CHAPTER VII
Estimating
=74. Methods of Estimating.=--Building costs may be divided into two main divisions, cost of material and cost of labor. There is but one so-called safe way to figure or estimate the cost of any particular piece of carpentry work. This consists in "taking off" the material quantities in detail and to this adding the labor cost of placing the same. This is the method in common use by contractors in making a final estimate. Where a rough or working estimate is required, such as an architect's estimate of the probable cost of a building planned by him, two methods may be used. One consists in figuring the cubical contents in feet and multiplying a predetermined, or unit price per cubic foot for that type of house. Ordinarily, the main frame is figured, counting from the basement floor to the top of the attic walls that are, or may be finished--outside measurements. Porches and open spaces are not figured. A second method consists in estimating the number of squares (100 sq. ft.) of side wall, of partitions, of floors, etc., and multiplying a predetermined price per square for a similar type of building. This latter method is more accurate than the cubic-foot unit method.
=75. Table for Estimating by Cubic-Foot Unit.=--The following table of unit prices will give a rough working estimate for various types of building differentiated after the custom of insurance adjusters. The prices are for 1915 and to be of any value must be compared with known costs of similar structures in the community in which they are to be used. Any evident variations in unit costs so discovered should be noted and corrections made.
CUBIC-FOOT UNIT ESTIMATE
COUNTRY PROPERTY PER CUBIC FOOT Frame dwelling, small box house, no cornice 5c Frame dwelling, shingle roof, small cornice, no sash weights, plain 6¼- 7½c Brick dwelling, same class 8¼-10c Frame dwelling, shingle roof, good cornice, sash weights, blinds (good house) 8¼-10c Brick dwelling, same class 11¼-12½c Frame barn, shingle roof, not painted, plain finish 2¼- 3¼c Frame barn, shingle roof, painted, good foundation 3 - 4¼c Frame store, shingle roof, painted, plain finish 6¼- 8¼c Brick store, shingle roof, painted, good cornice, well finished 8¼-11¼c Frame church or school house, ordinary 6¼- 8¼c Brick church or school house, ordinary 10 -12½c If slate or metal roof, add %c per cubic foot.
CITY PROPERTY Frame dwelling, shingle roof, pine floors and finish, no bath or furnace, plain finish (good house) ?½- 8¼c Brick dwelling, same class 10 -11¼c Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood floors in hall and parlor, bath, furnace, fair plumbing 10 -11¼c Brick dwelling same class 10 -12½c Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood in first floor, good plumbing, furnace, artistic design, some interior ornamentation, well painted 12½-15c Brick dwelling, good plumbing, bath, furnace, pine finish, well painted 13¼-18c
=76. Grading Rules.=--There is no uniformity as to grades of lumber. Fifteen or more associations have rules for inspection. and classification of lumber and these rules vary with the association and from year to year in the same association. The following rules taken from a catalogue of a middle west lumber concern will be found helpful:
Yellow Pine Dimension, Studding, Joists and Timbers
_No. 1 Common._--The best grade and the one recommended for use on first class jobs.
_No. 2 Common._--Dimension up to 20 feet long only can be obtained in this grade. Timbers are not manufactured in No. 2. This stock will show defects not found in No. 1 grade, and some pieces are not entirely straight. It is a sound, serviceable grade, but not recommended for first class work.
Yellow Pine Boards, Sheathing, Shiplap, and Fencing
_No. 1 Common._--This grade is not clear, but is strictly sound and uniform in thickness and width. It is used on the best classes of work, for barn boards, and wherever exposed to wear and weather.
_No. 2 Common._--This grade is sound but contains more sound knots than No. 1 and is somewhat coarser. It is mostly used on first class jobs for sub or rough floors, and for sheathing under siding. It can be used for outside work, but is not recommended for this purpose except upon cheap buildings. No. 8 Common. A fairly good lower grade which will work up nicely but with some waste due to cutting out defects. Runs uneven in quality. Makes a fair subfloor or sheathing.
Yellow Pine Flooring, Ceiling, Partition, and Drop Siding
_Clear Grade._--The best grade manufactured. Practically free from defects and the grade used upon first class jobs. Is strong, sound, and will lay without waste due to cutting out of imperfections. Should be used when a natural finish is desired. No. 1 Common. This grade will contain small, sound knots, sap stains, pitch or pitch pockets. It is sound and durable, and a good grade for ordinary work or wherever covered with paint.
_No. 2 Common._ Coarser than No. 1 grade; will lay up with little waste. Is sound, and flooring of this grade is often used for sheathing or sub flooring where a warm, tight job is desired. Can also be used on cheap painted jobs.
Fir Boards, Timbers, Drop Siding, Ceiling and Flooring
_Select No. 1 Barn Boards._--This grade is especially selected and is better than No. 1.
_No. 1 Timbers._--Good sound straight stock, to be used for sills and posts subjected to moisture.
_Clear Ceiling._--Free from defects. Good for cornice work and porch ceilings.
_Edge Grain Flooring, Clear Grade._--Especially suited to porch floors as it wears well and resists effects of moisture.
_Clear Drop Siding._--Contains no sap, shakes or other defects.
Shingles, Lap Siding, Y. P. and Cypress Finish, White Pine Boards
_5 to 2 Clears._--The heaviest grade five shingles laid one on top of the other will measure 2" at the butts.
_6 to 2 Extra Star A Star._--A lighter grade, but clear and 16", as are the 5 to 2" grade.
_Bevel or Lap Siding._--Carried in stock in red cedar, redwood, cypress, and white pine. "Clear" is free from all defects.
_Cypress "C" Grade._--Has small sound knots and other slight defects such as can be covered with paint. All siding is bundled 10 pieces to the bunch in random lengths. Not furnished in specified lengths.
_Yellow Pine and Cypress Finish._--This stock in "clear" grade is practically free from defects. The yellow pine is suitable for interior finish. Cypress is suitable for inside finish or for cornice work on first class jobs. "C" cypress finish contains some knots and other slight defects. Is suitable for outside finish on ordinary jobs.
_White Pine Boards._ As a rule, carried in stock only in No. 1 grade. Nothing but sound, red-knotted boards should be included. No shakes. Excellent for exposure to weather.
=77. Estimating Lumber Quantities.=--Lumber is measured in terms of the board foot as a unit, 12" by 12" by 1" or its equivalent, indicated by the abbreviation B. M. (board measure).
_Example:_
Determine the B. M. in a girder 6" by 8" by 16'.
_Solution:_
Rule--Thickness in inches times width in inches, divided by 12" times the length in feet gives a number equal to the number of board feet.
(6" × 8") / 12 × 16' = 64' B.M.
Stock less than 1" thick is figured as 1" thick. In commercial practice lumbermen make use of tables in determining quantities. Appendix III.
In estimating quantities, suitable allowance must be made for waste. This waste is incurred (1) thru loss when boards or planks are cut to required lengths. Standard lengths are 10', 12', 14', etc., and these will not always cut to advantage. (2) Waste is incurred in machining the stock, as dressing, edging, tonguing and grooving. Necessary allowances will be indicated herein.
_Heavy Timbers._ Girders, posts, etc., are determined by count.
_Joists._ To determine the number of joists required for a room or a building, count the actual number required beginning at a wall (¾ times number of feet in length or width of room when set 16" on centers), and to this add one joist to be placed against the second wall.
Cataloged or listed sizes are for lumber fresh from the saw. Shrinkage due to seasoning and surfacing one side and one edge so that the stock may have uniform thickness and width will give actual sizes as follows: 2" × 4" when sized on one side and one edge, will give 1⅝" x 3⅝"; 2" × 6", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_, 1⅝" × 5⅝"; 2" × 8", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝" × 7½"; 2" × 10", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝" x 9½"; 2" x 12", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝ x 11½. When _S_-2-_S_ and 2_E_ or sized on 4 sides, stock will measure ⅛" less than indicated above.
_Studs for Walls and Partitions._--Count one for each lineal foot of wall or partition, where specified 16" on centers. The extra studs are to be used in doubling corners, at doors and windows, and in gables. Barns and sheds will not require these extra studs.
_Bridging._--Allow 25 lineal feet of 2" by 4" for each square of flooring.
_Rafters._--On a plain roof, count actual number and add one, as in counting for joists.
_Sheathing._--Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct openings; then, for unmatched sheathing or barn boards or fencing, as it is also called, add 1/12 for 12" boards, 1/16 for 10" boards and ⅛ where 8" boards are used. Four inch and 6" are seldom laid solid, being used mainly for roof sheathing for shingle roofs, and laid 2" apart. These additions are due to the fact that thru seasoning and dressing, a 12" board becomes 11½", a 10" becomes 9⅝", an 8" becomes 7¾", a 6" becomes 5¾" and a 4" becomes 3¾". The additions specified allow for waste in cutting.
_Shiplap._ Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct openings; then add for floors 17%, for sidewalls 20%, for roofs 25%.
Sheathing laid with 2" spaces should have proportionate deductions made, that is, on 1" × 6", figure as if laid solid, then deduct ¼; for 1" × 4" deduct ⅓. Sheathing when matched, such as is used sometimes for sub-floors and side walls and roof sheathing under slate roofs and better known as flooring, will be estimated by figuring the exact surface to be covered, deducting the openings, then adding for 6" stock, which is the kind most always used, 15% for floors, 17% for sidewalls, and 20% for roofs.
