Part 11
In his report for 1870 Dr Townsend, the Sanitary Commissioner for the central provinces of India, states that the natives of India hold an opinion that the use of river and tank water during rainy seasons (when the water always contains an increased quantity of vegetable matter) will almost always cause ague. Boudin ('Traité de Géographie et de Statistiques Médicale,' 1857, t. i, p. 142), records an extraordinary case. Eight hundred soldiers, in good health, embarked in three vessels to pass from Bona, in Algiers, to Marseilles, in the year 1834. They all arrived at Marseilles the same day. In two vessels there were 680 men, without a single sick one amongst them. In the third vessel, the Argo, there had been 120 soldiers; 13 died during the short passage, and of the 107 survivors no less than 98 were disembarked suffering from all forms of paludal fevers. We may presume that the diagnosis was correct, since Boudin himself examined the men. When the vessels started the crew of the Argo had not a single sick man aboard. The crew and soldiers of all the boats were exposed to the same atmospheric conditions. The influence of air must, therefore, be excluded. There is no mention of food, but it has never been suggested that food has ever been concerned in the production of malarious fever. It was a very different matter, however, with the water supply. In two of the vessels the water was good, whilst the Argo had been supplied with marsh water, which was offensive to the smell, as well as unpalatable. This latter was supplied to the soldiers, whilst the crew drank uncontaminated water. Amongst those who deny that marsh water is the cause of ague must be quoted Professor Colin. The professor, who is regarded as an authority on intermittent fever, in his work De l'Ingestion des Eaux Marécageuse comme cause de la Dysenterie et des Fièvres intermittentes,' instances numerous cases in Algiers and Italy in which impure marsh water gives rise to indigestion, diarrh[oe]a, and dysentery, but in no case to intermittent fever; and he states that in all his observations he has never met with an instance of ague having such an origin. Without contesting the case of the Argo, he views it with considerable suspicion, and doubts whether Boudin is correct in his details. Finke also states that, in Hungary and Holland, marsh-water is daily drank without causing any ill-effects. The inhalation of the fumes of oxide of zinc appears to produce in workers of this metal a variety of ague termed by Shackrah "brass ague," and by Dr Greenhow, "brass-founder's ague." The symptoms of the malady are tightness and oppression of the chest; with indefinite nervous sensations, followed by shivering, an indistinct hot stage, and profuse perspiration. These attacks, however, are not periodical.
It is open to doubt whether the malarious poison exists in the form of a gas, for the observations of microscopists go to show the extreme minuteness of the germs of disease, which are probably not more than 1/70000th of an inch in size, and it is regarded as probable that the real cause of ague is the entry into the circulation of some low forms of spores of fungi, or of some minute animalcules. Ague is always to be met with in places where fungi grow, and is always associated with what Pettenkofer calls "the ground air"--that is, the air contained in the interstices of the soil, no inconsiderable volume of which is drawn into every house which has a fire on the floor which rests on the earth. That animalcules (?) may exist in the blood is evidenced by the discovery of Dr Lewis, who found hair-like worms in the circulation; and whilst considering this point, we must bear in mind that the remedial agents employed to check ague, quinine, arsenic, &c., are drugs capable of destroying animal life, and it is not impossible that they may exercise a beneficial effect in destroying the spores or animalcules to which the disease may be due.
The best means to be employed to combat malarial fevers in any district are thorough and efficient drainage (and it must be remembered that drainage purifies both the ground-air and the ground water) and a supply of wholesome water free from decomposing vegetable matter.
That the adoption of the above means cannot fail to succeed is incontestably proved by the fact, that during the last 200 years, ague in England has diminished to a wonderful extent, in short, as good drainage and a pure water supply have prevailed, there has been a proportionate diminution of paludal poisoning.
During the protectorate of Cromwell great mortality prevailed in London, from the ravages of ague; at that time London was as swampy as the fens of Lincolnshire. See FEVER (Intermittent).
=Ague-cake.= The popular name of a tumour felt under the false ribs on the left side, formed by enlargement and induration of the spleen, following protracted ague; also, sometimes, of indurations of the liver following ague.
=Ague-drop.= See DROPS.
=Ague-salt= (s[)o]lt). Disulphate of quinine.
=Ague-tree.= Sassafras.
=Ague-weed.= The herb thorough-wort ('Eupato''rium perfolia'tum,' Linn.).
=AIG'REMORE= ([)e]g'r-mor). [Fr.] Pulverised charcoal in the state it is used to make gunpowder.
