b]. From hay saffron digested in 5 or 6 times its weight of boiling water until the latter becomes sufficiently coloured, and a little solution of gum or isinglass added to the filtered liquor. When dry, a coating of spirit varnish is applied.

_Obs._ By the skilful use of the above varnishes, good imitations of the gems may be cheaply made from transparent white glass or paste; and by applying them to foils set under coloured pastes (FACTITIOUS GEMS), a superior effect may be produced. The pigments employed must be reduced to the finest state possible by patient grinding, as without this precaution transparent and beautiful shades cannot be formed. The palest and cleanest mastic and lac, dissolved in alcohol, and also the palest and quickest drying oil should alone be used when these substances are ordered. In every case the colour must be laid on the foil with a broad soft brush; and the operation should be performed, if possible, at once, as no part should be crossed, or twice gone over, whilst wet. If the colour turns out too pale, a second coat may be given when the first one has become quite dry, but this practice should be avoided if possible.

=FOMENTA'TION.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO, FOMENTUM, FOTUS, L. A liquid, either simple or medicated, used for local bathing. Fomentations are distinguished from lotions chiefly in being applied in a heated state, and in larger quantities, and for a longer period at a time.

Fomentations are chiefly employed to allay pain or irritation, or to promote suppuration or the healthy action of the parts. As the intention is to convey heat, combined with moisture, to the part fomented, the utmost care must be taken to manage the application so as to promote the object in view as much as possible. Flannel cloths wrung out of the hot or boiling liquid, by means of two sticks, turned in opposite directions, form the best vehicles for fomentations. If they are shaken up, and laid lightly over the part, they involve a considerable quantity of air, which, being a bad conductor, retains the heat in them for a considerable time. "In every process of fomenting there should be two flannels, each (say) three yards long, with the ends sewed together, to admit of the boiling water being wrung out of them; and the one flannel should be got ready whilst the other is applied. The fineness or the coarseness of the flannel is not a matter of indifference. The coarser it is the less readily does it conduct heat, and the longer it retains its warmth; therefore it is more efficient for fomenting. White flannel also retains the heat longer than coloured flannel." (Dr R. E. Griffith.) More harm than good is frequently done by allowing the patient to become chilled during the application. "If only one (flannel) is used, the skin becomes chilled during the time occupied in removing the flannel, soaking it in the water, wringing it out, and reapplying it; but if two are used, one of them is ready, and can be applied the moment the other is taken off, by which means the part is never exposed to the air, no matter how long the fomentation is continued. In some diseases (rheumatism, peritonitis, &c.), the patient is scarcely conscious of a degree of heat which scalds the nurse's hands. In this case the fomenting flannels should be put in a towel, by which means they may be wrung out without being handled by the nurse, and may be applied far hotter than can be done by any other method." (Dr J. B. Nevins.)

The quantity of liquid forming a fomentation, as well as the size of the cloths employed, must entirely depend upon circumstances. In some cases (as in slight affections of the face, &c.) the application may be effectually made by holding the part in the steam of the hot liquid, and bathing it continually by means of a sponge or cloth. In some instances 1/2 pint to a pint of liquid may be found a sufficient quantity; whilst in others several quarts will be required. Under all circumstances, care must be taken to keep the fomentation as near as possible at the temperature ordered, during the whole time of its application; and, as soon as the operation is finished, to quickly wipe the part dry, and to cover it with ample clothing, in order that the reaction set up may not be prematurely checked.

Fomentations usually consist of simple water, or the decoction of some simple vegetable substance, as chamomiles, elder flowers or mallows; but, occasionally, the leaves and flowers of aromatic and narcotic plants, and saline matter, are employed under this form. The following formulæ are given as examples:--

=Fomentation, Acetic.= _Syn._ FOTUS ACETICUS (Paris Codex). Fomentations of vinegar are sometimes prepared with white, with rose, or with aromatic vinegar (Paris Codex) in the proportion of one of vinegar to four of water.

=Fomentation, An'odyne.= _Syn._ FOTUS ANODYNUS, FOMENTATIO ANODYNA, FOMENTUM ANODYNUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Simple decoction of poppy-heads.

2. (Hosp. F.) Poppy-heads (without the seeds), 1-1/2 oz.; water, 3-1/2 pints; boil to 2-1/2 pints; add of elder flowers, 3/4 oz.; boil to a quart and strain. Used to allay pain.

3. (Pierquin.) Opium, 1 oz.; wine, 1 quart; boil to a pint and strain. Used in severe gouty, rheumatic, neuralgic, and syphilitic pains.