If shiplap or matched sheathing is laid diagonally add 5% for waste due to lack of ability to reverse cut.
_Siding._--For bevel siding, calculate the exact surface, deduct openings; then add for 6" siding when laid 4½" to the weather, 33%; for the 4" siding add 50%.
_Drop Siding._--Drop siding, ceiling and wainscoting are figured just like matched flooring, which is described below.
_Flooring._--For square edge, calculate the exact surface to be covered, add for 6" flooring 11% for waste in matching, etc.; for 4" flooring add 20%. It is becoming common practice to specify flooring by actual face measurement after being machined. The following figures are for actual surface measurements.
For matched flooring, calculate the exact surface to be covered, then add 20% for 5¼" flooring, for 3¼" flooring add 25%, for 2¼" add 33%, for 1½ add 40%.
Flooring less than 1" thick, like all other lumber, is estimated as 1" thick.
_Shingles._--A bunch of shingles contains the equivalent of 250 shingles of 4" average width. With an exposure of 4½" to the weather a 4" average shingle will cover 18 square inches, making 800 shingles to the square. Waste in doubling the first course and in laying will necessitate an addition of 8% on a plain roof and 12% on hips or on gabled walls. Cost estimates are based upon the M. or 1000.
SHINGLES PER SQUARE
Plain roof, 4 " exposure, 990; roof cut up, 1010 Plain roof, 4½" exposure, 880; roof cut up, 900 Plain roof, 5 " exposure, 790; roof cut up, 810
_Lath._ Lath for interior plaster work are usually ⅜" by 1⅜" by 4', put up in bundles of 50 each and are sold by the 1000. 1000 lath will cover 70 yards of surface and will require 8 lbs. of 3d fine lath nails. Lathing is usually considered a part of the plasterer's contract. There is no uniformity of practice as to the deduction for openings.
_Building Papers._ The cheapest is "rosin sized," and is not waterproof. This is used mainly under floors and upon side walls under bevel siding. It is sold by the pound in rolls each 36" wide containing 500 square feet.
Dry felt is used where better protection from cold is desired. In the cheaper grades, the material is made of wood fiber and rosin. In the better grades wool is used. Tar felt, used where moisture is to be resisted, is dry felt saturated with tar. These materials are sold by the pound: 12, 15, and 20 lbs. to the 100 square feet, in rolls of various widths. A catalog should be consulted for weights and covering capacity.
=78. Estimating Millwork Quantities.=--The number of doors and windows will be determined by an actual count.
Mouldings, casings, baseboard when moulded, window stools, etc., are sold by the 100 feet lineal measure, random lengths. Extra charge is made for specified lengths where the quantities are determined by scale measurements of the plan and elevations. Window frames of stock sizes, door frames, inside jambs, stair parts, buffets, etc., will be found priced in millmen's catalogs, and assist greatly in determining prices for ordinary work. This text cannot give space to list such data, which is so readily obtained from commercial catalogs.
=79. Example of Form for Bill of Materials.=--
BILL
========================================================================= Ticket | | | | | | Price or |No. of|No. of|Size |Length|Description|--------++---------------- Catalog| Feet |Pieces| | | | Rate || Extensions Number | | | | | | || -------+------+------+-----+------+-----------+----+---++---+----++------ | 270 | 30 |2 × 4| 14 |Y. P., SIS | | || | || | | | | | and IE | 22 | || 5 | 94 || | | 2 | M | |5-2" red | | || | || | | | | | cedar | | || | || | | | | | shingles | 3 | 55|| 7 | 10 || | 300 | 1 × 6| | |# 2 Y. P.--| | || | || | | | | | flooring | 20 | || 6 | 00 || 19 40 -------+------+------+-----+------+-----------+----+---++---+----++------
=80. Estimating Labor Costs.=[A]--In estimating labor costs the following data is to be made use of. The estimator will have to determine the hours per day and the scale of wages per hour paid in his locality, and make whatever changes in the data is necessary. He should also compare the quantity of work done by men he may observe with that given herewith. The time data herewith is based upon the work of one mechanic who has mastered his trade fairly well. With an efficient foreman and a selected group of workmen these time allowances can be reduced in many instances as much as one-half. Experience alone will determine the possibilities of such reductions with safety.
[Footnote A: For a more complete treatise of labor costs, the student is referred to Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data, Section X, the source, in the main, of the basis of this data.]
COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERING
By One Man
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT. Sills and plates 6" × 8", no gains or mortises 20 Sills and plates 6" × 8", gains no mortises 40 Sills and plates 6" × 8", gains and mortises 60 Joists and box sills 20 Studding 2" × 4" 32 Studding 2" × 6" 23 Rafters 2" × 4", plain gable roof 40 Rafters 2" × 4", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley. Rafters 2" × 6", plain gable roof 27 Rafters 2" × 6", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley. Sheathing, square edged, horizontal, walls 16 Sheathing, square edged, diagonal, walls 19 Sheathing, 6" matched, walls 24 Sheathing, 6" matched, walls diagonal 32 Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged 10 Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged diagonal 12 Roof Sheathing, plain gable roof 13 Roof Sheathing, hip roof 20
COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERING (Continued)
HRS. PER 1000 LIN. FT. Cornices 400 to 800 Water table, 3 member 220 Corner boards 73 Belt 195
HRS. PER M. Shingling, plain roof, new work 3½ Shingling, hips and valleys, add 5% for each hip or valley. Shingling, old work, add 20% for labor in removing old shingles. Shingling side walls, plain 5½ Shingling side walls, fancy 8
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT.
Siding, bevel, 6" 35 Siding, bevel, 4" 42 Siding, shiplap 27 Siding, drop, when window and door casings and corner boards are placed over siding 120 Siding, drop, when jointed between casings and corner boards 32 Surfaced barn boards 11½ Ceiling, store 53 Wainscoting, cut, put up, finished with cap and ¼ round, in a dwelling 46
COST OF PLACING FLOORS
By One Man
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT. Floors, pine 35 Floors, yellow pine, 3¼" face, laid on sheathing, including paper between, smoothing rough joints, business block 40 Floors, yellow pine, 3¾" face, laid direct on joist, no smoothing 26⅔ Floors, yellow pine, 3¼" face, smoothed and sanded 45 Floors, maple, 2¼" face, laid not smoothed 40 Floors, maple, 2¼" face, laid and smoothed 80 Floors, maple, 1½" face, laid and well smoothed 107 Floors, oak, fine floor, glued, smoothed, scraped, sand papered 320
COST OF BRIDGING AND FURRING
HRS. PER 1000 LIN. FT. Bridging 65 Placing plaster grounds 20
COST OF PLACING BASEBOARDS
b HRS. PER 100 LIN. FT. Baseboard, three member, hardwood, average number miters 10 Baseboard, two member, scribed to floor 16 Baseboard, plain, ¼ round at floor 8 Moulding, bed, flat, 3" 2½
COST OF PLACING DOORS, WINDOWS, BLINDS
HRS. ON EACH Window, to put together when K. D. (knock-down) 1½ Window, making frame 3 Window, setting frame ¾ Window, setting frame in brickwork 1 Window, fitting and hanging sash per pair 1 Window, hanging blinds per pair, before frames are set ¾ Window, hanging blinds per pair, after frames are set 2 Window, casing inside 2 Window, ordinary pine in frame building, including setting of frame 5 Window, same but hardwood 6½ Window, ordinary pine in brick building, including setting of frame 6½ Window, same but hardwood 9 Window, attic and cellar 1¾ Door, making frame 2½ Door, making frame with transom 3½ Door, common hardwood, set jambs, case, hang and finish, including transom 10 Door, common 1⅜" pine complete 4½ Door, common 1¾" pine complete 5½ Door, casing opening one side ¾ Door, casing opening both sides 1½ Door, fitting, hanging and trimming 1½ Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, pine 2½ Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, oak 4 Sliding doors, pine, (framing not included) to finish complete with lining, jambs, casing and hardware, per pair 32 Sliding doors, same, but hardwood 48 Sliding doors for barn 12' × 18' 24 Transom, fixed 1 Transom, hung 1½
ESTIMATING
COST OF STAIR WORK
HRS. ON EACH Box stair, cellar or attic 25 One flight plain stair, 7-room house, hand rail, balusters 40 One flight fine stair, 9-room house, handrail, paneled 100
PORCHES IN GENERAL
Hours per lineal foot 5 Balustrade hours per 1000 lineal feet 500 Lattice for porches, hours per 1000 square feet 16 to 200
LATH
Lath, hours per 1000 7
MISCELLANEOUS LABOR ITEMS
Paneling, pine, hours per 100 sq. ft. 50 Paneling, hardwood, hours per 100 sq. ft. 83 Drawers, dovetailed, hours, each 2½ Drawers, 15" × 18", including racks and fittings 2 Shelves, in storeroom, dadoed into compartments 18" square, hours per 100 sq. ft. 62½ Shelves, pantry, no dado, hours per 100 sq. ft. shelf 37½ Closet hooks on strip of wood, 12" apart, hours per 100 lineal feet 15 Sideboard, oak, 8' × 8', hours 100
=81. Estimating Quantities of Nails.=--The following table will enable one to estimate the quantity of nails required for the various kinds of common carpentry. The table of length and number of nails to the pound, Appendix III, may be made use of in determining nail estimates for other kinds of work not here specified.
