Part 10

ACONITIA with other alkaloids, _e.g._, delphinia, aconella, &c. ALE, common salt, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, quassia, and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, &c. ALLSPICE, mustard husks. ANCHOVIES, other fish, and colouring matters, _e.g._, Armenian bole, Venetian red, &c. ANNATTO, all sorts of starch, soap, red ferruginous earths, carbonate and sulphate of lime, salts, &c. ARROWROOT, various other fecula, such as sago, tapioca, potato, and others. BALSAM OF COPAIBA, turpentine and fixed oils. BEEF (POTTED), Armenian bole. BISMUTH, carbonate of lead, sometimes arsenic (this latter is an impurity not intentional). BLOATERS (POTTED), Armenian bole. BRANDY, water, burnt sugar, &c. BREAD, potatoes (mashed), alum, inferior flour, &c., &c. BUTTER, water, salt, colouring matter, lard, tallow, and other fats. CAJUPUT OIL, copper, camphor dissolved in oil of rosemary, and coloured with copper as a substitute. CALAMINE, coloured sulphate of baryta. CALOMEL, sulphate of baryta, chalk, white precipitate, white lead, pipe-clay, &c., &c. CALUMBA, tinged bryony root, root of _Frasera Walteri_, and others. CAMBOGE, starch, &c. CAMPHOR, a substitution of Borneo camphor has been made. CANTHARIDES, golden beetle, artificially coloured glass, &c. CARBONATE OF LEAD, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, chalk, &c., &c. CARMINE (COCHINEAL), sulphate of baryta, bone black, &c. CASSIA (SENNA), leaves of _Solenostemma argel_, and other foreign leaves. CASTOR OIL, other oils, often small quantities of croton oil. CAYENNE, ground rice, vermilion, Venetian red, turmeric. CHAMPAGNE, gooseberry and other wines as substitutes, different colouring matters, &c. CHEESE, annatto, bole (Armenian), and other colouring matters. CHICORY, colouring matters, such as ferruginous earths, and burnt sugar, Venetian red, &c., and different flours, such as wheat, rye, beans, &c., and sometimes sawdust. CIDER, lead (as an impurity, not intentional). CIGARS, substitutions of hay and other rubbish, inferior tobacco, leaves sometimes darkened by some brown vegetable dye. CINNAMON, cassia, clove stalks, and different flowers. CLARET, brandy, and substitution of inferior wines. CLOVES, clove stalks. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE, cheaper kinds of arrow-root, such as _Tous les mois_ and East Indian, animal matter, corn, sago, tapioca, &c. COFFEE, chicory, roasted wheat, rye flowers, and colouring matters, such as burnt sugar, &c. COD-LIVER OIL, other oils mixed with it. COLOCYNTH (COMPOUND EXTRACT OF), the extract is not unfrequently made with the pulp and seeds. CONFECTIONERY, injurious colouring matters, such as arsenite of copper, chromate of lead, &c. CONFECTION, AROMATIC (AROMATIC CHALK POWDER), expensive ingredients omitted, turmeric substituted for saffron, &c., &c. COPAL, gum dammar, resin, &c. CURRY-POWDER, red lead, ground rice, salt. CUSPARIA BARK, the bark of _Strychnos Nux Vomica_ is said to have been substituted. CUSTARD AND EGG POWDER, turmeric, chrome yellow, and different flours. ELATERIUM, starch, flour, chalk, &c. EPSOM SALTS, chloride magnesium, chalk, &c. ETHER, alcohol. FLOUR, other and inferior flours, as the flour from rice, bean, Indian corn, potato, &c., sulphate of lime, alum. GELATINE, salt and sugar. GIN, water, sugar, capsicum, flavouring matters of different kinds, turpentine, alum, tartar. GINGER, turmeric, and husks of mustard, flour from wheat, sago, &c. GUAIACUM RESIN, other resins. HONEY, flour, cane sugar, &c. HOPS, _Cocculus indicus_, grains of paradise, &c., &c. IODIDE OF POTASSIUM, water, carbonate of potash, chlorides of soda and potash, iodate of potash, iodine, &c. IODINE, water, plumbago, charcoal, black oxide of manganese, &c. IPECAQUANHA, other roots, extraneous woody fibre; when in powder, chalk, flour, &c., have been added. ISINGLASS, gelatine. JALAP, raspings of guaiacum, false jalap root, &c. LARD, carbonate of soda, salt, potato, flour, and lime. LEMON JUICE, a mixture of sugar and water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, has been substituted. LIQUORICE, rice, chalk, gelatine, and different flours. MAGNESIA, MAGNESIA SULPHATE, lime, carbonate of magnesia. MAGNESIA, CARBONATE, lime, sulphate, &c., &c. MARMALADE, apple, or turnip pulp. MERCURY, lead, tin, zinc, bismuth, &c. MERCURY GREEN IODIDE OF, red iodide of MERCURY RED OXIDE OF, brick-dust, red lead, &c. MERCURY AMMONIATED (WHITE PRECIPITATE), chalk, carbonate of lead, plaster of Paris, &c., &c. MILK, water. MUSTARD, turmeric, wheat flour. MYRRH, gum bdellium, and other gum resins. OATMEAL, barley flour, rubble. OPIUM, stones, sand, clay, vegetable extracts, sugar, treacle, water, &c. PAREIRA ROOT, different roots substituted. PEPPER, linseed meal, different flours, mustard husks, &c. PICKLES, salts of copper, acetate of copper. PORTER AND STOUT, sugar, treacle, water and salt. POTASH, carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of potash, lime, iron, and alumina. POTASH, ACETATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash. POTASH, CARBONATE OF, sulphates, and chlorides of potash. POTASH, BICARBONATE OF, carbonate of potash. POTASH, CITRATE OF, sulphates of potash. POTASH, CHLORATE OF, chloride of potassium. POTASH, TARTRATE OF, tartrate of lime. POTASH, NITRATE OF, sulphate or chloride of potassium. PRESERVES, salts of copper. QUININE, sulphate of lime, chalk, magnesia, cane-sugar, sulphate of cinchonine, &c. RHUBARB, turmeric, and inferior varieties substituted for Turkey. RUM, water, cayenne, burnt sugar. SAGO, potato flour. SAUCE, treacle, salt, cochineal, Armenian bole, and other colouring matters. SCAMMONY, chalk, starch, guaiacum, jalap, dextrin, &c. SENEGA, guiseng, gillenia. SENNA, leaves of _cynanchum argel._ SHERRY, sulphates of potash, soda, brandy, burnt sugar, &c. SNUFF, carbonate of ammonia, glass, sand, colouring matter, &c. SODA, BICARBONATE, carbonate and sulphate of soda. SODA, CARBONATE, sulphate of soda. SODA, PHOSPHATE OF, phosphate of lime. SPICES, colouring materials, substitutions, and different flours. SQUILLS (POWDERED), wheat flour. SUGAR (MOIST), sand, flour, &c. SULPHUR, sulphurous acid (as an impurity). SULPHURIC ACID, lead, water, arsenic, hydrochloric acid, &c. TAPIOCA, mixing inferior starches with the pure tapioca. TEA, sand, iron filings, exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves; and in green teas, black lead, Prussian blue, China clay. TOBACCO, inferior tobacco, water. TURMERIC, yellow ochre, carbonate of soda, or potash. UVA URSI (BEARBERRY LEAVES), leaves of red whortleberry, and others. VINEGAR, sulphuric acid, and metallic impurities. WINES, water, jerupiga, bitartrate of potash, substitution of inferior wines, brandy, spirits, and various other matters. ZINC, OXIDE OF, chalk, carbonate of magnesia.

