Part 100

_c._ (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc and lycopodium, of each 15 gr.; simple cerate, 1/2 oz. In sore nipples, ulcerations of the breast, tetters, &c. It acts best when diluted with half its weight of spermaceti cerate.

_d._ (U. S. Ph.) Precipitated carbonate zinc, 2 oz.; simple cerate, 10 oz. A substitute for calamine cerate.

=CEREB'RIC ACID.= A peculiar acid compound, first noticed by M. Frémy, obtained along with oleo-phosphoric acid when the brain and nerves are treated with hot alcohol. It is solid, white, crystalline; freely soluble in boiling alcohol, and forms a solid gelatinous mass with hot water; fusible with decomposition, exhaling a peculiar odour, and leaving much charcoal behind. It has been found also in the yolk of eggs, in seminal fluid, and in pus. With the alkalies it forms insoluble salts termed cerebrates.

=CEREB'ROLEIN.= When oleo-phosphoric acid is boiled in water, it is resolved into a fluid neutral oil and phosphoric acid, which dissolves. The former is cerebrolein.

=CE'RIN=, HC_{27}H_{53}O_{2}. (Brodie.) _Syn._ CEROTIC ACID. When pure beeswax (bleached) is digested in boiling alcohol for some time, a solution of myricin and cerin is formed. The former is deposited as the liquid cools, and the latter may be obtained by evaporating the decanted portion. Cerin is a white, crystallisable substance, soluble in 16 parts of boiling alcohol; it fuses at 144° Fahr.; and is readily saponified with caustic alkaline lyes. It greatly resembles white wax, of which, indeed, it forms from 70%; to 80%.

=CERISIN.= A substance obtained from ozokerit or fossil wax, very similar in appearance and properties to white wax, for which it has been proposed as a substitute in pharmaceutical preparations. At present it is chiefly used in the manufacture of candles. Cerisin appears to be one of the paraffins. It differs, however, from ordinary paraffin in not being unctuous to the touch, in being non-translucent and firmer in texture, and in having a higher fusing point. It seems to be intermediate between ordinary paraffin and wax.

=CE'RIUM.= Ce. A metal discovered in 1803 by Hisinger and Berzelius in the mineral named cerite.

=Cerium Oxalate.= (Ph. B.) It may be obtained as a precipitate by adding a solution of oxalate of ammonia to a soluble salt of cerium.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr. Given in the vomiting of pregnancy.

=CE'ROMEL.= _Prep._ (Van Mons.) Beeswax, 1 oz.; honey, 4 oz.; melt together and stir until cold. An excellent application to irritable ulcers, abraded surfaces, sore nipples, &c.

=CERO'TIC ACID.= See CERIN.

=CESSPOOLS.= It may be well to point out that the local authorities of any district in which a cesspool is situated are required by the Public Health Act--1. To see that it is so constructed and kept as to prevent its becoming either a nuisance or detrimental to health. 2. That an examination of any cesspool can be made by the sanitary inspector, or by any officer appointed by the local authority, after notice of entry has been served upon those who are the occupiers of the premises on which it is situated. 3. The local authority may itself undertake the cleansing of a cesspool, or it may enact bye-laws imposing this duty on the occupiers of the premises. 4. If the local authority, after having undertaken the cleansing of a cesspool, fail to do its duty, it becomes liable, after notice from an occupier, for the payment to the said occupier of a penalty not exceeding five shillings a day during default. 5. Any person in an urban district who allows the contents of a cesspool to overflow, or to soak therefrom, incurs a penalty of forty shillings for each offence, and a further charge of five shillings a day for the continuance of the offence after notice. 6. Information of any nuisance under the said Act in the district of any local authority may be given to such local authority by any person aggrieved thereby, or by any two inhabitant householders of such district, or by any officer of such authority, or by the relieving officer, or by any constable or officer of the police force of such district.

It does not come within our province to enter into details as to the best method of building a cesspool.

We may, however, state, that owing to the defective and leaky construction of a cesspool, it very frequently becomes a serious source of dangerous contamination to the wells in the neighbourhood, as well as a ready means of contagion, when it contains the excreta of fever patients. The outbreak of typhoid fever at the west end of London in 1874, the origin of which was traced to the milk supply, was owing to the vessels in which the milk was collected in the country having been washed out with water taken from a well near a cesspool, into which ran the contents of a privy belonging to a house, some of the inmates of which were labouring under typhoid fever.

