CHAPTER XVII. SOME FAMILIAR BRITISH BIRDS.

55. THE THRUSH FAMILY.

1. =The song-thrush, mavis, or throstle.=—Throstles are to be seen throughout the year. Take every opportunity of observing their habits, and make careful notes of these at the time. Especially attend to the following characters:

(_a_) _General appearance._—What is the average size of the bird? What is the length of the tail? At what angle is the tail held? Does the bird move it in any special manner? What is the prevailing colour of the body? Notice the light-coloured and spotted breast. Compare the male and female as regards size, colouration, etc.

(_b_) _Habits._—What situations do throstles chiefly inhabit? Do they keep near the edge of the wood, or have you often seen them inside thick woods? Does the bird hop, or walk, when on the ground? Upon what does it feed? Have you ever seen it cracking the shell of a snail? If you find a heap of snail-shells near a stone, watch, at a little distance, for the throstle coming to crack snail-shells on the stone. Does it also eat worms, or fruit? Describe a throstle’s beak. How would you describe the flight—as high or low, swift or slow, straight, in wide curves, or undulating? Does the bird perch on trees? How does it use its toes in perching?

(_c_) _Song._—In what months does the throstle sing? Does it sing late at night and early in the morning? How does it compare with other birds in this respect? In what positions have you seen the bird singing—when flying, perching, or on the ground? Try to write down the syllables which seem to you most like the throstle’s song, and notice how the phrases are repeated. Notice that throstles sing less during August than in autumn. Listen, in September or October, for young thrushes learning to sing, and contrast their efforts with the song of the adult birds.

(_d_) _The nest._—At what time of the year do throstles pair and build their nests? In what situations have you found the nests? Write a description of the shape, size, and materials of the first throstle’s nest you find. Visit it frequently, try not to disturb the birds, and note the dates of laying of the eggs. How many eggs are laid? What are their size and colour? How are they arranged in the nest? Do the broad or the narrow ends point inwards? What are the advantages of this arrangement (i) for purposes of packing, (ii) when the eggs hatch? Do both birds sit on the eggs? If only one, which? What is the time of incubation?

(_e_) _The young._—Are the young birds naked and helpless, or feathered, at hatching? How do the parent-birds feed them? What is the appearance of the fledglings? In what respect do they (i) resemble, (ii) differ from, the parents? How long do the birds remain in the nest after hatching? Write an account of any education you have observed them to receive from the parents.

{Make similar observations and notes on other birds, in addition to the special observations mentioned below, and learn to recognise their appearance, flight, song, nest, and eggs. A field-glass will be found of great assistance.}

2. =The missel-thrush, or storm-cock.=—Compare the missel-thrush with the song-thrush. Notice its larger size, the brighter colour of its spotted breast, and its somewhat less musical song. Listen for its song during, or immediately after, a storm, even in winter. In the nesting season observe the marked courage and pugnacity of the bird.

3. =The blackbird.=—Compare the blackbird with the thrushes in respect of appearance, food, habits, and song. Notice the difference in the colouration of the male and female blackbird. Observe that the young bird has a spotted breast like that of a thrush, but that old blackbirds are not spotted. Have you noticed a blackbird show a preference for singing in any particular place? What observations would lead you to suppose that the blackbird is a near relative of the thrushes?

4. =Fieldfares.=—Distinguish these birds from thrushes. Notice that they arrive about October, and frequent fields in large parties.

=The thrush family.=—For many reasons the thrush family forms a convenient starting point in the study of the habits of common British birds. It includes some of our very finest songsters and therefore most popular birds; many of its members are abundant in most parts of the country, so that nearly every student has the opportunity of observing them at first hand; the birds are not specially shy; and, lastly, the family affords excellent material for the method of comparison and contrast, which, be it repeated, is the essence of all sound work in nature-study.