"The Sale of Food and Drugs Act" has now supplemented several Acts which were passed during the present century for the prevention of adulteration. An Act prohibiting the mixture of injurious ingredients with intoxicating liquors remains unrepealed, as do also one or two statutes relating to trade frauds as for example the Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1809. These latter have not been incorporated in "the Sale of Food and Drugs" Act.

=Æ= ([=e]). [L.] For words sometimes written with this initial diphthong, and not found below, look under =E=.

=ÆGI'RINON= (-j[=i]'-). [Gr.] See OINTMENT.

=ÆGYPTI'ACUM=[dagger] (-j[)i]p-t[=i]'-). [Lat.] _Syn._ UNGUEN'TUM ÆGYPTIACUM, L. Oxymel or liniment of verdigris. The name originated with Hippocrates, who is said to have learned its composition in Egypt.

=ÆOL'IPILE= (-p[)i]le). A hollow ball of metal, having a slender neck with a very small orifice, contrived to exhibit the conversion of water into steam by the action of heat, and to account for the natural production of winds. It was known to the ancients, is mentioned by Vitruvius, and was studied by Descartes and others. It has been used in _surgery_ to produce eschars, in the same cases as moxas; the effect of the steam being limited by means of a piece of perforated pasteboard. When filled with alcohol, and the jet of vapour inflamed, it is sometimes employed as a blowpipe. M. Soyer used an apparatus of this kind to supply the heat in his portable furnace. The liquid, however, which he employed was camphine.