4. Opium, 1 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to 3/4 pint, add pyroligneous acid, 2 fl. oz.; boil for 10 minutes longer, then further add of sherry wine, 3/4 pint; and as soon as the whole again boils, strain it for use. Superior to the last, and cheaper.

=Fomentation, Antineural'gic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTINEURALGICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Mialhe.) Acetate of morphia, 2 gr.; acetic acid, 2 or 3 drops; eau de Cologne, 2 or 3 dr.; dissolve. In facial neuralgia.

2. (Trousseau and Reveil.) Cyanide of potassium, 1 dr.; distilled water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve and keep it in a well-closed bottle in the dark. Used in neuralgia, especially in that of the face (tic douloureux). A compress of lint or soft linen is dipped in it and applied to the part. It must not be used internally or applied to a wounded surface, as it is very poisonous. See FOMENTATIONS, ANODYNE, Nos. 3 and 4 (above), also FOMENTATION, STIMULANT.

=Fomentation, Antiseptic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTISEPTICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Decoction of mallows, 4 pints; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; dissolve, and add of disulphate of quinine, 20 gr., dissolved in camphorated spirit, 4 fl. oz.

2. (Hosp. F.) Decoction of bark, 1 quart; infusion of chamomile, 1 pint; camphorated spirit, 2 fl. oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr. Both are used when there is a tendency to gangrene or putrescence.

=Fomentation of Ar'nica.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ARNICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Flowers of arnica, 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a quart, and strain. Used in contusions.

2. (Graefe.) Flowers of arnica, 2 oz.; rue (leaves), 1 oz.; boiling water, q. s. to strain 12 fl. oz. of infusion after an hour's maceration at nearly the boiling temperature. Used in contusions and extravasations, especially as an application to black eyes.

3. (Radius.) Flowers of arnica, 1/2 oz.; boiling vinegar, q. s. to strain 6 fl. oz. of infusion, in which dissolve of carbonate of ammonia, 2 dr. Used in [oe]dema of the scrotum.

=Fomentation, Aromat'ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO AROMATICA, FOTUS AROMATICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sea wormwood, southernwood, and chamomiles, of each 1 oz.; laurel leaves, 1/2 oz.; water 5 pints; boil to half gall., and strain. In rheumatism, cutaneous affections, colic, &c.

2. (Augustin.) Rosemary, 1/2 oz.; red wine, and water, of each 3 fl. oz.; infuse and strain with expression. In contusions, especially black eyes.

3. (Hosp. F.) Cloves and mace, of each 1 oz.; opium, 20 gr.; red wine (boiling), 1 pint; digest at near boiling for 1 hour, and strain. Used as both the last.

4. (Rideau.) Bay leaves, rosemary, southernwood, and wormwood, of each 1 oz.; water, 2 quarts; boil 5 minutes, and strain. As No. 1.

=Fomentation, Astrin'gent.= _Syn._ FOTUS ASTRINGENS, F. ROBORANS, L. _Prep._ 1. Decoction of oak bark.

2. To each quart of the last add of alum 1 dr.

3. (Ph. Chirur.) Bruised galls, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; digest 1 hour, and strain.

4. (Ricord.) Tannin, 2-1/2 dr.; aromatic wine (hot), 1/2 pint; dissolve.

5. Bistort and pomegranate peel, of each 2 oz.; sal ammonia, 1/4 oz.; red wine, 1 pint.; infuse at a gentle heat. The above are used in hæmorrhages, piles, prolapsus, &c.

=Fomentation of Belladon'na.= _Syn._ FOTUS BELLADONNÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ophthalmic Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint. Used to dilate the pupil in certain affections of the eye; it is usually applied on the forehead.

=Fomentation of Bitter-sweet.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM DULCAMARÆ, L. _Prep._ Bitter-sweet stalks, 10 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil to a pint, and strain.

=Fomentation of Cham'omile.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO ANTHEMIDIS, L. _Prep._ Chamomiles, 2 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil 10 minutes, and strain with expression. Emollient.

=Fomentation, Com'mon.= _Syn._ FOTUS COMMUNIS. (L. 1744.) _Prep._ Dried southernwood, sea wormwood, chamomile, of each 1 oz.; dried bay leaves, 1/2 oz.; water, 5 pints; boil slightly, and strain.

=Fomentation, Compound of Hemlock.= (Guy's Hosp.) _Syn._ FOMENTUM CONII COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Dried hemlock, 2 oz.; dried chamomiles, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 2 hours, strain, and press.