QUANTITIES OF NAILS
MATERIALS POUNDS SIZE KIND
Joists and sills per 1000 B.M. ft. 25 20d common. Studding per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 10d common. Rafters per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 10d common. Sheathing, drop siding, shiplap per 1000 B.M. ft. 20 8d common. Cornice per 1000 lin. ft. 18 8d common. Shingling per 1000 4 4d common. Bevel siding per 1000 B.M. ft. 18 6d common. Ceiling, wainscoting per 1000 B.M. ft. 20 6d common. Floors, pine per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 8d common. Floors, hardwood per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 6d common. Baseboard per 1000 B.M. ft. 12 8d finish. Window trim, one side ¾ 8d finish. Door trim, one side ¾ 8d finish. Lath per 1000 8 3d common, fine. Lattice for porches per 1000 sq. ft. 20 3d common. Balustrade per 1000 lin. ft. 18 6d casing.
=82. Example of Form for Carpentry Costs.=--The following form, used by a practical carpenter, and published in the Correspondence Department of _The American Carpenter and Builder_, should suggest means whereby the data just given may be made more readily available for estimating purposes.
It must be remembered in interpreting all such data that costs will vary greatly with conditions. A carpenter, for illustration, who gives his time and attention to general carpentry cannot lay shingles with the speed a specialist in shingling can. Again, a carpenter cannot make window and door frames by hand with the same speed that these can be made by machinery in a mill. The prices given herewith are for work done by a general carpentry mechanic. The estimator should test out these figures to see how they compare with actual working conditions in his community. The following table is made for "country" conditions, the men working at 30c per hour, 9 hours a day.
MATERIALS IN PLACE AT 30c PER HOUR
=========================================================================== | Ft. per | Hrs. per | Cost of Labor | Nails Various Materials | 9-hrs. | 1000 +-------+---------+----+---- | 2 Men | ft. | M Ft.| L or Sq.|Lbs.|Size ------------------------+----------+-----------+-------+---------+----+---- Joists and sills | 900 | 20 | $6.00 | | 25 | 20d Studding placed | 600 | 30 | 9.00 | | 15 | 10d Rafters | 450 | 40 | 12.00 | | 15 | 10d Sheathing vertical | 750 | 24 | 7.20 | | 20 | 8d Sheathing, diagonal | 562 | 32 | 9.60 | | 20 | 8d Bevel siding | 514 | 35 | 10.50 | | 18 | 6d Cornices | 45 | 400 | | .12 -L | 18 | 8d Shingling new roofs | 4000 | 4½ | 1.35 | | 4 | 4d Lathing for plaster | 2572 | 7 | 2.10 | | 8 | 3d Lattice for porches | 1125 | 16 | 4.80 | | 20 | 3d Balustrade for porches | 36 | 500 | | .15 -L | 18 | 6d Base boards 8" pine | 216 | 83 | 24.90 | .02½ -L | 12 | 8d Baseboards, 8" hardwood | 108 | 166 | 49.80 | .05 -L | | Floors laid, pine | 514 | 35 | 10.50 | | 30 | 8d Floors laid, hardwood. | 100 | 180 | 54.00 | .05½ -L | 30 | 6d Floors cleaned, hardwood| 100 | 180 | 54.00 | .05½ -L | | Wainscoting, pine | 54 | | | .10 -L | 20 | 6d Paneling, pine | 36 | | | .15 -Sq| | Paneling, hardwood | 22 | | | .25 -Sq| | Porches and verandas | | | |1.50 -L | 18 | 8d ------------------------+----------+-----------+-------+---------+----+----
M = 1000 Ft. L = Lineal Sq = Square Feet.
Shingles are for new roofs; where hips and valleys are required add 5% additional for each one; where old shingles and nails must be removed, add again (20% to total) for this work.
The above rate is based on figures of 30c per hour. For other rates the following will apply in addition: At 35c per hour add 17%; at 40c add 34%; at 45c add 51%; and at 50c per hour add
_Example:_
(_A_) Take 1,000 feet of hardwood floor to be cleaned at 50c per hour = $54.00 + $36.72 = $90.72
Looking again we find it would take 180 hours at 50c per hour = $90.00
(_B_) Take 1,000 feet of joists to be placed at 50c per hour = $6.00 + 14.08 = $10.08.
Looking for the hours we find it would take 20 at 50c, or $10.00.
=83. Total Building Costs by Percentages.=--Having carefully estimated the costs of one or two of the large items in a building, such as lumber or millwork or labor, the total cost of a building may be approximated with a fair degree of accuracy by a general contractor by means of the following table of percentages. Foundations or any other parts of a building which may be unusual should be excluded and figured separately in detail. In any event, before a building is finally completed the contractor will have to settle with each sub-contractor upon the basis of detailed cost estimates. Where time is available, the contractor as a rule secures bids from the various sub-contractors, such as the plumber, the lather, the mason, etc., combining these and adding his commission of 10% for oversight, and an additional 10% for incidentals or contingencies.
COSTS BY PERCENTAGES
Frame Brick Items Building Dwelling Excavation, brick and cut stone 16% 36% Plastering and materials, including lathing 8 6 Millwork including glass and glazing 21 20 Lumber 19 12 Carpentry labor 18 10 Hardware 3½ 3 Tinwork and galvanized iron 2½ 4½ Plumbing and gas fitting and materials 7 3 Painting and materials 5 5½ Heating (not included) -------------- Total 100% 100%
_Example:_
A lumber bill for a given frame house is found to "figure" $500, determine the approximate cost of the various sub-contracts, and for the house as a whole.
_Solution:_
$500 = 19% of the total cost. Total cost = $2632 (exclusive of heating). Excavation, brick and cement work = 16% of $2632 = $421.12 Plastering = 8% of $2632 = 210.56 Millwork and glazing = 21% of $2632 = 552.72 Carpentry labor = 18% of $2632 = 473.76 Hardware = 3½% of $2632 = 92.12 Tinwork = 2½% of $2632 = 65.80 Plumbing = 7% of $2632 = 184.24 Painting = 5% of $2632 = 131.60 Lumber = 500.00 -------- $2631.92
To this must be added heating, electric wiring, electric and gas fixtures, window shades, cement walks, sewerage, grading, decoration of walls, architect's fee and contractor's commission.
For furnace heat, add 6 to 7% ; for steam, add 8 to 10% ; for hot water, add 10 to 12% additional.
For electric wiring, add 1¼%. For fixtures, electric and gas, add 2 to 3%.
To this total add 10% for incidentals and contingencies; add 10% for contractor's charge. Above this amount add 6% for architect's fee, to get the cost to the owner.
Such a method of estimating should not be mistaken for anything but fairly safe approximation where normal conditions exist.
APPENDIX I
Natural Trigonometric Functions. Consider the angle _DAE_, Fig. 152. From any point on the line AD drop a line perpendicular to the side _AE_ forming the right triangle ABC. Let _a_ represent the value or length of the side _BC_; let _b_ represent the value of the side _AC_; let _c_ represent the value of the side _AB_. The ratio of the side _a_ to the side _c_ is called the sine of the angle _A_. More concisely stated, _a/c_ = sin _A_. The sine of an angle is the ratio of its opposite side to its hypotenuse, or opposite side over hypotenuse = sine of angle _A_ = sin _A_. In a similar manner:
_b_ adjacent side --- = --------------- = cosine of angle _A_ = cos _A_. _c_ hypotenuse
_a_ opposite side --- = --------------- = tangent of angle _A_ = tan _A_. _b_ adjacent side
_b_ adjacent side --- = ---------------- = cotangent of angle _A_ = cot _A_. _a_ opposite side
_c_ hypotenuse --- = ---------------- = secant of angle _A_ = sec _A_. _b_ adjacent side
_c_ hypotenuse --- = --------------- = cosecant of angle _A_ = csc _A_. _a_ opposite side
These ratios are known as natural functions of the angle because their values change with every change in the value of the angle.
The lengthening of the sides of the angle should not be mistaken for a change in the value of the angle. Draw to scale very carefully any angle and drop lines from any two points, as at _B_ and _B′_, Fig. 152, which shall be perpendicular to the base line. Measure the sides of the triangles so formed and express their ratios as functions of the angle _A_. Comparing like functions of large and small triangle it will be seen that once an angle is known in degrees, its sine, cosine, etc., are determined irrespective of the length of sides. And, vice versa, if we know the functional values or ratios of certain sides of the right triangle formed about an angle, we have determined the value of the angle in degrees. The Table of Natural Trigonometric Functions, Appendix II, is nothing more than a compilation of these various ratios carefully figured out and placed in the form of a table to assist in the easy solution of problems having to do with the finding of certain parts of a triangle when other parts are given.