The =song-thrush=, which is also known as the =throstle= and =mavis=, is a shapely bird, easily recognisable by its grey, spotted breast (Fig. 196), which may be seen all the year round in wooded parts of the country. The male and female are very similar in appearance, and of almost equal size, measuring 8 or 9 inches from head to tail. The thrush generally feeds on the ground, hopping along on a pair of sturdy legs and feet, seizing and pulling out worms which incautiously show themselves at the mouths of their burrows, and catching insects and snails. A thrush usually has a favourite stone on which it cracks the shells of snails, and it is not uncommon to find, near the stone, a little heap of broken snail-shells—the remains of many a feast. In winter, when the summer diet can no longer be obtained, the thrush subsists largely upon the fruit of hawthorn, mistletoe, etc. Its beak, as is usual with birds, is distinctly adapted to the capture of its food, being, in this case, narrow, round, and fairly long. The thrush is a strong and rather rapid flier.

Thrushes begin to sing at the first signs of spring, pairing and commencing the work of nest-building in February or early March. The throstle’s song is surpassed by very few birds; and many people consider it equal, if not superior, to the nightingale’s. The song begins before sunrise, and may be heard when almost all other birds have retired to rest. The thrush has a curious habit of repeating each strain two or three times, “lest,” as Browning says, “you should think he never could recapture the first fine careless rapture.” Many attempts have been made to imitate the song by words; Mr. R. Kearton[21] quotes with approval the following rendering by the famous Scottish naturalist Macgillivray:

“Qui qui qui kweeu quip, Tiurru tiurru chipiwi, Too-tee, too-tee, chiu choo, Chirri chirri chooee Quiu qui qui.”

But, as Mr. Kearton remarks, “no human words can ever represent, especially in cold type, the passionate vehemence, the sprightliness, or the tender pleading of a thrush’s song.”

The nest of the thrush (Fig. 197) is a massive structure, deep and cup-shaped, and open at the top. It is built of small twigs and grass, and is plastered with mud or cow-dung until the inside is smooth and hard. It is usually placed in an evergreen bush or tree, but may also be found in cavities in tree-trunks or in holes in walls, or even in sheltered places on the ground. The eggs number from 4 to 6; they are about an inch long, are sky-blue in colour, and marked with black spots, which are most numerous near the thick end. The eggs are arranged with their pointed ends inwards; this method not only allows them to be packed more closely together and therefore to be more easily covered by the sitting bird, but is also of convenience at the time of hatching, as the young birds usually emerge (p. 294) at the thick end. The eggs hatch after a fortnight’s incubation. The young thrushes are at first blind, almost naked, and are quite helpless. They make rapid progress, however, and are sufficiently fledged to leave the nest in about a fortnight after hatching. The fledgling throstle (Fig. 198) is lighter in colour than the adult, and much more distinctly spotted. In October the young birds may be heard learning to sing; their first efforts are hesitating and uncertain, but by tireless practice and careful imitation of the old birds they presently come into full possession of their delightful powers.

The =missel=, or =mistletoe=, =thrush= (Fig. 199) much resembles the song-thrush in appearance and manner of life, but is distinctly larger, measuring about 10½ inches from head to tail. It has a very pleasing song, which may be heard, even in the depth of winter, when all other song-birds are mute. The missel thrush’s habit of singing vigorously during storms has led to its alternative name of “=storm-cock=.” The bird is noted for its pugnacity in the breeding season, and for the courage with which it defends its nest and young; any other birds approaching the nest are promptly attacked and driven to a distance. The nest is generally built in a tree, where a branch springs from the trunk. It is made of dried grass, moss, and wool, and the hen lays from 4 to 6 pale-green eggs, which are speckled with brown.

The =blackbird= (Fig. 200) may easily be distinguished from the thrush by its colour—the male being black, with a yellow beak, and the female blackish brown, slightly mottled below. The blackbird is slightly larger than the thrush, but in shape and habits the two birds are very similar; they haunt the same woods, live upon similar food (_i.e._ worms, insects, snails and, in winter, fruit) and build their nests in similar situations. The blackbird’s song is, however, quite distinctive, and consists of mellow, flute like notes, without the repetition which is so characteristic of the throstle and missel-thrush. The blackbird is fond of perching, when singing, upon a bare branch which commands a good view of the surroundings. The nest (Fig. 201) is much like that of the song thrush, but the inside has a soft lining of fine grass instead of being hardened with mud. The 4, 5, or occasionally 6 eggs are bluish-green in colour, and are marked with _blurred_ brown spots.