=AIGUILLETTE= (ATTELETTE). [Fr.] In _cookery_, a term applied to several small dishes, from the articles of which they consist being mounted on silver needles, or skewers, with ornamental handles or tops. (See _engr._) They form one of the varieties of the 'hors-d'[oe]uvres' of Soyer; and are commonly served on a napkin. The skewers should be about four inches long, and of the thickness of an ordinary packing needle. The person eating what is served on them takes the head of the skewer between the thumb and fingers of the left hand, and picks it off with his fork. Those noticed by Soyer are--
=Aiguillettes à l'Éperlan= (_smelts_);
=Aiguillettes aux Huitres= (_oysters_);
=Aiguillettes de Filets de Sole= (_soles_);
=Aiguillettes de Homard= (_lobsters_);
=Aiguillettes de Langue de B[oe]uf= (_ox-tongue_);
=Aiguillettes de Ris de Veau= (_sweetbread of veal_);
=Aiguillettes de Volaille à la Jolie Fille= (_fowl_);--
all of which are prepared in a nearly similar manner, merely varying the sauces, &c., to suit the article and palate. See ATTELETTES, HORS-D'[OE]UVRES, &c.
=AHORNZUCKER= (genuine American maple sugar). For coughs, hoarseness, and all affections of the throat and chest caused by cold. The raw maple sugar as imported. (Hager.)
=AILANTHUS.= The inner bark of the _ailanthus glandulosa_, a common tree growing in northern China, said by Dr Dudgeon to have proved very successful in dysentery.
The _ailanthus glandulosa_ is also well known throughout the United States. Professor Hétet, of Toulon, tried the effect of the powdered bark, leaves, and various preparations of the bark or drugs, with the result of their administration being attended with purgative effect--and the discharge of worms.
The powdered bark has been given in small cases of tape-worm in the human subject, with marked success. The dose of the powder found sufficient for the expulsion of the tapeworm was from seven or eight to thirty grains.
=AIL'MENT.= Pain, indisposition; disease. Its use is generally restricted to the non-acute, and milder forms of disease.
=AIR.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ Aer, L. (from [Greek: aêr] Gr.); LUFT, Ger.; ATMOSPHERIC AIR; THE ATMOSPHERE. This name was formerly given to any aëriform body; thus, by the old chemists ammoniacal gas was called alkaline air; oxygen,--dephlogisticated, vital, or empyreal air; carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid), fixed air; hydrogen, inflammable air; heavy carbonetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, heavy inflammable air; nitrogen,--mephitic, phlogisticated, or nitrous air. At the present time the term air is usually restricted to the gaseous envelope surrounding the solid and liquid parts of our globe.
=Air, Atmospheric= (or simply, The Air). The air chiefly consists of a mechanical mixture of four volumes of nitrogen and one volume of oxygen, or more accurately--
By volume. By weight. Nitrogen 79·1 76·8 Oxygen 20·9 23·2 ----- ----- 100 100[12]
[Footnote 12: At a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, held on the 31st of December, 1877, it was announced that M. Cailletet had succeeded in liquefying atmospheric air.]
We may premise our description of the functions of the constituents of the atmosphere by the following quotation from Mr Blyth's 'Dictionary of Hygiène and Public Health':--"One of the most important properties of air is its power of penetration and its universality. Air is, indeed, present everywhere; there is scarcely a solid, however compact it may appear to be, which does not contain pores, and these pores filled with air. The soil contains no small quantity; indeed, if it were not so the numberless insects, worms, &c., which burrow in its interstices would cease to exist. The most compact mortar and walls are penetrated with it, and water of natural origin contains a large quantity of air in solution. The atmosphere is supposed to extend to a very great height, from 200 to 300 miles; it used to be considered only five (forty-five) miles high, but observations on shooting stars, &c., show that this opinion is erroneous. Owing to the force of gravity, the air is much denser near the earth, and gets more attenuated layer by layer as you ascend. If, then, the atmosphere were possessed of colour, it would be very dark just round the globe, and the tint would gradually fade into space. The air is by no means wholly gaseous; it contains, indeed, an immense amount of life, and small particles derived from the whole creation. In the air may be found animalcules, spores, seeds, pollen cells of all kind, vibriones, elements of contagion, eggs of insects, &c., and a few fungi, besides formless dust, sandy, and other particles of local origin; for example, no one can ride in a railway carriage without being accompanied with dust, a great portion of which is attracted by a magnet, and is, indeed, minute particles of iron derived from the rails. The purest air has some dust in it. There probably never fell a beam of light from the sun since the world was made which did not show, were there eyes to see it, myriads of motes; these, however, generally speaking, are quite innocuous to man--some, indeed, may possibly be beneficial. Another most important property of air is its mobility; on the calmest day and in the quietest room there are constant currents of air which rapidly dilute any noxious odours of gases."