With a protractor, measure the angle A of the triangle whose sides were just measured, and compare the ratios of the sides or the functional values with those given in the Table, Appendix III, for the same angle. The larger the scale of the drawing, the greater the accuracy. By making use of the hundredths scale of the framing square together with a finely pointed pair of dividers, variation in values should not be great.
=Solutions of Right Triangles.=--By the solution of right triangles is meant the finding of unknown sides or angles when values of other sides and angles are known.
_Example 1._--Given _A_ = 30 degrees, _c_ = 24; Find _B, a, b_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90-30 = 60 degrees. (The sum of the angles of a triangle equals 180 degrees. _C_ = 90 degrees.)
(1) _a_/_c_ = sin _A_; whence, _a_ = _c_ sin _A_. (_a_ = _c_ times sine _A_.)
(2) _b_/_c_ = cos _A_; whence _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
From the Tables, Appendix II, sin of _A_, or 30 degrees, = .5. Substituting numerical values in (1), _a_ = 12.
Again, from Tables, cos _A_, or 30 degrees, = .866. Substituting numerical values in (2), _b_ = 20.784.
Arith. check _c²_ = _a²_ + _b²_; 24² = 12² + 20.78²; 576 = 144 + 431.8; 576 = 576.
Graphic check.=--The graphic check which, it will be seen, might have been made use of as a graphic solution, consists in setting one square upon another with the angle of direction and the length of one side determined by the data given. That is, in this problem the protractor is set at 30 degrees and a length of 24 units is taken on the inclined square. The lengths of a and b are then carefully measured by taking a reading of the full inches and reading, the remaining fraction to hundredths by means of a sharp pair of dividers and the hundredths scale of the square.
Very many carpenters make use of graphic solutions such as this in determining rafter lengths. A little consideration, however, will show that it is a rather risky method of procedure unless the scale is large and the work scaled small. Graphs serve as easy checks against grave errors upon all kinds of work.
_Example 2._--Given _A_ and _a_. To find _B_, _c_, and _b_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _c_ = _a_/sin _A_
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
Substitute the numerical values and check as in _Example 1_.
_Example 3._--Given _A_ and _b_. To find _B_, _a_, and _c_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _a_ = _c_ × sin _A_.
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _c_ = _b_ / cos _A_
Substitute the numerical values and check as in Example i.
_Example 4._--Given _a_ and _c_. To find _A_, _B_, and _b_.
_Solution_--sin _A_ = _a_ / _c_ (That is, look in the tables, Appendix II, for the angle which has a sine equal to the result obtained by dividing the numerical value of the side _a_ by the value of the side _c_.)
_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
Substitute numerical values and check as in Example i.
_Example 5._--Given _a_ and _b_. To find _A_, _B_. and _c_.
_Solution_--tan _A_ = _a_ / _b_
_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _c_ = _a_ / sin _A_
Substitute numerical values and check as in Example 1.
APPENDIX II
Directions. An examination of the table of natural functions will indicate in the column at the left, angles of degrees to and including 45 degrees, reading down. The column to the extreme right will be found to contain degrees from 45-90 inclusive, reading up.
This compact arrangement of table is made possible thru the fact that sines and cosines, tangents and cotangents are reciprocals one of the other. That is, as the sine (column 2, reading down) increases in value, the cosine of the complementary angle (columns 6 and 2, reading up) decreases.
_Example 1._--Find the value of the sine of 40 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 1 and 2, reading down, sin 40 degrees = .6428.
_Example 2._--Find the value of sin 50 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 6 and 5, reading up, sin 50 degrees = .7660.
_Example 3._--Find the value of cos 40 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 1 and 5, reading down, cos 40 degrees = .7660 which is as might have been expected. Since 40 degrees is the complement of 50 degrees, the cos 40 degrees should be the same in value as the sin 50 degrees.
_Example 4._--Find the value of cos 87 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 6 and 2 reading up, cos 87 degrees = .0523
_Example 5._--Tangent and cotangent values. Proceed as with sines using columns 1 and 3, reading down, for tangent values between 0-45 degrees inclusive, columns 6 and 4, reading up, for values between 45-90 degrees.
For cotangent values between 0-45 degrees use columns 1 and 4 reading down, and columns 6 and 3 reading up for cotangent values between 45-90 degrees inclusive.
TABLE OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, COSINES, AND COTANGENTS
============================================================ Degrees | Sine | Tangent | Cotangent| Cosine | ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 0 | 0 | 0 | ∞ | 1 | 90 1 | .0175 | .0175 | 57.2900 | .9998 | 89 2 | .0349 | .0349 | 28.6363 | .9994 | 88 3 | .0523 | .0524 | 19.0811 | .9986 | 87 4 | .0698 | .0699 | 14.3007 | .9976 | 86 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 5 | .0872 | .0875 | 11.4301 | .9962 | 85 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 6 | .1045 | .1051 | 9.5144 | .9945 | 84 7 | .1219 | .1228 | 8.1443 | .9925 | 83 8 | .1392 | .1405 | 7.1154 | .9903 | 82 9 | .1564 | .1584 | 6.3138 | .9877 | 81 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 10 | .1736 | .1763 | 5.6713 | .9848 | 80 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 11 | .1908 | .1944 | 5.1446 | .9816 | 79 12 | .2079 | .2126 | 4.7046 | .9781 | 78 13 | .2250 | .2309 | 4.3315 | .9744 | 77 14 | .2419 | .2493 | 4.0108 | .9703 | 76 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 15 | .2588 | .2679 | 3.7321 | .9659 | 75 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 16 | .2756 | .2867 | 3.4874 | .9613 | 74 17 | .2924 | .3057 | 3.2709 | .9563 | 73 18 | .3090 | .3249 | 3.0777 | .9511 | 72 19 | .3256 | .3443 | 2.9042 | .9455 | 71 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 20 | .3420 | .3640 | 2.7475 | .9397 | 70 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 21 | .3584 | .3839 | 2.6051 | .9336 | 69 22 | .3746 | .4040 | 2.4751 | .9272 | 68 23 | .3907 | .4245 | 2.3559 | .9205 | 67 24 | .4067 | .4452 | 2.2460 | .9135 | 66 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 25 | .4226 | .4663 | 2.1445 | .9063 | 65 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 26 | .4384 | .4877 | 2.0503 | .8988 | 64 27 | .4540 | .5095 | 1.9626 | .8910 | 63 28 | .4695 | .5317 | 1.8807 | .8829 | 62 29 | .4848 | .5543 | 1.8040 | .8746 | 61 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 30 | .5000 | .5774 | 1.7321 | .8660 | 60 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 31 | .5150 | .6009 | 1.6643 | .8572 | 59 32 | .5299 | .6249 | 1.6003 | .8480 | 58 33 | .5446 | .6494 | 1.5399 | .8387 | 57 34 | .5592 | .6745 | 1.4826 | .8290 | 56 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 35 | .5736 | .7002 | 1.4281 | .8192 | 55 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 36 | .5878 | .7265 | 1.3764 | .8090 | 54 37 | .6018 | .7536 | 1.3270 | .7986 | 53 38 | .6157 | .7813 | 1.2799 | .7880 | 52 39 | .6293 | .8098 | 1.2349 | .7771 | 51 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 40 | .6428 | .8391 | 1.1918 | .7660 | 50 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 41 | .6561 | .8693 | 1.1504 | .7547 | 49 42 | .6691 | .9004 | 1.1106 | .7431 | 48 43 | .6820 | .9325 | 1.0724 | .7314 | 47 44 | .6947 | .9657 | 1.0355 | .7193 | 46 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- 45 | .7071 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | .7071 | 45 ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+------- | Cosine |Cotangent| Tangent | Sine |Degrees ----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
TO FIND THE VALUE OF AN ANGLE, THE VALUE OF A FUNCTION BEING KNOWN
_Example 6._--sin = .5150, find the angle.
_Solution_--Looking in columns 2 and 5 (sine values from 0-90 degrees) Ans. 31 degrees (Columns 2 and 1).
_Example 7._--cot = 1.3764, find the angle.
_Solution_--Looking in columns 3 and 4, Ans. = 36 degrees.
=Interpolation.=--Frequently one must find a functional value for fractional degrees, or degrees and minutes. Also, it becomes necessary to find the value of an angle with greater accuracy than even degrees, as given in the table herewith. This process of finding more accurate values is known as interpolation.
TO FIND THE VALUE OF A FUNCTION WHEN THE ANGLE IS IN FRACTIONAL DEGREES
_Example 8._--Find the value of tan 50 degrees 20 min.
_Solution._--tan 50 degrees = 1.1918 tan 51 degrees = 1.2349 difference for an interval of 1 degree = .0431 20 min. = 20/60 = 1/3 of 1 degree; ⅓ of .0431 = .0144 tan 50 degrees 20 min. = 1.1918 + .0144 = 1.2062.
The value of a fractional degree would be similarly treated for the sine, these functions increasing as the value of the angle increases. The cosine and cotangent, however, decrease in value as the angle increases. For this reason the fractional value of the cosine and cotangent must be subtracted from, instead of added to, the value of the function of the next lower number of degrees.
_Example 9._ Find the value of cos 26 deg. 30 min.