=A'ER=, ([=a]'-[)e]r). [L. prim. Gr.] Air.

=A'ERATED= ([=a]'-[)e]r-r[=a]te-[)e]d). In _chemistry_, &c., impregnated with carbonic acid. See ALKALI, LEMONADE, WATERS, MINERAL.

=AE''RIAL= ([=a]-[=e]re'-e-[)a]l). Belonging to the air or atmosphere; produced by, consisting of, depending on, or partaking of the nature of the air.

AERIFICA'TION ([=a]-[)e]r-e-). _Syn._ AËRIFICA'TIO, L.; AÉRIFICATION, GAZÉIFICATION, Fr. In _chemistry_, the conversion of a body into gas.

=A'ERIFORM= ([=a]'-[)e]r-). _Syn._ AËRIFORM'IS, L.; AÉRIFORME, GAZÉIFORME, Fr. LUFTFORMIG, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_, air-like, gaseous.

=AEROL'OGY.= _Syn._ AËROLO'GIA, L.; AÉROLOGIE, Fr., Ger. In _physics_, a discourse or treatise of the air. In _physiology_ and _hygiène_, the doctrine of the air, more especially with regard to its salubrity and action on organised beings.

=AEROM'ETER.= _Syn._ AËROME'TRUM, L.; AÉROMÈTRE, Fr. An instrument used in aërometry.

=AEROM'ETRY=. _Syn._ AËROME'TRIA, L.; AÉROMÉTRIE, Fr.; LUFTMESSKUNST, &c., Ger. In _chemistry_ and _physics_, the art of measuring gases, and of determining their densities.

=AERONAUT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉRONAUTIQUE, Fr. The art of sailing in, or of navigating the air. See BALLOONS.

=AEROPHO'BIA.= [L.] _Syn._ AÉROPHOBIE, Fr. In _pathology_, a dread of air (wind); a common symptom in hydrophobia, and occasionally present in hysteria and phrenitis.

=AEROSTAT'ICS.= _Syn._ AÉROSTAT'ICA, L.; AÉROSTATIQUE, Fr. That branch of pneumatics which treats of air, and other elastic fluids, in a state of rest.

=AEROSTA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AËROSTA'TIO, L. The art of weighing the air; aërial suspension and navigation. See BALLOONS.

=ÆRU'GO= ([=e]-). [L.] The rust of brass, bronze, or copper; verdigris.

=ÆSCULIN.= C_{21}H_{24}O_{13}. A crystalline fluorescent substance existing in the bark of the horse-chestnut (_æsculus hippocastanum_) and of other trees of the genera _Æsculus_ and _Paria_. In the above-named sources Æsculin is associated with another fluorescent body called Pariin.

=Æ''THER.= See ETHER.

=ÆITHE''REA= (-th[=e]ré-). [L. pl.] Ethers.

=ÆSTHET'ICS= ([=e]z-). _Syn._ ÆSTHET'ICA, L. Medicines or agents which affect sensation. See ANÆSTHETICS and HYPERÆSTHETICS.

=ÆTHIOPS.= See ETHIOPS.

=AFFEC'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AFFEC'TIO, L. In _pathology_, a term nearly synonymous with disease.

=AFFINITY.= _Syn._ CHEMICAL AFFINITY; AFFINITAS, L.; AFFINITÉ, Fr.; VERWANDTSCHAFT, Ger. If oil and water be shaken together they produce no change upon one another, as is proved by their separating into two layers with their properties unaltered, when the mixture is allowed to remain at rest for a short time. Such bodies are said, in chemical language, to have no affinity for one another. If iodine and metallic mercury be rubbed together in a mortar they will unite in definite proportions by weight, and form a combination possessing properties totally distinct from those of its constituents. Thus, iodine is a greyish, metallic-looking solid, convertible into a violet vapour by heat, perceptibly soluble in water, and capable of producing a blue compound with starch. Mercury is a metallic, silvery-looking liquid. The product of their union (biniodide of mercury) is a scarlet powder, destitute of metallic lustre, convertible into vapour by heat, without the production of violet fumes, insoluble in water, and incapable of developing a blue colour with starch. Again, the greenish-yellow and intensely poisonous gas, chlorine, unites in definite proportions by weight with the soft, wax-like, and highly poisonous metal sodium to produce the white crystalline solid chloride of sodium (common salt), a compound which, except in very large quantities, is not only not poisonous, but actually beneficial to health.