Curiously enough, young blackbirds, like young thrushes, are very distinctly spotted. There can be no doubt that blackbirds and thrushes are descended from the same stock, and that their ancestors had spotted breasts. For some reason, the blackbird has lost its family colours, although, as is so often the case among animals, it is still compelled to bear the marks of its ancestry during its infancy. Young blackbirds also receive a musical education from their parents, and may often be heard practising their song in September or October.

The =fieldfare=, another near relative of the thrush, arrives in this country about the beginning of October, and stays with us for the winter, returning in spring to its nesting places among the pines and firs of Norway. The general colour of the bird is grey, with reddish-brown on the wings, and its breast is speckled in the thrush-manner. Fieldfares frequent fields in large parties, especially in the evenings, but are readily alarmed.

=Other birds of the thrush family.=—The redwing, wheat-ear, whin-chat, stone-chat, redstart, robin, nightingale, and hedge-sparrow are other members of the thrush family which can here be only referred to. They have many points of resemblance, one of the most interesting of which is that the young birds are invariably spotted. The bill is usually rather long, stout, and straight, the staple food being insects, worms, etc., though fruit is also eaten, especially in winter. The nests are typically cup-shaped, and the eggs greenish or blue, with or without spots. The young birds are quite helpless and almost naked when hatched, and can only open their mouths to be fed by the parents. Even after they have left the nest they need careful and continuous teaching by the parents before they can be made to understand that in future they will have to obtain their own food. Birds of this family, on account of the variable character of their food, are not so markedly migratory as many others, although they generally move further southward in winter, as the supply of insects becomes scarce—their place being taken by birds which have spent the summer in more northerly regions. This habit is very obvious in the case of the fieldfare and redwing, which visit us for the winter and return to Norway and Sweden for the summer. The nightingale, on the other hand, arrives here from the south in April to build its nest and rear its young.

56. THE SWALLOW FAMILY, THE SKYLARK, AND CROWS.

1. =The swallow.=—(_a_) _General appearance._—Notice, first of all, the bird’s colouration, as this readily distinguishes the swallow from the martins. The whole of the upper surface is steel-blue; the only white is on the ventral surface. A black band stretches across the breast; the throat and forehead are pink. Observe the long, deeply forked tail, and the broad, short bill.

(_b_) _Habits._—What are the earliest and latest dates on which you have seen swallows? Do the birds seem to prefer the neighbourhood of water? Have you ever seen them (i) perching on trees, (ii) on the ground? Why do swallows occasionally alight on the ground? Do they seem comfortable on the ground? Observe the small and weak feet; are these adapted to a terrestrial life? Do swallows feed on the ground? What do they eat? How are the insects caught? What is the advantage of the very wide gape? How would you describe the flight of the swallow?

(_c_) _Voice._—Does the swallow sing? Describe its voice. Have you heard it when the bird was on the wing, or only when it was at rest? What kind of sound is uttered by the swallow when it is alarmed or angry?

(_d_) _Nest._—In what situations have you found swallows’ nests? (Do not confuse the nest with that of the house-martin, which lays white, unspotted eggs.) How soon after their arrival do the birds begin to build? What is the shape of the nest? Of what materials is it composed? How many eggs does it contain? What is their colour?

(_e_) _Young._—Look for the newly-hatched young about the last week in June, and describe their appearance. How soon after hatching do they leave the nest? Do they at once feed themselves, or are they fed by the parents? Keep the nest under observation after the young birds have left it, and notice whether the old birds rear another brood the same summer.

In September look for the annual congregation of swallows which precedes their departure for Africa.

2. =The house-martin.=—Distinguish the house-martin from the swallow by the patch of white on the upper tail-coverts (Fig. 179), and by the feathered toes. Make notes of the dates of arrival and departure of the birds. Do house-martins occupy old nests or build fresh ones? What are the position, material, shape, and size of the nest? How does it differ from the swallow’s nest? Is the martin of sociable or solitary habits? Watch the birds building new nests or repairing old ones, and describe the process. Examine and count the pure-white eggs. What are the newly-hatched young like? How many broods have you known one pair of martins to rear in one season? Have you ever known martins to be turned out of their nests by sparrows? Watch for the autumn congregation.