For a cesspool not to be injurious to health it should be water-tight and ventilated by a shaft; it should never be allowed to overflow; and should be sunk at as great a distance from houses or dwellings as possible.

=CE'TIN.= C_{32}H_{64}O_{2}. Chevreul applied this name to pure spermaceti. _Prep._ Dissolve spermaceti in boiling alcohol, and collect the crystals that are deposited as the solution cools. Bright pearly crystals, melting at 120°, and subliming at 670° Fahr. See SPERMACETI.

=CETRAR'IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{18}H_{14}O_{8}. _Syn._ CETRAR'IN. The bitter principle of Iceland moss (_Cetraria Islandica_). It exists, in the free state, in the cortical portion of the thallus.

_Prep._ 1. Iceland moss (bruised), 1 part; rectified spirit, 6 parts; boil in a covered vessel for half an hour; express the liquor whilst hot, filter, and distil off the spirit; redissolve the residuum in boiling alcohol, decant the clear, and let the solution cool slowly; lastly, collect the crystals and preserve them out of contact with air.

2. (Herberger.) Iceland moss (in coarse powder), 1 lb.; alcohol (·883), 4 lbs.; boil as before, cool until vapours cease to rise, express the tincture, add hydrochloric acid, 3 dr., (dissolved in) water, 2 oz.; let it rest for a night in a closed matrass; then decant, throw the deposit on a filter, press it in bibulous paper, and whilst still moist wash it with both alcohol and ether; lastly, purify it by digestion in boiling alcohol, as before.

_Prop., &c._ Pure cetraric acid occurs under the form of minute, shining, acicular crystals; it is intensely bitter, non-volatile, scarcely soluble in water, ether, and cold alcohol; soluble in alkaline solutions forming soluble salts, which give a red colour with the persalts of iron, and a yellow one with acetate of lead. The compounds are called cetrarates.--_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr. every three hours, as a febrifuge; 1 to 3 gr. thrice daily, as a tonic.

=CHA'BERT'S OIL.= _Syn._ CHABERT'S EMPYREUMAT'IC OIL; O'LEUM EMPYREUMAT'ICUM CHABERTI, O. CONTRA TÆNIAM CHABERTI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor. 1847.) From empyreumatic oil of hartshorn, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 3 parts; mix and distil over three fourths only in a glass retort, and keep it in well-stopped bottles. In tapeworm.--_Dose_, 2 teaspoonfuls in water, night and morning, until 4 to 6 or even 7 oz. have been taken; a cathartic being also administered from time to time.

=CHAFING.= See EXCORIATIONS.

=CHAIRS.= The black leather work of chairs, settees, &c., may be restored by first well washing off the dirt with a little warm soap and water, and afterwards with clean water. The brown and faded portions may now be retained by means of a little black ink, or preferably, black reviver, and when this has got thoroughly dry, they may be touched over with white of egg, stained and mixed with a little sugar-candy. When the surface is nearly dry, it should be polished off with a clean brush.

=CHALK.= _Syn._ SOFT CARBONATE OF LIME, or CARBONATE OF CALCIUM, EARTHY C. OF L.; CRE'TA, L. Chalk is largely used in the arts and manufactures, and in medicine. The natural varieties are remarkable for the fossils which they contain. The COLOURED CHALKS which are used as pigments and for crayons generally contain both clay and magnesia, as well as oxide of iron, and are minerals quite distinct from WHITE CHALK, or CHALK properly so called. The latter is an AMORPHOUS CARBONATE OF LIME. Exposed for some time to a red heat, it is converted into QUICK-LIME; ground in mills and elutriated, it forms WHITING; the same process performed more carefully and on a smaller scale produces the PREPARED CHALK used in medicine. When prepared artificially (by precipitation), it is the PRECIPITATED CHALK of modern pharmacy. (See _below_.)

=Chalk, Black.= A variety of drawing slate.

=Chalk, Brown.= A familiar name for umber.

=Chalk, Cam'phorated.= _Syn._ CRETACEOUS TOOTH POWDER, CAM'PHORATED T. P.; CRE'TA CAM'PHORATA, C. CUM CAMPHO'RA, L. _Prep._ 1. Camphor, 1 oz.; add a few drops of spirit of wine, reduce it to a very fine powder, and mix it (perfectly) with precipitated chalk, 7 oz.; lastly, pass it through a clean, fine sieve, and keep it in a corked bottle. These proportions make the strongest "CAMPHORATED TOOTH POWDER" of the shops.