The chief functions of the oxygen are to maintain respiration and support combustion, while the office of the nitrogen is to dilute the oxygen and control its energy.
Besides nitrogen and oxygen, aqueous vapour, carbonic anhydride, ammonia, and nitric acid are met with in the atmosphere, the last especially during and shortly after thunder storms.
Although, doubtless owing to local conditions, trifling variations may occur in the proportion of oxygen present in the atmosphere, this variation is so trifling that the difference of the amount in air from places separated by very long distances will be found in the second decimal place only; thus, whilst a portion of air taken during a balloon ascent by Mr Green gave on analysis 20·88 per cent. by vol., Dr Frankland found in air collected by himself on the summit of Mont Blanc 20·96 per cent. by vol. A still nearer approximation in uniformity in the amount of oxygen present in atmospheric air is exhibited in the following table, which gives the results of 95 analyses by Regnault on air obtained from nine different localities:--
100 from Paris gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·913 to 20·999 9 from Lyons and around gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·918 to 20·966 30 from Berlin gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·908 to 20·998 10 from Madrid gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·916 to 20·982 23 from Geneva and Switzerland gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·909 to 20·993 15 from Toulon and Mediterranean gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·912 to 20·982 5 from Atlantic Ocean gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·918 to 20·965 1 from Ecuador gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·960 2 from Pichincha gave in 100 parts, by vol. of oxygen 20·949 to 20·981 ------ ------ Mean of all foregoing 20·949 20·988 " of the Paris specimens 20·96
Vapour of water is essential to the respiration of animals and plants, in order that the organs concerned in this operation may be kept in a soft and moist condition.
Carbonic anhydride is evolved during combustion, putrefaction, and fermentation; it is also a product of the respiration of animals, and highly poisonous to them, even when diluted with large proportions of air. This gas is, however, greedily absorbed by plants, which decompose it; they assimilate the carbon and return the oxygen to the atmosphere, ready to be again consumed in supporting the life of the animal world.
Dr Angus Smith has defined a very pure air to be one that contains with 20·99 per cent. of oxygen 0·30 of carbonic acid (anhydride).
This latter varies in amount in the atmosphere of cities, as will be seen upon inspection of the subjoined table, extracted from Dr Smith's work 'Air and Rain':--
Per cent. Air of Madrid, outside the walls, mean of 12 analyses, by Luna ·045 Mean of 12 analyses, within the walls of Madrid, by Luna ·051 Mean of 14 analyses, by Angus Smith, in Manchester suburbs ·369 In Manchester streets ·403 Usual weather ·0403 During fogs ·0679
De Saussure's analyses show that there is more carbonic acid on the mountains than in the plains, as might be inferred from the comparative absence of vegetation in elevated positions. Dr Pietra Santa states that the air of hills or mountains, at the height of 2300 feet, is lighter than common air, contains a smaller proportion of oxygen, and is impregnated with a largely increased amount of aqueous vapour. It also contains a large quantity of ozone. He considers such a climate peculiarly soothing to persons suffering from chest diseases.
Dr Angus Smith's analysis of the air from the mountainous districts of Scotland confirms the above statement of Dr Pietra Santa's. The heaths and mountains of that country are remarkably healthy localities, and the air from them gave on analysis 20·94 per cent. by vol. of oxygen, and only ·033 of carbonic acid.
Ammonia is derived from the putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances. It is from atmospheric ammoniacal compounds that plants obtain much of the nitrogen which is essential to the formation of many parts of their structure.
Nitric acid, like ammonia, is absorbed, and its nitrogen assimilated, by plants.
In addition to the gases and vapours already enumerated, as well as others which exist in minute quantity, or which are of only occasional occurrence, Pasteur and other investigators have discovered in the air living germs which are capable of exciting putrefaction and fermentation, and which are competent, in some instances, to engender disease when they are injected into the blood of animals. In fact, the spread of infectious diseases, _e.g._, smallpox, typhus fever, cattle plague, &c., is attributed to the presence in the atmosphere of the germs of such maladies. These germs are believed to be living beings, which develope and multiply at the expense of the tissues of the larger animals into whose systems they have found entrance.