3. =The sand-martin.=—Notice the small size of the bird, the mouse-colour of the upper parts, and the black feathers of the wings and tail. Note the dates of arrival and departure. Is the bird often seen near houses? Look for the nesting-holes in cliffs, banks, etc. Examine the holes, and notice that they lead into tunnels which slope slightly upwards. What is the use of the slope? If possible examine the nest at the end of the tunnel, and compare it and the eggs with those of the swallow and house-martin. Observe the peculiar jerky flight. Does the bird sing? Describe its voice.

4. =The skylark.=—Does the skylark frequent woods or open ground? Describe the appearance, size, and colouration of the bird, and try to see the long toes. Especially notice the long claw of the hind-toe. Have you ever seen the bird perching on trees or bushes? Are the feet well adapted for perching? Does the skylark run or hop? In what month does it begin to sing? In March look for larks’ nests in hollows and ruts of fields. What are the materials of the nest? Describe the number and appearance of the eggs. Listen to the song, and try to say in what respects it differs from that of other birds. Does the bird sing only when flying, or also when on the ground? Describe the skylark’s flight, and study its method of soaring (p. 278). Observe that the birds collect into flocks in autumn. Do they leave the country for the winter? How do they spend the winter? Do they sing in winter? If possible examine the beak; for what kind of food do you think it best adapted?

5. =The rook.=—Notice the size, shape, and colouration of the bird. Do rooks live merely in pairs or in large communities? Do they build on the ground or in trees? Are the trees high or low? What is the largest number of rooks’ nests you have seen in one tree? Watch the birds repairing and building nests in February and March. Of what are the nests composed? Have you ever seen rooks stealing sticks from other rooks’ nests? Are the birds quarrelsome? Where do they feed? Do they hop or walk? Do they keep together when feeding? Do all the birds of one rookery feed at the same time, or do some remain in the trees? Why?

What is the shape of the beak? How is this associated with the food of the bird? Do the farmers in your neighbourhood consider rooks useful or the reverse? Why? What is the voice of the rook like? How does it vary to express warning, anger, etc. Describe any observations which lead you to suppose that a colony of rooks has a code of laws. Describe the flight of the rook; what other birds fly in a somewhat similar manner? In spring, look beneath the trees for the broken shells of eggs which may have fallen from the nests. What is their colour? Describe the appearance and habits of the young birds. Where do rooks spend the winter? Have you ever seen them visiting and inspecting their nests in winter?

6. =Other birds of the crow family.=—With the rook compare and contrast the crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie, and jay.

=The swallow family.=—Swallows and martins are popular with all lovers of birds, for many reasons. Their arrival is welcomed as visible evidence of the approach of summer; their graceful and rapid flight delights the eye; their obvious liking for the neighbourhood of human dwellings wins our sympathy; and, lastly, they claim our gratitude by their incalculable services in keeping down insect pests.

The =swallow= (Fig. 202) may readily be distinguished from the martins by the absence of white from its upper parts, which are glossy and of a steel-blue colour. The forehead, chin, and throat are of a pink or chestnut colour; the ventral surface is white, with a black band crossing the neck. The tail is long, and very deeply forked. The bill is short and broad, and the gape stretches nearly to the eyes—a great advantage to a bird living on insects which are caught flying. The feet are very small and weak, but as the swallow spends most of its time in the air, and rarely alights on the ground except to collect materials for its nest, it does not need very sturdy hind-limbs, and the feet are chiefly used for perching.

Swallows arrive in this country about the middle of April, and about a month later proceed to build their nests in the chimneys of houses and on the rafters of barns and outhouses. The nest is basin-shaped and open at the top; it is chiefly composed of mud, which the birds collect on the ground, place in position, and allow to dry. Short straws are used to bind the mud together, and the nest is lined with soft grass and feathers. The hen lays from 4 to 7 eggs, which are a translucent white, with reddish-brown or grey markings. The first brood of young is usually hatched about the end of June, but a second or even a third brood may be raised before the parents depart for the south. Gilbert White[22] gives the following charming account of the training of young swallows: “For a day or two they are fed on the chimney-top, and then are conducted to the dead, leafless bough of some tree, where, sitting in a row, they are attended with great assiduity, and may then be called _perchers_. In a day or two more they become _flyers_, but are still unable to take their own food; therefore they play about near the place where the dams are hawking for flies; and, when a mouthful is collected, at a certain signal given, the dam and the nestling advance, rising towards each other, and meeting at an angle; the young one all the while uttering such a little quick note of gratitude and complacency, that a person must have paid very little regard to the wonders of Nature that has not often remarked this feat.” When the young bird has learnt to feed itself “it at once associates with the first brood of house-martins; and with them congregates, clustering on sunny roofs, towers, and trees.... All the summer long is the swallow a most instructive pattern of unwearied industry and affection; for from morning to night, while there is a family to be supported, she spends the whole day in skimming close to the ground, and executing the most sudden turns and quick evolutions.... When a fly is taken a smart snap from her bill is heard, resembling the noise at the shutting of a watch case; but the motion of the mandibles is too quick for the eye.”