2. Camphor, 1 oz.; precipitated chalk, 15 oz.; as before. These are the best and safest proportions, and those now generally adopted by the West-end perfumers.

3. As either of the above, but using prepared chalk in lieu of precipitated chalk. Less white and velvety, but cleans the teeth better than the softer article.

_Uses, &c._ Camphorated chalk is much esteemed as a dentifrice; especially by smokers, and those troubled with foul teeth, or offensive breath. It may be scented with a few drops (3 or 4 to each oz.) of otto of roses, oil of cloves, or neroli, or of the essences of ambergris, musk, or vanilla; but care must be taken not to overdo it. When the teeth are much furred or discoloured, it may be mixed with about one seventh of its weight of finely powdered pumice stone (sifted through lawn), which will render it more effective. A little carmine, rouge, light red (burnt ochre), red coral, or rose pink, is also sometimes added to give it a tinge approaching that of the gums. The quantity of camphor (1 to 3 or 4) commonly ordered in certain books is absurdly large, and would render the compound not only unpleasant in use, but actually detrimental to the teeth. See DENTIFRICES.

=Chalk, French.= Soap stone or steatite, a soft magnesian mineral, possessing the property of writing on glass. It is used by tailors for marking cloths. Its powder (obtained by scraping) is very soft, velvety, and absorbent of grease. It forms the boot powder of the boot- and shoe-makers.

=Chalk Mixture.= _Syn._ MISTURA CRETÆ, L. Prepared chalk, 1 part; gum arabic (in powder), 1 part; syrup, 2 parts; cinnamon water, 30 parts; mix by trituration.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 oz., with astringent tinctures and opium. Care should be taken to use the prepared chalk as directed; the precipitated chalk has a crystalline character, and is said to occasion irritation of the bowels. (Squire.)

=Chalk, Precip'itated.= _Syn._ PRECIPITATED CAR'BONATE OF LIME; CRE'TA PRÆCIPITA'TA, CAL'CIS CARB'ONAS PRÆCIPITA'TUM, L. _Prep._ 1. By adding to a solution of chloride of calcium, any quantity, another of carbonate of soda (both cold), and well washing the precipitate with pure water, and drying it out of the dust.

2. (Ph. D.) Solution of chloride of calcium (Ph. D.), 5 parts; carbonate of soda, 3 parts; (dissolved in) water, 4 parts.

3. (B. P.) Dissolve chloride of calcium, 5 oz.; and carbonate of soda, 13 oz.; each in two pints of boiling distilled water; mix the two solutions, and allow the precipitate to subside. Collect this on a calico filter, wash it with boiling distilled water, until the washing cease to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver, and try the product at the temperature of 212° F.

_Uses, &c._ It is chiefly employed for making aromatic confection, cretaceous powder, and chalk mixture. That of the shops is seldom pure, the refuse of the soda-water makers (sulphate of lime) being commonly sold for it. When pure it is wholly soluble, with effervescence, in dilute hydrochloric acid. (See _below_.)

=Chalk, Prepa''red.= _Syn._ CRE'TA (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), CRE'TA PREPARA'TA (Ph. L. 1851), CRE'TA AL'BA (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D. 1836.) Rub chalk, 1 lb., with sufficient water, add gradually, until reduced to a smooth cream; then stir this into a large quantity of water, and, after a short interval, to allow the coarser particles to subside, pour off the supernatant water (still turbid) into another vessel, and allow the suspended powder to settle; lastly, collect the chalk so prepared and dry it. In the same way shells are prepared, after being first freed from impurities and washed with boiling water.

2. (Commercial; WHI'TING.) On the large scale the chalk is ground in mills, and the elutriation and deposit made in large reservoirs. It is now seldom prepared by the druggist.

_Pur._ Almost entirely soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, provided it contains no sulphate of lime or silica, giving off small bubbles of carbonic acid gas.

_Test._ The salt formed by dissolving the chalk in hydrochloric acid, if rendered neutral by evaporation to dryness and redissolved in water, gives only a very scanty precipitate on the addition of a saccharated solution of lime, indicating absence of phosphate. (B. P.)

_Uses, &c._ In _medicine_, as an absorbent, antacid, and desiccant; in acidity, heartburn, dyspepsia, and other like stomach affections, and in diarrh[oe]a, depending on acidity or irritation; in the latter, generally combined with aromatics, astringents, or opium. It forms a valuable dusting powder in excoriations, ulcers, &c., especially in those of children.--_Dose_, 10 gr. to a spoonful, in a little water or milk, or made into a mixture with mucilage or syrup.