=Air, Vitiated.= As has been stated in the previous article, the air consists chiefly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. In all open places it has a similar composition, as might be concluded from the constant mingling which takes place by the agency of currents continually in movement, although sometimes to an inconsiderable extent only. Dr Angus Smith regards air as very pure when it contains not less than 20·99 per cent. by volume of oxygen, and 0·030 of carbonic anhydride (acid). According as the proportion of the former gas diminishes and that of the latter increases beyond certain limits in the air by which we are surrounded, it becomes more or less deteriorated and unfit to be breathed, particularly as the increased amount of carbonic acid is, in crowded dwellings, assembly rooms, theatres, and confined inhabited spaces, associated with deleterious and putrescent exhalations from the person.
_The following tables exhibit the amount of carbonic acid in close places in London._
Per-centage =I.= by volume. Chancery Court, closed doors, 7 feet from the ground, March 3 ·193 Same, 3 feet from ground ·203 Chancery Court, doors wide open, 4 feet from ground, 11·40, March 5 ·0507 Same, 12·40 p.m., 5 feet from ground ·045 Strand Theatre, gallery, 10 p.m. ·101 Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 10·30 p.m. ·218 Olympic, 11·30 p.m. ·0817 Same, 11·55 p.m. ·1014 Victoria Theatre, boxes, March 24, 10 p.m. ·126 Haymarket Theatre, dress circle, March 18, 11·30 p.m. ·0757 Queen's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·25 p.m. ·052 Edward's Ward, St. Thomas's Hospital, 3·30 p.m. ·052 Victoria Theatre, boxes, April 4. ·076 Effingham, 10·30 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·126 Pavilion, 10·11 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel ·152 City of London Theatre, pit, 11·15 p.m., April 16 ·252 Standard Theatre, pit, 11 p.m., April 16 ·320
Dr Angus Smith states that out of 339 specimens of air obtained from various mines he found 35 normal or nearly so, 81 decidedly impure, and 212 exceedingly bad; he also adds that owing to the frequent firing of charges of gunpowder within the mines, and from other causes, the atmosphere is further contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphate, carbonate, sulphide, sulphocyanide of potassium, and nitrate of potassium, carbon, sulphur, carbonate of ammonia, organic matter, sand, and sulphurous and arsenious acids.
The air of large cities, which are the seats of manufacturing industry, is always more or less charged with the exhalations given off by chemical and other works. The sulphuric-acid works contribute sulphuric, sulphurous, nitrous, and arsenious acids; copper works, in which pyrites is employed, give off large quantities of sulphurous acid, mixed with arsenic and a little copper; manure works, in many cases, send out compounds of fluorine, besides sulphuric acid; glass works, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids; and alkali works, hydrochloric acid (although in small quantities), which very frequently contains arsenic. Of ammonia, Angus Smith remarks: "It is one measure of the 'sewage' of the air; it is the result of decomposition. It is not, in these small quantities, hurtful, so far as we know. The ammonia is in no case free, but combined probably with hydrosulphuric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acid in towns. In country places it is, at all events partly, united to carbonic acid.
II. _London Air.--Carbonic Acid, Metropolitan Railway, November, 1869._
+--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ | | | |Carbonic | Oxygen, | | Date. | Place. |Time of Day.| Acid, |per cent.| | | | |per cent.| | +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ | 1869. |Tunnel between Gower Street | | | | |Nov. 12.|and King's Cross Stations; | 10 a.m. | ·150 | 20·60 | | |specimen taken at the open | | | | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | " 12.|Tunnel between Gower Street | | | | | |and King's Cross Stations; | 7·30 p.m. | ·078 | 20·79 | | |specimen taken at the open | | | | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | " 12.|Tunnel Praed Street; | | | | | |specimen taken at the open | 10·30 a.m. | ... | 20·71 | | |window, first-class | | | | | |carriage. | | | | | | | | | | | " 15.|Specimen taken during | | | | | |journey between Gower Street| 10·15 a.m. | ·338 | 20·66 | | |and King's Cross, | | | | | |first-class carriage, window| | | | | |open. | | | | | | | | | | | " 15.|Same | 3 p.m. | ·155 | 20·70 | | | | | | | | " 15.|Same | 11 p.m. | ·150 | 20·74 | | | | | | | +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ | |Average | | ·1452 | 20·70 | +--------+----------------------------+------------+---------+---------+ ANGUS SMITH.
_The Air of Mines_ (_Metalliferous_).