The swallow drinks whilst flying, sipping the water from the surface of pools. Its song is a delicate and pleasing warble, which is uttered both at rest and during flight. The voice becomes a squeak when the bird is alarmed or angry. Just before the autumn migration, swallows perch in crowds on roofs, hedges, and the branches of trees. They leave for Africa about the beginning of October.

The =house-martin= may be distinguished from the swallow by the patch of white upon the upper tail-coverts, and by its feathered toes. Like the swallow, it arrives in this country about the middle of April. The birds soon begin to repair their old nests and to construct new ones under the eaves of houses. The nest is largely composed of clay or mud, which the birds collect from damp places in the road, etc., place in position against the wall, and allowed to harden. The completed nest is somewhat bag-shaped, having only a small hole at the top; it is lined with soft grass. The eggs are white, without spots. It is worthy of notice when a wild bird lays white eggs, they are hidden from sight by the shape or position of the nest, as in the case of the martins, or the nest is built in an inaccessible place. Exposed eggs are usually made more or less inconspicuous by being coloured or spotted. House-sparrows (Fig. 208) have often been known to expel the defenceless martins from their nests, and to lay their own eggs therein. The eggs of the sparrow may be recognised by their grey colour, and by the brown blotches with which they are marked.

The structure of the martin, like that of the swallow, is admirably adapted to a life in the air, and to a diet of flying insects—the bird having powerful wings, small and weak feet, and a soft and short but widely-opening beak. House-martins leave us about the beginning of October.

The =sand-martin= is distinctly smaller than either the swallow or house-martin, and it may be further distinguished from them by the “mouse-colour” of its upper parts. It usually arrives in this country about a fortnight in advance of its two relatives, and also departs before them, leaving in August or September. These birds live in colonies in tunnels which they excavate in banks or friable cliffs (Fig. 203)—generally in the near vicinity of water. The excavation may be three feet in length; it slopes slightly upwards to the nest (which is placed at the end of the tunnel), in order that rain water may not collect in it. The eggs are pure white, and five or six in number. The birds are exclusively insectivorous; they do not sing, but utter a little twitter. The flight is very characteristic, consisting of “odd jerks and vacillations, not unlike the motions of a butterfly.”

=The skylark.=—At the first glance, it is obvious that the skylark (Fig. 204) is adapted for a life spent largely upon the ground. The large toes lie flat on the earth, and the long claw of the hind toe is plainly not very suitable for grasping the twigs of trees in the act of perching. In fact, the skylark only occasionally perches, on low bushes. Walking or running on the ground, it lives upon grubs, caterpillars, flies, worms, etc., and also upon seeds, which its strong beak enables it to extract from the husks. The body is brown, the wings being streaked with black, and the dull-white throat and breast being marked with brown spots—a colouration which is a considerable protection. The nest is built in March, in a hollow or rut on the ground; it is lined with dry grass. The four or five eggs are greenish-grey, and spotted with brown. Whilst the hen sits upon her eggs (Fig. 205) the cock-bird either hunts for food or sings his delightful song as he soars in the air. The wonderful powers of soaring of this bird have already (p. 278) been referred to. When the lark drops to the ground he alights at a little distance from the nest, and then runs up to it through the grass. By this device he avoids revealing the position of his mate and young.

Skylarks rarely sing in the depth of winter; in autumn they form large flocks which patrol the fields until spring in search for food—rendering incalculable services to mankind by the destruction of insect-larvae. During the coldest weather of winter the birds crouch under banks and hedges.

