volume 1, page 451.

[144] GEORGE TIEMANN & CO., _American Armamentarium Chirurgicum_ (New York, 1889), page 825.

[145] For one listing of the disadvantages of the common scarificator, see BLATIN, "Scarificator nouveau," _Bulletin de l'Academie Royale de Medecine_, volume 11 (1845-1846), pages 87-90. Blatin patented a new scarificator in 1844 that supposedly overcame the difficulties he listed.

[146] JAMES COXETER, "New Surgical Instruments," _The Lancet_ (November 15, 1845), page 538; JAMES COXETER & SON, _A Catalogue of Surgical Instruments_ (London, 1870), page 48. Coxeter sold his scarificator for 2 pounds, 2 shillings, while he offered his "best scarificator, with old action" for two pounds.

[147] GREAT BRITAIN PATENT OFFICE, _Subject-Matter Index of Patents of Invention_, 1617-1852, 2 volumes (London, 1957); U.S. PATENT OFFICE, _Subject Matter Index of Patents for Invention (Brevets d'invention) Granted in France from 1791 to 1876 Inclusive_ (Washington, 1883).

[148] CHARRIERE [firm], _Cinq notices reunies presentees a MM. les membres des jurys des expositions francaises de 1834, 1839, 1844, et 1849, et de l'exposition universelle de Londres en 1851_ (Paris, 1851), page 56.

[149] MAISON CHARRIERE, ROBERT ET COLLIN, SUCCESSEURS, [Catalogue generale] (Paris, 1867), pages 42, 44, and plate 9.

[150] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 4705; TIEMANN & CO., op. cit. [note 144], page 115. Tiemann was awarded an earlier patent for a scarificator in 1834 (unnumbered U.S. patent, 26 August 1834), which seems to have employed a coiled spring similar to that found in the Charriere scarificator. The fifth U.S. patent for a scarificator was issued in 1846 to A. F. Ahrens of Philadelphia (U.S. patent 4717) for a circular scarificator in which all the blades were attached to a movable plate.

[151] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 5111.

[152] Patent specifications, U.S. patent 8095.

[153] DYCE DUCKWORTH, "On the Employment of Dry-Cupping," _The Practitioner: A Monthly Journal of Therapeutics_, volume 2 (1869), page 153.

[154] Ibid., page 155. For more information on counter-irritation, see BROCKBANK, op. cit. [note 88]. Blisters were substances (including mustard and cantharides) that when applied to the skin, occasioned a serous secretion and the raising of the epidermis to form a vesicle. Cautery was the application of a red-hot iron to the skin. A seton was a long strip of linen or cotton thread passed through the skin by a seton needle. Each day a fresh piece of thread was drawn through the sore. Moxa were cones of cotton wool or other substances which were placed upon the skin and burned.

[155] CHARLES BAUNSCHEIDT, _Baunscheidtismus, by the Inventor of the New Curing Method_, 1st English edition, translated from the 6th German edition by John Cheyne and L. Hayman (Bonn., 1859?).

[156] The patent models are in the Smithsonian collection. See "Catalog" herein. The Aima Tomaton, a device invented and manufactured by Dr. L. M'Kay, was yet another American variation on the Lebenswecker. See L. M'KAY, _Aima Tomaton: Or New Cupping and Puncturing Apparatus_ (Rochester, 1870). An example can be found in the collection of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.

[157] See DUCKWORTH, op. cit. [note 153]; ISAAC HOOVER, "An Essay on Dry Cupping," _Transactions of the Belmont Medical Society for 1847-48-49-50_ (Bridgeport, 1851), pages 30-32; MARSHALL HALL, _Practical Observations and Suggestions in Medicine_ (London, 1845), pages 51-53; and B. H. WASHINGTON, "Remarks on Dry Cupping," _The New Jersey Medical Reporter and Transactions of the New Jersey Medical Society_ (1852-53), pages 278-281.

[158] CASPER WISTAR PENNOCK, "Observations and Experiments on the Efficacy and Modus Operandi of Cupping-Glasses in Preventing and Arresting the Effects of Poisoned Wounds," _The American Journal of Medical Sciences_,