=Chalk, Red.= A natural clay containing about 18% of protoxide and carbonate of iron.

=CHALYB'EATES.= _Syn._ CHALYBEA'TA, FERRUGIN'EA, L. The medicinal qualities of the preparations of iron are noticed under the name of that metal. Those most frequently employed in medicine are--IRON FILINGS; QUEVENNE'S IRON; the BLACK OXIDE, MAGNETIC OXIDE, and SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; the AMMONIO-CHLORIDE and SESQUICHLORIDE; the CARBONATE and SACCHARINE CARBONATE; the CITRATE and AMMONIO-CITRATE; the IODIDE, LACTATE, and SULPHATE; the TARTRATE, AMMONIO-TARTRATE, and POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF IRON; and the CHALYBEATE MINERAL WATERS. For the doses, &c., see the respective articles.

=CHAM'OMILE.= _Syn._ ANTHE'MIS, L. The flowers of the _Anthemis nobilis_ (_Anthemidis Flores_, B. P.). They are bitter, stomachic, and tonic; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, intermittents, &c. They are an effectual remedy for nightmare; and, according to Dr Schall, the only certain remedy for that complaint.--_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more, in powder or made into a tea. Fomentations are also made with it. See EXTRACTS, OILS, PILLS, &c.

=CHAMPAGNE'.= See WINES.

=CHAPS.= These are too well known to require description. Chapped hands are common amongst persons with a languid circulation, who are continually "dabbling" in water during cold weather. Chapped lips generally occur in persons with pallid, bluish, moist lips, who are much exposed to the wind in dry cold weather; especially in those who are continually moving from heated apartments to the external air. The application of a little COLD CREAM, POMATUM, SPERMACETI OINTMENT, LARD, or any similar article, will generally prevent chaps on the lips, and chaps and chilblains on the hands. Persons employed in oil and tallow works, or about oil, and who have consequently their hands continually in contact with greasy matter, never suffer from these things. A little oil or unguent of any kind, well rubbed on the hands on going to rest (removing the superfluous portion with a cloth), will not only preserve them from cold, but tend to render them both soft and white. See CHILBLAIN.

=CHAR (Potted).= The flesh of the _Salmo Alpinus_ (Linn.), or trout of the Alps, common in the lakes of Lapland, preserved by the common process of potting.

=CHAR'BON-ROUX= [Fr.]. See CHARCOAL, WOOD (_below_).

=CHAR'COAL.= Charcoal is made by charring organic substances, such as wood, bone, blood, &c., and is, in other words, the fixed residuum of vegetable or animal matter exposed to a high temperature out of contact with atmospheric air.

There are several different varieties of charcoal, the chief of which, however, are wood and animal charcoal.

=Charcoal, Animal.= _Syn._ ANIMAL BLACK, BONE BLACK, IVORY BLACK, CARBO ANIMALIS. The charcoal obtained by igniting bone in close vessels, but often applied likewise to any charcoal obtained from animal matter.

_Commercial._ Bones (deprived of their grease by boiling) are broken to pieces, and put into small cast-iron pots, varying from 3/8 to 1/2 an inch in thickness. Two of these being filled, are dexterously placed with their mouths together and then luted with loam. A number of these vessels are then placed side by side and piled on each other, in an oven resembling a potter's kiln, to the number of 100 or 150, or even more. The fire is next kindled, and the heat kept up strongly for 10 or 12 hours, according to circumstances, until the process is completed. The whole is then allowed to cool before opening the pots.

A more economical method is by distillation, as under:--

Bones (previously boiled for their grease) are introduced into retorts similar to those used in gas works, and heat being applied, the volatile products are conveyed away by iron pipes to cisterns where the condensable portion is collected. As soon as the process of distillation is finished, the solid residuum in the retorts, while still red hot, is removed through their lower ends into wrought-iron canisters, which are instantly closed by air-tight covers and luted over. These are then raised to the ground by a crane, and set aside to cool.

The bones, having been carbonised, are ground in a mill, and the resulting coarse powder, sorted by sieves into two kinds, one, granular, somewhat resembling gunpowder, for decolorising liquids, and the other, quite fine, to be used as a pigment. The first is sold under the name of animal charcoal; the second as bone or ivory black. The latter and other fine varieties of animal charcoal are fully described under the head of BLACK PIGMENTS.