=The rook.=—The rook (Fig. 206)—often called the crow—is a rather large bird, measuring about 17 inches from head to tail. Its plumage is black, but as it becomes adult the feathers covering the face and nostrils are shed, leaving the skin of these parts bare. The bird has long and pointed wings, and is a strong flier. The bill is stout and almost straight. Rooks are no songsters, their harsh “caw” being destitute of musical qualities. When heard at a distance, however, the cry “becomes a confused noise or chiding; or rather a pleasing murmur, very engaging to the imagination, and not unlike the cry of a pack of hounds in hollow, echoing woods, or the rushing of the wind in tall trees, or the tumbling of the tide upon a pebbly shore.”[23]

One of the most interesting features of rook-ways is the habit of living in organised communities.[24] It is true that a primitive form of social life is found among swallows, martins, and (in winter) larks, reminding us of the gregarious habits of the rabbit (Chapter XII.) among mammals; but a rook-society is rather to be compared with the pack-life of the wild dogs (p. 252), which depends for its integrity upon the observance of certain rules of conduct by its members. Naturalists have long known that such a code of laws is in force in every rookery, but what these laws are we do not fully understand. Here is a profitable and interesting field of observation for the student. It has sometimes been observed that certain birds are prevented by the rest from building until the nests already commenced are finished, and cases have been known of birds being expelled from the rookery, or even put to death, after a consultation or “trial,” presumably for some breach of law. On the other hand, it must be admitted that rooks are generally arrant thieves, not scrupling to rob their neighbours’ nests of building-materials to save themselves trouble. They are also very quarrelsome.

The nests are built on high trees (Fig. 207); they are composed of sticks and turf, and are lined with moss and soft grass. As each of several adjacent trees often contains a large number of nests, a sort of rook-town called a “rookery” is formed. This is added to from year to year, as the number of the birds increases. During the summer the rookery forms the headquarters of the community, but about August or September, before the leaves are shed, the birds leave their nests, to spend the winter in thicker or evergreen woods, often at some distance. At intervals during the winter they revisit their spring nests. They come back to the rookery in February or March, and at once set about repairing old nests or building new ones. The male bird begins to feed the female even before the bluish-green eggs are laid, and is a pattern of domestic virtue throughout the period of incubation. For some time after hatching, the young birds are fed by the parents. Rooks feed on the ground in flocks, a few birds remaining behind in the trees as sentinels to give the alarm when danger threatens. The food consists very largely of the larvae of injurious insects, especially the grubs of the cockchafer beetle, and although the birds undoubtedly eat corn and other young crops, they do far more good than harm.

=Other birds of the crow family.=—The crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie, and jay are so similar in many respects to the rook and to each other that naturalists include them all in one group, which they call the crow family.

=The passerine order.=—The _families_ of the birds hitherto considered in this chapter, with the flycatchers, wrens, chats, tits, finches, linnets, starlings, etc., are further grouped together to form what is called an _order_. The order which consists of these families derives its name =passerine= from the sparrow[25] (Fig. 208), perhaps the commonest of the birds included in it. It is probably in this order that bird structure attains its most perfect development. Again, the birds of the crow family are generally considered to stand at the head of the order; if this view is correct, rooks must be regarded as occupying, among birds, a position which roughly corresponds to man’s place in the class of mammals.

Passerine birds are nearly all singers, and their toes are generally adapted for perching. They feed upon insects, seeds (especially the seeds of grasses), and soft fruit. Their beaks vary in form according to the nature of the food upon which they most depend, as is well shown by the soft, widely opening bills of the swallows, the strong but slender beaks of the thrushes, larks, and crows, and the short, hard beaks of such seed-eaters as the canary, sparrow, and other finches. Birds which are exclusively, or almost exclusively, insectivorous are compelled to migrate to warmer countries to obtain food during the winter. The eggs of passerine birds are usually coloured or spotted, and the young birds are hatched in a helpless and almost naked condition, being carefully tended and fed by both parents until they are able to fend for themselves. A few familiar birds of other orders will now be briefly considered.