=Fomentation, Diuret'ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO DIURETICA, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau.) Tinctures of squills and foxglove, of each 2 oz.; hot water, 6 fluid oz.; mix. Applied by lint or linen compresses to the insides of the thighs, in dropsies, when the stomach will not bear diuretics.

=Fomentation of El'der Flowers.= _Syn._ FOTUS SAMBUCI, L. _Prep._ From elder flowers, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2 quarts; digest in a hot place for 1 hour, and express the liquor. Emollient.

=Fomentation, Emol'lient.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO EMOLLIENS. L. _Prep._ 1. Marshmallow root and poppy heads, of each 1 oz.; water, 3 pints; boil to a quart, and strain.

2. (P. Cod.) Emollient herbs, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1 quart; infuse 1 hour, and strain with expression. (See _above_.)

=Fomentation, Foxglove.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM DIGITALIS. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse, and strain.

=Fomentation of Galls.= _Syn_ FOMENTUM GALLÆ. _Prep._ Bruised galls, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 2 lbs.; macerate for an hour and strain.

=Fomentation, Narcot'ic.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO NARCOTICA, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Narcotic herbs, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; infuse as last.

=Fomentation, Poppy.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM PAPAVERIS. As DECOCTION OF POPPIES.

=Fomentation, Resol'vent.= _Syn._ FOTUS RESOLVENS, L. _Prep._ (Richard.) Fomentation of elder flowers, 8 fl. oz.; liquor of diacetate of lead, 1/2 fl. dr.; mix. Used to discuss tumours, &c.

=Fomentation, Stim'ulant.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO STIMULANS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; tincture of cantharides, 2 fl. oz.; warm water, 1 pint.

2. Household mustard, 4 oz.; hot water, 1-1/2 pint; mix. Both the above are rubefacient and counter-irritant, and excellent in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c.

=Fomentation, Tannin.= _Syn._ FOMENTUM TANNINI. (Ricord.) _Prep._ Tannin, 2 dr.; aromatic wine, 8 oz.

=Fomentation, Ver'mifuge.= _Syn._ FOMENTATIO VERMIFUGA, FOTUS ANTHELMINTICUS, L. _Prep._ Leaves and flowers of tansy, wormwood, and chamomile, of each 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil to 1-1/2 pint, and strain. Applied to the abdomen, &c., in worms.

=Fomentation, Wine.= _Syn._ FOTUS VINOSUS (Par. Cod.) _Prep._ Red wine, 2 pints; honey 4 oz.

=FOOD.= _Syn._ CIBUS, MATERIA ALIMENTARIA, L. Anything which feeds or promotes the natural growth of organic bodies, by supplying them with materials which, by assimilation, may be converted into the substances of which they are composed; or which, by its decomposition or slow combustion, maintains the temperature, or some other essential condition of life, at the proper standard. The numerous articles employed as food are all compounds; and in many cases they consist of mechanical mixtures or chemical combinations of two or more compounds. Organized matter, or that which has possessed either animal or vegetable life, or which has been produced by living organs, seems to be alone capable of assimilation, to any extent, by the animal system; and hence it is from the organic kingdom that our aliments are necessarily derived. Water, iron, earthy phosphates, chloride of sodium, and other salts, which form the inorganic constituents of the body, though not of themselves nourishing, are also assimilated when taken in conjunction with organic aliments, and then contribute essentially to nutrition. In the animal and vegetable substances employed as food, these inorganic compounds are provided in small but sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of the healthy body, and in this state of combination alone can they be regarded in the light of aliments. A complete consideration of this subject embraces, not only all the substances used as food, but also those things which when taken with them improve their flavour, promote their digestion, and render them more wholesome and nutritive; and also their preparation for the table in its various relations with health and disease.

The following 'BILLS OF FARE,' for which we are indebted chiefly to Soyer, Rundell, and others, exhibit the various articles in season at different periods of the year.

FIRST QUARTER. January.--Poultry and game: Pheasants, partridges, hares, rabbits, woodcocks, snipes, turkeys, capons, pullets, fowls, chickens, and tame pigeons.--Fish: Carp, tench, perch, lampreys, eels, cray-fish, cod, soles, flounders, plaice, turbot, thornback, skate, sturgeon, smelts, whitings, lobsters, crabs, prawns, and oysters.--Vegetables: Cabbage, savoys, colewort, sprouts, leeks, onions, beet, sorrel, chervil, endive, spinach, celery, garlic, scorzonera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, brocoli (white and purple), shalots, lettuces, cresses, mustard, rape, salsafy, and herbs of all sorts (some dry and some green); cucumbers, asparagus, and mushrooms are also to be had, though not in season.--Fruit: Apples, pears, nuts, walnuts, medlars, and grapes.