Such combinations are called chemical compounds, and the force which binds their constituents together is distinguished from all other attractive forces by the term affinity or chemical affinity. Bodies united by affinity are also said to have united chemically.

Affinity is in most cases exerted between different substances, in which respect it resembles adhesion; but bodies united by adhesion, _e.g._ ink to paper, paint to wood, &c., unlike those united by affinity, suffer no change of properties.

Affinity is exerted at immeasurable distances, therefore substances to be submitted to its influence must be brought into (apparently) actual contact. This condition is frequently fulfilled by the vaporisation, fusion, or solution of one or more of the bodies to be submitted to its action.

In many instances substances which have no affinity for one another at ordinary temperatures manifest this power when heated.

Whenever chemical union takes place, heat is invariably evolved; conversely, the decomposition of a chemical compound is always accompanied by an apparent loss of heat or reduction of temperature.

Finally, the most striking phenomena characteristic of, and accompanying, chemical affinity are, development of heat, change of properties, and union in definite or constant proportions by weight.

=AFFUSION.= In _chemistry_, the washing of a precipitate, &c., for the purpose of removing soluble matters. In _medicine_, affusion is of three kinds:--

1. _Lotions_, which consist in washing a part of the body with a sponge or rag soaked in a liquid.

2. _Aspersions_, which consist in throwing a liquid drop by drop, like rain, upon the body.

3. _Shower baths_, which consist in allowing a number of small streams of water to fall from a height upon the surface of the body. If the water fall from a considerable height, affusion is then termed _douche_ by the French.

=AFT'ER-DAMP.= _Syn._ CHOKE-DAMP. Carbonic acid gas resulting from explosion of air and fire-damp (light carbonetted hydrogen) in coal mines.

=AFT'ER-PAINS.= Those following childbirth. The only remedy is patience; they may, however, be frequently alleviated by small doses of morphia or liquor opii sedativus. Heated cloths and warm fomentations are sometimes useful, particularly if assisted by moderate but sufficient pressure on the abdomen, by means of a broad bandage. They seldom follow with severity the first birth.

_Treatment for Animals._ Remove clots from parts, raise the hind-quarters. Give clysters of linseed tea, lukewarm, and laudanum or belladonna extract. Syringe out parts with Condy's fluid considerably diluted. Give internally belladonna, opium, or chloroform. Draw away milk.

=AFT'ER-WASH= (w[)o]sh). In the art of the distiller, the liquor in the still after the spirit has been drawn over.

=AG'ARIC.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AGAR'ICUM, AGAR'ICUS, L.; BLÄTTERSCHWAMM, PILZ, SCHWAMM, Ger. In _botany_, a genus of fungi, of numerous species, embracing the mushrooms and champignons. Of these plants, some are edible; others poisonous. The term is also commonly applied to the boletus found on oaks (TOUCHWOOD), and on larches (MALE AGARIC). See MUSHROOMS.

=Fly-agaric.= _Syn._ FLY MUSH'ROOM; AGAR'ICUS MUSCA''RIA, Linn.; AMANI'TA M. One of the most narcotic and poisonous of our fungi, producing, in small doses, intoxication and a pleasing species of delirium; for which purpose it is commonly employed in Kamschatka. (Hooker.) It possesses the singular property of imparting an intoxicating quality to the urine, which continues for a long time after taking it. This secretion is, therefore, commonly saved by the natives during a scarcity of the fungus. "Thus, with a few amanitæ, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week;" and the intoxication so produced is capable of "being propagated through five or six individuals." (Langsdorff.) Water in which it has been boiled is poisonous; but the boiled fungus itself is inert. The liquid from it is used as a fly-poison; whence the name mushroom is derived. It may be known by its rich orange-red colour in autumn.

=AG'ATE= (-[=a]te, -[)e]t[double-dagger]). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACHA'TES (-k[=a]'-t[=e]z), L. A semi-pellucid uncrystallised species of quartz, remarkable for its hardness, variety of colour, and susceptibility of receiving a high polish. It is an aggregate of various siliceous minerals, of which chalcedony appears generally to be the base. Carnelian, jasper, amethyst, and other similar minerals, often enter into its composition. The colours are often delicately arranged in stripes, bands, or clouds. Those which take an angular form, as the Scotch pebble, are called FORTIFICATION AGATES. It is the least valuable of the precious stones, and is chiefly made into rings, seals, beads, burnishers, &c., on account of its hardness. Its powder is used for cleansing and polishing iron, brass, &c., and to sharpen edge-tools.