_Solution_--cos 26 deg. = .8988 cos 27 deg. = .8910 difference for interval of 1 deg. = .0078 30 min. = ½ of 1 deg.; ½ of .0078 = .0039 cos. 26 deg. 30 min. = .8988 - .0039 = .8949.
TO FIND THE VALUE OF AN ANGLE WHEN THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE CANNOT BE FOUND IN EXACT FORM IN THE TABLE
_Example 10._--Find the angle whose tan is .5
_Solution_--From the table, .4877 = tan 26 deg. .5095 = tan 27 deg. difference for interval of 1 deg. = .0218 .5000 = tan angle X. .4877 = tan 26 deg. difference for interval between tan angle X and tan 26 deg. = .0123 123/218 of 1 deg. or 60 min. = 34 min. Therefore, angle whose tangent = .5 = 26 deg. 34'.
Rule: (1) Search the body of the table for the functional values next above and next below that given. (2) Find the difference between these functional values. This difference is for an interval of 1 degree or 60 minutes. (3) Find the difference between the given functional value and that of the lower angle of the two used above. (4) Express this last difference as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the first difference found, or the difference for the interval of 1 degree. This gives the fractional part of 1 degree or 60 minutes which the second difference is. (5) Express this difference in minutes and add if the function be a sine or tangent, and substract if a cosine or cotangent to the number of degrees representing the angle whose function was the lower of the two functions found given in the table.
APPENDIX III
USEFUL TABLES
FRACTIONAL EQUIVALENTS FOR DECIMAL VALUES
================================================================ .0156 | 1/64 || .2656 | 17/64 || .5156 | 33/64 || .7656 | 49/64 .0312 | 1/32 || .5312 | 9/32 || .2812 | 17/32 || .7812 | 25/32 .0468 | 3/64 || .2968 | 19/64 || .5468 | 35/64 || .7968 | 51/64 .0625 | 1/64 || .3125 | 5/16 || .5625 | 9/16 || .8125 | 13/16 .0781 | 5/64 || .3281 | 21/64 || .5781 | 37/64 || .8281 | 53/64 .0937 | 3/32 || .3437 | 11/32 || .5937 | 19/32 || .8437 | 27/32 .1093 | 7/64 || .3593 | 23/64 || .6093 | 39/64 || .8593 | 55/64 .125 | 1/8 || .375 | 3/8 || .625 | 5/8 || .875 | 7/8 .1406 | 9/64 || .3906 | 25/64 || .6406 | 41/64 || .8906 | 57/64 .1562 | 5/32 || .4062 | 13/32 || .6562 | 21/32 || .9062 | 29/32 .1718 | 11/64 || .4218 | 27/64 || .6718 | 43/64 || .9218 | 59/64 .1875 | 3/16 || .4375 | 7/16 || .6875 | 11/16 || .9375 | 15/16 .2031 | 13/64 || .4531 | 29/64 || .7031 | 45/64 || .9531 | 61/64 .2187 | 7/32 || .4687 | 15/32 || .7187 | 23/32 || .9687 | 31/32 .2343 | 15/64 || .4843 | 31/64 || .7343 | 47/64 || .9843 | 63/64 .250 | 1/4 || .500 | 1/2 || .750 | 3/4 || 1.000 | 1 ================================================================
Where rafter lengths are determined by multiplying unit lengths by the run, the answer will almost invariably result in a decimal. Such decimal values may be readily translated into fractional forms by means of the accompanying table.
Example: A roof of ⅓ pitch has a common rafter run of 14'; find the length of common rafter.
Answer: 14 × 14.42" = 201.88" or 16.82'. By the table, .82 = 53/64. A carpenter, however, would not care for such accuracy; the nearest 1/16" or even ⅛" would be sufficient.
WOOD AND MACHINE SCREW SIZES
The difference between consecutive sizes is .01316".
=================================================================== No. of | Size of || No. of | Size of || No. of | Size of Screw | Number in || Screw | Number in || Screw | Number in Gage | Decimals || Gage | Decimals || Gage | Decimals --------+------------++--------+------------++--------+------------ 000 | .03152 || 16 | .26840 || 34 | .50528 00 | .04486 || 17 | .28156 || 35 | .51844 0 | .05784 || 18 | .29472 || 36 | .53160 1 | .07100 || 19 | .30788 || 37 | .54476 2 | .08416 || 20 | .32104 || 38 | .55792 3 | .09732 || 21 | .33420 || 39 | .57108 4 | .11048 || 22 | .34736 || 40 | .58424 5 | .12364 || 23 | .36052 || 41 | .59740 6 | .13680 || 24 | .37368 || 42 | .61056 7 | .14996 || 25 | .38864 || 43 | .62372 8 | .16312 || 26 | .40000 || 44 | .63688 9 | .17628 || 27 | .41316 || 45 | .65004 10 | .18944 || 28 | .42632 || 46 | .66320 11 | .20260 || 29 | .43948 || 47 | .67636 12 | .21576 || 30 | .45264 || 48 | .68952 13 | .22892 || 31 | .46580 || 49 | .70268 14 | .24208 || 32 | .47896 || 50 | .71584 15 | .25524 || 33 | .49212 || | --------+------------++--------+------------++--------+------------
Frequently the carpenter wishes to know the diameter of hole necessary to receive the shank of a screw of a certain gage. Should a screw gage be accessible, he may readily determine this. Should no gage be at hand, he may determine the size of hole by consulting the accompanying table of Wood and Machine Screw Sizes.
Example: What size bit must be selected to bore a hole for a No. 10 screw. By the table, a No. 10 screw is .18944" in diameter. By the table of Fractional Equivalents for Decimal Values it will be seen that a 3/16" bit must be used. The test for gage of screw is always made over the shank just below the head.
LENGTH AND NUMBER OF WIRE NAILS TO THE POUND
================================================================ Size |LENGTH|COMMON|CASING|FINISH|CLINCH|FENCE | FINE | GAL. | INS. | | | | | | | SHINGLE -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+--------- ¾ | ¾ | | | | | | | ⅞ | ⅞ | | | | | | | 2d | 1 | 900 | | | | | 1440 | 3d | 1¼ | 615 | | | | | 810 | 568 4d | 1½ | 322 | 473 | 584 | | | 250 | 5d | 1¾ | 254 | | | | | | 6d | 2 | 200 | 180 | 300 | 157 | 114 | | 7d | 2¼ | 154 | | | | | | 8d | 2½ | 106 | 112 | 190 | 99 | 74 | | 9d | 2¾ | 85 | | | | | | 10d | 3 | 74 | 90 | 134 | 69 | 42 | | 12d | 3¼ | 57 | | | | | | 16d | 3½ | 46 | .| | | | | 20d | 4 | 29 | | | | | | 30d | 4½ | 23 | | | | | | 40d | 5 | 17 | | | | | | 50d | 5½ | 14 | | | | | | 60d | 6 | 11 | | | | | | -----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Nails are sold in quantity by the keg, 100 lbs. of nails, exclusive of the keg. Twenty, 30, 40, 50 and 60d are "base." Other sizes have certain fixed additions per keg to this base price. For example, the price list adopted by manufacturers in 1896 allows an addition per keg of $.70 for 2d common, $.45 for 3d common, etc.
Wire nails are also bought and sold by weight, the size of wire according to the standard wire gage and the length in inches being taken into consideration in specifying the size and in fixing the price per pound.
Common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads. They are used in rough work where strength is desired. Finishing nails are used for fine work such as inside woodwork and cabinet work. Casing nails are somewhat thicker and stronger than finishing nails; they have smaller heads.