_Uses, &c._ This crude animal charcoal possesses the valuable property of taking lime and other saline matter from syrups and other aqueous solutions, especially organic ones, at the same time that it decolours them. Its power as a decoloriser may be tested by adding it to a solution of brown sugar or of molasses, or to water containing 1/1000 part of indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid. The test should be made in a small glass tube. By well washing and carefully reburning it, this charcoal may be used any number of times. As a decoloriser and deodoriser, animal charcoal is vastly superior to vegetable charcoal.

Dr Stenhouse has invented a charcoal respirator to cover over the mouth and nostrils of a person going into an infected atmosphere. Charcoal is also used with excellent effect to prevent the escape of noxious vapours and offensive effluvia from the ventilating openings of sewers. The charcoal condenses and oxidises the escaping sewer gas in its pores. Dr Garrod has proposed animal charcoal as a general antidote in cases of poisoning.

PREPARED ANIMAL CHARCOAL. Hydrochloric acid, 1 lb.; water, 1 pint; mix, add bone black, 7 lbs.; make a paste; in 2 or 3 days stir in boiling water, 1 quart; and the next day wash it with fresh water until the washings cease to affect litmus paper or a solution of carbonate of sodium; then collect it in a cloth, and drain, press, and dry it; lastly, heat it to redness, as before. Used to decolour syrups, &c.; and occasionally by the distillers and rectifiers.

The most powerful charcoal is prepared by calcining blood, and well washing the residue, and which is the method of the last 'London Pharmacop[oe]ia.' The B. P. directs it to be made by burning bones in a closed vessel.

_Concluding Remarks._ Animal charcoal, however prepared, if intended to be used as a deodoriser or decoloriser, should be kept thoroughly excluded from the air, as by exposure it loses all its valuable properties, and becomes absolutely inert. Freshly burnt charcoal is therefore to be employed whenever it can be obtained.

=Charcoal, Wood.= _Syn._ VEG'ETABLE CHARCOAL; CAR'BO LIG'NI, L. The residue obtained after heating wood without access of air to about 572° Fahr. It is extremely porous, and retains the structure of the wood from which it is derived. It consists essentially of carbon and of the fixed or inorganic matter which exists in wood; but if carbonisation be imperfectly effected, it may contain a sensible amount of hydrogen.

Charcoal burning is effected in the open air in piles or stacks provided with a yielding cover, in pits, in closed chambers of brick or stone, and in iron retorts heated externally like common gas retorts. The latter method is only practised by the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid and gunpowder.

CHARCOAL FOR FUEL, &c. The method of pile burning is that which is most extensively practised. Pieces of wood of equal length are piled concentrically round a sort of chimney formed by driving 3 stakes in the ground; those nearest the centre are almost vertical, and the surrounding pieces have a slight but gradually increasing inclination; a second row, and in the case of very large piles even a third, may be stacked in a similar manner one above the other. The pile is covered with turf and soil, and kindled by filling the space within the 3 central stakes with easily inflammable wood, which is ignited. The character of the smoke which issues from vents made in the piles indicates exactly the degrees of carbonisation in different parts. When the charcoal is drawn from the pile it is extinguished by cold water, or if that is not at hand, by charcoal dust or dry soil. In some parts of Sweden the wood is charred in large rectangular stacks, and in China the method of charring in pits is practised.

CHARCOAL FOR GUN'POWDER; CYL'INDER CHARCOAL. The charcoal employed in the manufacture of gunpowder is burnt in close iron cylinders, and has hence received the name of cylinder charcoal. For this and other nice purposes it is essential that the last portion of the tar and vinegar should be suffered to escape, and the reabsorption of the crude vapours prevented by cutting off the communication between the cylinders and the condensing apparatus; as without this precaution, on the fire being withdrawn, a retrograde movement of the product takes place, and the charcoal is much reduced in quality. Alder and willow are the woods chiefly used for making charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The Dutch white willow, and after that the Huntingdon willow, are said to yield the best charcoal for gunpowder. The charcoal from the cylinders of the pyroligneous acid (wood vinegar) works is also called cylinder charcoal, and is that chiefly used for chemical purposes; but it is inferior to that prepared for gunpowder.

CHARCOAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. The box-wood charcoal, employed in voltaic electricity, is prepared by putting prismatic pieces of box-wood, about 1 inch long by 1/2 inch thick, into a crucible, which is then filled with clean, dry sand, covered up, and exposed to a red heat for about an hour.