=AGEING LIQUOR.= Dissolve 3 lbs. of chlorate of potash in 4 galls. of boiling water. Add 20 lbs. of powdered white arsenic to 20 lbs. of solution of caustic soda at 60° Tw., and boil until the arsenic is completely dissolved. Add the latter solution to the former, with stirring, until the mixture stands at 28° Tw.

=AG'NAIL.= See WHITLOW.

=AGRYPNOT'ICS= (-gr[)i]p-). _Syn._ ANTHYPNOT'ICS (-h[)i]p-); AGRYPNOT'ICA, ANTHYPNOT'ICA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, agents or substances which prevent sleep; as tea, coffee, digitalis, vinegar, &c.

=A'GUE= (-g[)u]). Ague may be defined as febrile phenomena occurring in paroxysms, and observing a certain regular succession, characterised by chill, abnormal heat, and unnatural cutaneous discharge, which prove to be a temporary crisis and usher in a remission. These phenomena are developed in an uninterrupted series or succession more or less regular, which pass into each other by insensible stages. Ague is paludal fever, and has always been observed to prevail in marshy moist districts, and in low, swampy humid countries, in which seasons of considerable heat occur.

The neighbourhood of marshes, or of a district which has been at some recent time under water; the banks of extensive lakes, and the shores of rivers and seas where the water flows sluggishly, and in some places stagnates; shallow rivers; extensive level tracts of forest land, where moisture is always present; and the surface of the land constantly covered with excavation from the ground,--these are the terrestrial physical conditions, in which marsh and littoral fevers are almost universally to be found, although it must be admitted that there are some marshy districts in which the disease does not show itself.

In these latter localities the effects of the miasmatic poison, show themselves in cholera or typhus. No precise knowledge of the nature and source of this subtle poison which, in default of a better name we call _malaria_, has yet been acquired; indeed it has yet to be proved that _malaria_ has a distinct existence. Science has as yet been unable to discover the presence of any poisonous principle in the air of ague on other regions.

Ague may exist without any alteration of structure being set up; but in the milder forms of this fever a greater number of organs and tissues are morbidly altered than perhaps in any other form of disease. The parts so affected are the liver, spleen, lungs, heart, brain, and the serous and mucous membranes of the body generally. Within certain limits, the specific action of the malarial poison may be said to be in the inverse ratio of the intensity of the fever which attends its action. The affections of the liver and spleen also vary greatly according to the locality in which the patient is attacked; for instance, whilst in some parts of India the spleen is the organ principally involved, in other districts of the same continent it is the liver. In England, under proper medical treatment, the patient usually recovers without any manifest derangement either of structure or impairment of function of any organ or tissue. The liver may, however, become affected if the patient suffering from the disease has been neglected for any length of time.

Notwithstanding the opinions of Finke and Professor Colin, there appears to be considerable ground for the supposition that ague may be caused by drinking marsh and surface water. In an interesting paper on the 'Indian Annals' for 1856, Mr Bettington, of the Madras Civil Service, says:--"It is notorious that the water produces fever and affections of the spleen." In confirmation of this assertion, he brings forward what seems to be some remarkably strong evidence. He cites cases of villages placed under the same conditions as to marsh-air in some of which fevers were prevalent, whilst in others they were absent; and he found on inquiry that whilst the latter villages were supplied with pure water, the inhabitants of the former had to drink marsh or mullah water, full of vegetable _débris_. In one village there were two sources of supply--a spring and a tank, the first fed by surface, and the other by marsh water. Those only who partook of the tank water were attacked by fever. Again, in Tulliwaree the fever was so universal that scarcely any inhabitant escaped it. In this village Mr Bettington caused a well to be dug, and the result was that the fever disappeared. Similar cases have occurred in this country. Twenty years ago Mr Blower, of Bedford, directed the attention of medical men to a case that occurred in a village, in which ague had nearly disappeared when a well was dug; and to another instance which occurred in the village of Houghton. In this parish almost the only family which escaped ague was that of a farmer; the members of this family partook of well water; whilst those who did not escape the disease drank ditch water.

In the 'Indian Annals' for 1867 is a paper by Dr Moore, confirming the opinion that ague may be produced by the causes already stated, and M. Commaille ('Rec. de Mêm. de Med. Mil.,' Nov., 1868) states that in Marseilles, paroxysmal fevers, formerly unknown, have made their appearance, since the water supply to that city has been drawn from the Marseilles Canal.