WIRE BRADS
==================================================================== Size, inches | ½ | ½ | ⅝ | ¾ | ¾ | ¾ | ⅞ | ⅞ | 1 Wire Gage, nos | 20 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 16 | 18 | 17 | 18 Approx no brads to lb. |7500|7200|4267|3556|2758|2600|2364|1781|2069 -----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Size, inches | 1 | 1 | 1¼ | 1¼ | 1½ | 1½ | 1½ | 1¾ | 1¾ Wire Gage, nos | 17 | 16 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 15 | 14 Approx no brads to lb. |1558|1143|1246| 913| 761| 584| 500| 500| 406 -----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- Size, inches | 2 | 2 | 2½ | 2½ | 3 | 3 | 3 | | Wire Gage, nos | 14 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 14 | 12 | 11 | | Approx no brads to lb. | 350| 268| 214| 164| 150| 137| 105| | -----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
BOARD MEASURE TABLE
================================================================================== | Size | Length, in Feet, of Joist, Scantling and Timber in +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- Inches| 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 36 | 38 | 40 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- 2 × 4| 8| 9| 11| 12| 13| 15| 16| 17| 19| 20| 21| 23| 24| 25| 27 2 × 6| 12| 14| 16| 18| 20| 22| 24| 26| 28| 30| 32| 34| 36| 38| 40 2 × 8| 16| 19| 21| 24| 27| 29| 32| 35| 37| 40| 43| 45| 48| 51| 53 2 × 10| 20| 23| 27| 30| 33| 37| 40| 43| 47| 50| 53| 57| 60| 63| 67 2 × 12| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80 2 × 14| 28| 33| 37| 42| 47| 51| 56| 61| 65| 70| 75| 79| 84| 89| 93 3 × 6| 18| 21| 24| 27| 30| 33| 36| 39| 42| 45| 48| 51| 54| 57| 60 3 × 8| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80 3 × 10| 30| 35| 40| 45| 50| 55| 60| 65| 70| 75| 80| 85| 90| 95| 100 3 × 12| 36| 42| 48| 54| 60| 66| 72| 78| 84| 90| 96| 102| 108| 114| 120 3 × 14| 42| 49| 56| 63| 70| 77| 84| 91| 98| 105| 112| 119| 126| 133| 140 4 × 4| 16| 19| 21| 24| 27| 29| 32| 35| 37| 40| 43| 45| 48| 51| 53 4 × 6| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80 6 × 6| 36| 42| 48| 54| 60| 66| 72| 78| 84| 90| 96| 102| 108| 114| 120 6 × 8| 48| 56| 64| 72| 80| 88| 96| 104| 112| 120| 128| 136| 144| 152| 160 8 × 8| 64| 75| 85| 96| 107| 117| 128| 139| 149| 160| 171| 181| 192| 203| 213 8 × 10| 80| 93| 107| 120| 133| 147| 160| 173| 187| 200| 213| 227| 240| 253| 267 10 × 10| 100| 117| 133| 150| 167| 183| 200| 217| 233| 250| 267| 283| 300| 317| 333 10 × 12| 120| 140| 160| 180| 200| 220| 240| 260| 280| 300| 320| 340| 360| 380| 400 12 × 12| 144| 168| 192| 216| 240| 264| 288| 312| 336| 360| 384| 408| 432| 456| 480 12 × 14| 163| 196| 224| 252| 280| 308| 336| 364| 392| 420| 448| 476| 504| 532| 560 14 × 14| 196| 229| 261| 294| 327| 359| 392| 425| 457| 490| 523| 555| 588| 621| 653 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
YELLOW PINE POSTS
Load in Tons
Length in ft. Size in inches 4 × 4 5 × 5 6 × 6 7 × 7 8 × 8 9 × 9 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 16 1 2 3 4 5 18 1 2 3 4
HARD PINE BEAMS AND GIRDERS
Load in Tons
Length in ft. Size in inches 2 × 6 3 × 6 4 × 6 6 × 6 8 × 8 6 1 1½ 2 3 5½ 8 ¾ 1 1½ 2½ 5 10 ¾ 1¼ 2 4½ 12 ½ 1 1½ 3 14 ½ 1 2½ 16 ½ 2 18 1
STEEL I BEAMS
Load in Tons
Length Size in inches in ft. 6 8 12 10 7 14 18 12 6 12 16 14 5 10 14 16 4 8 12 18 2 6 10 20 4 8 22 2 6 24 4
BRICK PIERS
Load in Tons
Height Size in inches in ft. 6 × 6 6 × 8 8 × 8 8 × 12 12 × 12 12 × 16 16 × 16 6 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 8 1½ 2½ 3½ 4¾ 5½ 6 8 10 1 2 3 5 5½ 6 7
STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
WORKING UNIT STRESSES USED IN DRY LOCATIONS
Bending Compression
Stress in Horizontal Parallel to Perpen- extreme shear grain "Short dicular Species of fibre stress Columns" to grain Timber Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in.
*Fir, Douglas Dense grade 1,600 100 1,200 350 Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300 Hemlock, eastern 1,000 70 700 300 Hemlock, western 1,300 75 900 300 Oak 1,400 125 900 400 Pine, eastern white 900 80 700 250 Pine, Norway 1,100 85 800 300 *Pine, southern yellow Dense grade 1,600 125 1,209 350 Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300 Spruce 900 70 600 200 Tamarack 1,200 95 900 350
* NOTE: The safe working stresses given in this table are for timbers with defects limited according to the sections on defects in the rules of the Southern Pine Association for Select Structural Material. "Dense" southern yellow pine and "dense" Douglas fir should also conform to the other requirements of this rule. "Sound" southern yellow pine and "sound" Douglas fir require no additional qualifications, whereas the other species should, in addition to being graded for defects, have all pieces of exceptionally low density for the species excluded.
This table gives working unit stresses for structural timbers used in dry locations, and is compiled in the main from material furnished by the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis.
TABLE OF BRICK WALL CONTENTS IN NUMBER OF BRICKS
Seven Bricks to Each Sq. Ft. of Wall Surface
No. of sq ft. Thickness of wall 4" 8" 12" 16" 20" 24" 1 7 15 23 30 38 45 2 15 30 45 60 75 90 3 23 45 68 90 113 135 4 30 60 90 120 150 180 5 38 75 113 150 188 225 6 45 90 135 180 225 270 7 53 105 158 210 263 315 8 60 120 180 240 300 360 9 68 135 203 270 338 405 10 75 150 225 300 375 450 20 150 300 450 600 750 900 30 225 450 675 900 1,125 1,350 40 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800 50 375 750 1,125 1,500 1,875 2,250 60 450 900 1,350 1,800 2,250 2,700 70 525 1,050 1,575 2,100 2,625 3,150 80 600 1,200 1,800 2,400 3,000 3,600 90 675 1,350 2,025 2,700 3,375 4,050 100 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 4,500
_Example_--Determine the number of bricks in a wall 12" × 18' × 60'.
_Solution_--The wall contains a surface area of 1,080 sq. ft. By the table 100 sq. ft. contains 2,250 bricks, then 1,000 sq. ft. will contain 22,500 bricks. 80 sq. ft. will contain, by the table, 1,800 bricks, making a total of 24,300 bricks.
APPENDIX IV
(Short Cuts to Roof Framing)
Griffith's Framing Tables For the Square and Octagonal Roof
=Directions for Using Table for the Steel Square.=--Fig. 70-a.
Example.--Given a square hipped roof, that is, a roof with square corners, having a span of 25 ft. and a pitch of ½.
1. _To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate._--Take 12" on tongue of framing square and 12" on blade; scribe along blade. (Cf. small table, Fig. 70-a.)
2. _Length of Ridge._--Length of long plate diminished by length of short plate, increased by thickness of ridge piece plus diagonal thickness of hip.
3. _To Lay Out Common Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut. (Cf. column 5, beginning at left, Fig. 70-a.) Take 12" on tongue of square and 12" on blade (column 2), scribe along blade.
b. Length of common rafter. (Cf. column 11) 12½ (run of common rafter) x 16.97" (length of common rafter per foot of run) = 17' 8.12" = 17' 8⅛ (.12" = ⅛", columns 3 and 4).
c. Seat cut. (Cf. column 8) Take 12" on tongue and 12" on blade; scribe along tongue.
d. Tail for common rafter.
(1) Length determined as was that of common rafter, the horizontal projection or length of look- out becoming multiplier. 173
(2) End cut use same numbers as for plumb cut but invert position of square.
e. Reduction for ridge. Measure straight back from plumb cut a distance equal to 3/ the thickness of ridge piece.
4. _To Lay Out Hip or Valley Rafter.-_-
a. Plumb cut. (Cf. column 6) Take 17" on the tongue and 12" on the blade; scribe along the blade.
b. Side cut. (Cf. column 16) Take 17" on the tongue and 20.78" or 20-13/16" (columns 3 and 4) on the blade; scribe along the blade.
This also gives the miter cut at the end of the tail of the hip for fascia, and also the miter cut at the bird's mouth joint of valley rafter, where it must be cut out to fit the angle of the plate.
c. Length of hip or valley rafter. (Cf. column 12) 12½ (run of common rafter) x 20.78" (length of hip or valley rafter per foot of run of common rafter) = 21' 7.75" = 21' 7¾" (.75 = ¾, columns 3 and 4.)
d. Seat cut. (Cf. column 9) Take 17" on tongue and 12" on the blade, scribe along the tongue.
e. Tail for hip or valley rafter.
(1) Length determined as was that of hip or valley rafter, the horizontal projection of tail or length of the lookout of common rafter becoming the multiplier.
(2) End cut use same numbers as for plumb cut of hip or valley but invert square.
f. Reduction for ridge. Measure straight back from plumb cut ½ diagonal thickness of ridge.
g. Backing of hip. (Cf. column 21) Take 12" (rise of common rafter) on the tongue and 20-13/16" on the blade scribe along the tongue for angle of backing.
h. Drop of hip when no backing is given. (Cf. column 23) Reduce at seat cut 9/16", measured at right angles to seat cut.
5. _To Lay Out Jacks._--
a. Plumb cut. Same as that for the common rafter!
b. Side cut. (Cf. column 14) Take 12" on the tongue and 16.97" or 17" on blade (.97" = 1", columns 3 and 4), scribe on the blade.
Scribing along the tongue will give the face cut of roof boards, also of plancher.
c. Length. Jacks set 24" centers, beginning with shortest jack =2' 10" (column 19). Second shortest jack = length of shortest increased 2' 10", etc.
Beginning with longest jack = length of common rafter diminished by 2' 10", etc.
d. Tail for jack. Same as for common rafter.
6. _Note._--
All rafter lengths are measured down the middle of the top edges theoretically. On the square cornered roof, measurements of hip or valley rafters may be made from the long point without further reduction in length providing a 2" thick ridge is used. Jacks need no further reduction in length on a square cornered building provided the hips or valleys are of the same thickness as the jacks and the measurements are made from the long points of the jacks. Otherwise suitable reductions must be made for rafter and ridge thicknesses.
=Directions for Using Table for Protractor.=--Fig. 70-b.
Example.--Given to frame an octagonal silo with a span of 21' and a roof pitch of 11" to the foot.
1. _To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate._--(Cf. small table Fig. 70-b.) Eight sided polygon, plate miter = 67½ degrees. Set a T-bevel by means of a protractor[B] to this angle.
[Footnote B: Starrett's "Framing Tool" is strongly recommended for framing in degrees, Cf. Figs. 81 and 82.]
2. _To Find Length of a Side for Plate._--(Cf. small table, Fig. 70-b.) 21' (2 x run) x .414 (cotangent of octagon) = 8.69' = 8%' (.69 = %, columns 3 and 4.)
3. _To Lay Out Common Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut.--(Cf. column 5) = 47 deg. 30 min. Set T-bevel by means of protractor to same.
b. Length.--(Cf. column 11). Take 10½ (run) × 16.28" (length of common rafter per foot of run) = 14' 2.94" = 14' 3". (.94 = 1, columns 3 and 4.)
c. Seat cut.--(Cf. column 8) 42 deg. 30 min. Set T-bevel by means of protractor.
d. Tail.--
(1) Length Determined as is length of common rafter (Cf. column 11), horizontal projection of tail or length of lookout becoming the multiplier.
(2) End cut. Use same number of degrees as for plumb cut.
4. _To Lay Out Hip or Valley Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut.--(Cf. column 7) = 49 deg. 50 min.
b. Side cut.--(Cf. column 17) = 17 deg. 40 min. This also gives miter cut at end of hip tail for fascia, and also the miter cut of the bird's mouth joint of valley rafter, where it must be cut out to fit the angle of the plate.
c. Length of hip or valley rafter.--(Cf. column 13) 10½ (run of common rafter) × 17.03" (length of octagon hip or valley per foot of run of common rafter) = 14' 10.82" = 14' 10⅞" (.82 = ⅞, columns 3 and 4).
d. Seat cut.--(Cf. column 10) = 40 deg. 10 min. Use protractor and T-bevel.
e. Tail for hip or valley rafter.--
(1) Length. Determined as for hip or valley, horizontal projection of tail or length of lookout of common rafter becoming multiplier.
(2) End cut. Use same number of degrees as for plumb cut of hip or valley.
f. Backing of hip.--(Cf. column 22) = 74 deg. 50 min.
g. Drop of hip when no backing is used.--(Cf. column 24) = 5/16".
5. To Lay Out Jacks.--
a. Plumb cut.--Same as for common rafter.
b. Side cut.--(Cf. column 15) = 17 deg.
c. Length.--(Cf. column 20) = 12/5 that for square roof of same pitch. When set 16" centers = 12/5 × 21¾" = 52¼", common difference. Proceed accordingly.
d. Tail for jack.--Same as for common rafter.
APPENDIX V
MISCELLANEOUS ESTIMATING
Excavations. Excavations are estimated in terms of the cubic yard, 27 cubic feet. The price per yard will vary according to the nature of the soil.
Where ground is not level, the plot should be divided into squares, each square being figured as to its cubical contents and the various amounts combined.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD
Spading or picking labor, ¾ hour at ............... Throwing out labor, ¾ hour at ..................... Wheeling 50 feet, ⅜ hour at ....................... -------- Cost per yard $
=Concrete.=--Concrete is estimated in terms of the cubic yard. The price will vary somewhat according to the mixture and the amount of form work required. Mixtures are designated as "rich"--1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts crushed rock, by volume; "medium"--1:2½:5; "ordinary"--1:3:6, and "lean,"--1:4:8. The rich mixture is used for cellar floors on high grade work. Cisterns and tanks make use of a special mixture of 1:2:3, the stone or gravel being passed thru a %" screen. Cement topping for cellar floors is a mortar composed of 1 part cement and 2 parts sharp sand. Sometimes a 1:1 mixture is used. Cellar floors and sidewalks are often priced by the foot surface measure, standard specifications for depth and construction being understood.
TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CONCRETE
(Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of concrete.)
MIXTURE
Rich (1:2:4) Medium (1:2½:5) Ordinary (1:3:6) Cement 0.058 bbl. 0.048 bbl. 0.041 bbl. Sand 0.0163 cu. yd. 0.0170 cu. yd. 0.0174 cu. yd. Stone or gravel: 0.0326 cu. yd. 0.0341 cu. yd. 0.0348 cu. yd.
_Example_ Estimate quantities of various materials needed for a wall 10" × 7' × 48', using a 1:2½:5 mixture.
_Solution_--(10 × 7 × 48) / 12 = 280 cu. ft. Cement = 280 × 0.048 bbl. = 13.44 bbl. Sand = 280 × 0. 017 cu. yd. = 4.76 cu. yd. Stone = 280 × 0.0341 cu. yd. = 9.548 cu. yd.
Knowing the cost of cement per bbl. and of sand and stone per cu. yd., the cost of materials for the wall may be easily determined.
TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CEMENT MORTAR
(Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of cement mortar)
MIXTURE
1:1½ 1:2 1:2½ Cement 0.1481 bbl. 0.1239 bbl. 0.1052 bbl. Sand 0.0311 cu. yd. 0.0344 cu. yd. 0.0370 cu. yd.
_Example_ Estimate quantities of material for 1:2 cement mortar for topping of cellar floor 1" × 24' × 40'.
_Solution_--(24 × 40) = 80 cu. ft. Cement = 80 × 0.1239 bbl. = 9.912 bbl. Sand = 80 × 0.0344 cu. yd. = 2. 752 cu. yd.
ANALYSIS OF LABOR COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD
1 mason, 2 hours @ ....................... 2 laborers, 2 hours each @ ............... ------- Total $
Where forms are required add 1 carpenter, 2¼ hours @ ...................
Cellar floor construction costs approximately the same as wall work having forms. The expense of form work in ordinary basement wall construction is offset by labor and additional cement cost of topping of cellar floor.
=Brickwork.=--The unit of measurement in brickwork is the 1000 bricks, ordinarily.
To determine the number of bricks in a wall, multiply each square foot of surface by 7 (sometimes 7½ is used) which is the average number of bricks per foot of wall when 4" thick. Add 5% for breakage. Deduct for openings over 2' square. For walls thicker than 4", make suitable allowance.
A mason can lay 800 to 1000 common and 300 to 400 face bricks in a day.
Bricks may be laid in lime mortar or in cement mortar.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, LIME MORTAR 1:3
Brick, 1000 @ ............................ Lime, 3 bu. @ ............................ Sand, ½ cu. yd. @ ........................ Mason, 10 hrs. @ ......................... Tender, 10 hrs. @ ........................ ------- Total $
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, CEMENT MORTAR 1:3
Brick, 1000 @ ............................ Portland cement, 1¼ bbl. @................ Sand ½ cu. yd. @ ......................... Mason, 10 hrs. @ ......................... Tender, 10 hrs. @ ........................ ------- Total $
=Chimneys.=--One foot of chimney height will contain five courses of ordinary bricks.
CHIMNEYS
No. Size of Size of No. Bricks Flues Flue Chimney per Ft.
1 8" × 8" 16" × 16" 30 2 8" × 8" 16" × 28" 50 3 8" × 8" 16" × 40" 70 1 12" × 12" 20" × 20" 40
=Slate Roof.=--Exposure of each slate will equal the length of a slate diminished by 3" (the usual amount of lap) divided by 2, multiplied by the width of the slate.
To determine the number of slates required, divide the area to be covered by the exposure of each slate as determined just above.
_Example_--Determine the number of 6" × 12" slates required to cover a surface 16' × 20'.
_Solution_--( (12" - 3") / 2) × 6" = 27 sq. in. (16 × 20 × 144") / 27" = 1707 slates.
TABLE OF SLATES PER SQUARE OF 100 FEET
Size Length of Expos. No. Req. Nails Req. 6" × 12" 4½" 533 3.8 lbs. 7" × 14" 5½" 377 2.66 8" × 16" 6½" 277 2 9" × 18" 7½" 214 1.5
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE. (100 SQ. FT.)
Slate, @ ............................. Slater, 8 hrs., @ .................... Roofing Paper, @ ..................... Placing paper, 20 min ................ Nails, 2 lbs. (8" × 16" slate) @ ..... -------- Total $ Metal work extra.
=Plastering.=--Plastering is estimated by the square yard. In estimating the number of square yards, deduct ½ the area of openings. The extra labor involved in working around grounds is thus allowed for. Strips of plastering less than 1 foot wide are estimated as a foot in width. Closet areas are increased by J/ to make allowance for the extra labor involved in working small surfaces. Special plastering of cornice, etc., will be charged extra: Lathing is usually a part of the plasterer's contract, tho done by a different set of workmen. The unit is either the square yard or the 1000 laths.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS FOR LATHING A SQUARE (100 SQ. FT.)
Lath, 1500 @ ......................... Nails, 10 lbs. 3d fine @ ............. Lather, 8 hrs. @ ..................... -------- Total ............................$
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 2-COAT LIME PLASTER
Lime, 10 bu. @ ....................... Hair, 6 lbs. @ ....................... Sand, 1 yd. @ ........................ 2 plasterers, 12 hrs. each @ ......... 1 helper, 12 hrs. @ .................. -------- Total ............................$
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 3-COAT LIME PLASTER
Lime, 13 bu. @ ....................... Hair, 8 lbs. @ ....................... Sand, 1½ yds. @ ...................... Plaster of Paris, 1 bbl. @ ........... 2 plasterers, 16 hrs. each @ ......... 1 helper, 16 hrs ..................... ------- Total ............................$
=Painting.=--Painting is estimated by the square yard, no deductions being made for openings such as doors and windows. Railings, grills, etc., are figured as if solid.
A gallon of paint will cover approximately 250 to 300 sq. ft. of old work and 350 ft. of new work. A painter should cover 150 sq. ft, 1st. coat, per hour, and 90 sq. ft., 2nd coat.
Cost factors may be easily determined from the above statements, and costs easily estimated for ordinary work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFERENCES
Chicago Millwork Supply Co.: _Price Book and Specifications for Lumber and Millwork_, Chicago.
Gillette: _Handbook of Cost Data_, Myron C. Clark Co., New York.
Gordon-Van Tine Co.: _Price Book and Specifications for Lumber and Millwork_, Davenport, Iowa.
Griffith: _Essentials of Woodworking_, Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill.
Hodgson: _Modern Carpentry_, Frederick J. Drake Co., Chicago.
Hodgson: _Practical Uses of the Steel Square_, Frederick J. Drake Co-., Chicago.
Kidder: _Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book_, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Kidder: _Building, Construction and Superintendence_, Wm. T. Comstock, New York.
Radford: _Cyclopedia of Building Construction_, Radford Architectural Co., Chicago.
Radford: _Details of Building Construction_, Radford Architectural Co., Chicago.
The National Hardwood Lumber Association: _Rules for Measurement and Inspection of Hardwood Lumber_, McCormick Bldg., Chicago.
INDEX
(NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES)
A
American Bond 20 Anchor, Brick Wall 139 Angle Post 118 Apron 109 Architrave 109 Ashlar 20
B
Backing Hip Rafter for Square Cornered Building 63 Octagon and Other Hips 80 Balloon Frame 27 Base Block 109 Blocks, Placing 128 Mould 109 Mould, Placing 129 Batter Boards 15 Bed Moulding 98 Belt Course 110 Bibliography of Reading References 183 Blind Stop 109, 138 Board Measure Table 169 Bonds, Masonry 20 Brick Walls 20 Contents Table 172 Bridging 32 Building Paper 95, 98
C
Casing 109, 138 Casings, Placing 128 Chalk Line 103 Common Rafter 74 Concrete Mixtures 19 Corner Boards 109 Board, Splicing 102 Posts 38, 39, 109 Cornice 98 Costs, by Percentages 156 Example of Form 154 Counter Flashing 107 Cove 118 Crown Moulding 98
D
Deck 94 Door, Fitting 130 Frame 137 Hanging 129 Hinging 131 Jambs, Setting 125 Parts Named 129 Sill 109 Trim, Placing 127 Drain Tile 24 Drip Cap 109, 138 "Duck" 127
E
End Cut of Common Rafter 55 of Hip and Valley Rafter 62 of Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 79 English Bond 20 Estimating 142 Brick Work 180 Estimating Cement Mortar 179 Concrete 178 Cubic-foot Unit 142 Excavations 178 Labor Costs, Carpentry 150 Lathing 182 Lumber Quantities 146 Millwork Quantities 149 Painting 182 Plastering 181, 182 Quantities of Nails 153 Slate Roof 181 Excavations 18 Exterior Wall Coverings 95
F
Fascia 98 Finish Floor 109 Finishing Exterior Walls 108 Flashing 105 Flemish Bond 20 Floors, Laying and Scraping 135 Footings 18 Forms for Concrete 23 Foundations 18 Laying out 13 Foundation Materials 19 Frames, Basement 25 Framing Common Rafter 49 Joists 31 Roof about Chimney 94 Square with Rafter Table 53 Table for Common and Jack Rafters 52 Frieze 98 Full Frame 27 Furring 109
G
Girders 29, 31 Grade Line 16 Grading Rules, Lumber 143 Griffith's Roof Framing Tables 72 Griffith's Tables, Directions for 173 Grounds 115
H
Half-frame 27 Headers 20, 35, 109 Headroom 119 Hip and Valley Rafter End Cut 62 and Valley Rafter Lengths 61 and Valley Rafter Plumb Cut 60 and Valley Rafter Seat Cut 62 and Valley Rafters for Octagon and other Polygons 74 and Valley Rafter Side Cut 60 Rafter, Unit Lengths 59
I
Interior Finish 115, 125 Walls 117 Interpolation 164
J
Jamb 109, 138 Jack Rafter for Octagonal and Other Polygonal Roofs 81 for Square Cornered Building 65
K
King-Post 78
L
Lap Siding 111 Lathing 115 Length and Number of Wire Nails to the Pound 168 Length of Common Rafter 50, 54 of Hip and Valley Rafters 61 of Jacks for Square Cornered Building 66 Length of Octagon and Other Polygonal Jacks 82 of Rafter by Scaling 53 of Side of Polygon 73 Leveling Door Sill 110 Foundation 16 Rod 14 with Straight-edge 17 Lintels 141 Locks, Fitting 132 Lookout 98 Lookouts, Framing 99
M
Main Frame 27 Masonry Construction, Woodwork for 138 Miter Cuts of Plate 69
N
Natural Trigonometric Functions 158 Nosing 118
O
Octagonal and Other Jacks 81 Roofs 73 Octagon Bay, Framing 85 Openings in Framework 42, 94
P
Parting Strip 109, 138 Partition 38 Wall Detail 116 Patterns for Joists and Studding 38 Pier 123 Pitch 46 Pitch Board 120 Placing Joists 32, 41 Plancher 98 Plank Frame 27 Plates 41, 98 Platform, Stair 118 Plumb Cut of Hip and Valley Rafter 60 of Octagonal Hip and Valley Rafters 74 Porches 122 Porch Steps 117 Protractor, Framing with 82 Pulleys 138 Pulley Stile 109, 138
R
Raked Moulding 100 Reduction for King-post 79 for Ridge 57 Ribbon Boards 39 Ridge, Length of 56 Piece 57 Rise 46 Rise of Stair 119 Riser 118, 121 Roof Boards, Cutting of 95, 96, 98 Frame 45 Frame, Any Polygon 69 Framing 45 Framing Terms 46 Rough Floors 42, 109 Rubble Work 20 Run 45 Run of Stair 119
S
Sash Cord 127 Scaffolding 96 Scribing Against Irregular Surface 114 Seat Cut of Common Rafter 55 of Hip and Valley Rafter 62 of Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 79 Setting Basement Frames 25 Setting Partitions 41 Studs 40 Window Frames 110 Sheathing or Sheeting 95, 98 Shed Roof Framing 89 Shingling 102 Hips and Valleys 105 Shingle Tins 106 Shoe Mould 109 Placing 129 Side Cut, Hip and Valley Rafters 60 Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 75 of Jack Rafter 65 of Octagonal and Other Polygonal Jacks 81 Siding 111 Circular Tower 113 Hook 113 Stick 111 Sills 29, 31, 109, 138 Six-eight-ten Method 15 Sole Piece 109 Solution of Right Triangles 159 Spacing Joists 32 Stair Building 117 Types 118 Stirrups 36 Stock Bill Form 149 Stone Work 20 Stool 109 Stop Bead 109, 138 Story Pole 42 Straightening Studding 117 Strength of Materials 170 Stretchers 20 Stringer 118
T
Table for Hip and Valley Rafters 60 of Common and Jack Rafters 52 Table of Fractional Equivalents for Decimal Values 166 of Natural Functions 163 of Octagonal Hip and Valley Rafters 75 Tail, Rafter 56 Tangents 69 Threshold 109 Toe Hold 104 Transit 13 Translating Framing Problems from Protractor to Framing Square and Vice Versa 84 Tread 118, 121 Trimmers 35
U
Uneven Pitch of Roof 90 Useful Tables 166
V
Valley Rafters 65 Rafter Unit Lengths 58 Value of a Function, The Angle Being Given in Fractional Degrees 164 of Angle, The Value of a Function Being Known 164 Veneer, Brick 138
W
Wall Board 121 Walls 38 Water Proofing 24 Table 109 Weight Pocket 109, 138 Well Hole 36 Winders, Stair 118 Window Detail, for Brick Wall 140 Frames 137 Sash, Fitting 126 Window Sill 109 Stool 109 Trim, Placing 127 Wire Brads, Table for 169 Wood and Machine Screw, Sizes, Table of 167 Wooden Bricks 26 Wood's Key to the Steel Square 70
Y
Y-level 14 Yoke 109
* * * * *
Transcriber Note
A link to the Index was added to the Contents table.