57. THE SWIFT AND THE CUCKOO.

1. =The swift.=—Distinguish the swift from the swallow by its larger size, its sooty black colour (except for the dull white of the throat), and its long, bowed wings. In what respect does the swift resemble the swallow? Watch for the appearance of swifts about the end of April. Do the birds arrive singly, in pairs, or in flocks? Notice the rapid turns and twists of the flying bird. Does it as a rule fly near the ground, or at somewhat great heights? Have you ever noticed the bird perching, or settling on the ground? Have you seen it clinging to walls with its feet? Were these the walls of houses or barns, or of high towers? What actions would lead you to suppose that the nests are built in high towers? Are more swifts to be seen in the evening, or during the day? Can you explain this? Watch during the first half of August, and make a note of the day on which swifts were last seen.

2. =The cuckoo.=—What is the earliest date on which you have heard the cuckoo? Imitate the cry by putting your hollowed hands together and blowing between the thumbs. With practice you will be able to deceive the bird into thinking that another cuckoo is present, and it will approach near enough to be seen distinctly. Estimate the size of the bird, and write down a careful description of its form, colouration, and method of flight. Try to see that two of its toes point forwards and two backwards. Have you ever seen cuckoos mobbed by small birds?

Carefully examine as many nests of small birds as possible, and try to find one containing an egg slightly larger than the rest and perhaps differently coloured. This will probably be a cuckoo’s egg. Visit the nest at frequent intervals, both before and after the hatching of the eggs, and write descriptions of the eggs, the appearance and size of the young birds, what becomes of each, and the behaviour of the old birds. What is the latest date on which you have heard the cuckoo?

=The swift.=—Though the swift bears a strong general resemblance to the swallow, the two birds are not at all closely related, but belong to different orders. The swallow, like all other passerine birds (p. 320), has 12 tail-feathers, and its first toe is separately movable and directed backwards. The swift, on the other hand, has only 10 tail-quills, and all its toes point forwards. There are, however, more obvious differences, which readily enable one bird to be distinguished from the other, even at a distance. The swift is, with the exception of a dull-white patch on the throat, of a sooty black hue over all the body, and in flight its long and powerful wings take the form of a bent bow (Fig. 209). The swallow flies in bold, sweeping curves, while the more rapid swift turns sharply in the air, in pursuit of the flying insects upon which it feeds, in a manner suggestive of the flight of a bat. While, again, the swallow flies much near the ground, the swift is usually seen at greater heights. The harsh scream of the swift is, moreover, in marked contrast with the swallow’s pleasing song.

Swifts do not willingly alight on the ground, even to collect materials for their nests, nor do they perch on trees or roofs, the arrangement of their toes being quite unsuitable for either action, and the length of the wings being such that, even with toes of the normal type, walking would be almost impossible. The nest, a somewhat rude structure of grass and feathers, is generally built in high towers or other tall buildings. The eggs are two in number; they are more conical in shape than those of the swallow, and, as the position of the nest renders them independent of protective colouration, are white. The hen-bird sits on them during the day, but generally leaves the nest and flies abroad in the evening to hunt for insects. Only one brood is reared, and the birds take their departure early in August, to spend the winter in South Africa or Madagascar.

=The cuckoo.=—The cuckoo is placed by naturalists, not among the passerine birds, but in the order to which the swift belongs. The reasons for this cannot be fully considered here, but it may be mentioned that the cuckoo has only 10 tail-feathers, and that it differs from all passerine birds in having its fourth toe, as well as the first, directed backwards, the second and third pointing forwards (Fig. 210).

The cuckoo has a total length of about 14 inches. The upper surface of the body, and the throat, are grey; the rest of the lower surface is white, crossed with black bars. The wings are large and powerful, and the thighs are covered with long feathers. In general appearance, as well as in manner of flight, the cuckoo bears a great resemblance to a hawk, which may perhaps be the reason why small birds so often join forces and attack it. A keen-eyed observer will, however, at once distinguish the birds by the head and the bill, both of which are markedly longer in the cuckoo than in the hawk. Cuckoos arrive here in April, the males usually appearing first. The well-known call, to which the bird owes its name, is uttered by the male only; the voice of the female is quite different, and is often compared to the sound of bubbling water. The cuckoo feeds entirely upon insects; it is believed to be the only bird which eats the hairy caterpillar of the tiger-moth (p. 369).

Of all bird-habits, probably none has excited more interest than the manner of life of the young cuckoo. Its parents build no nest, but depend entirely upon other birds for rearing their offspring. The female cuckoo lays her egg upon the ground and then carries it in her bill to a nest which contains similarly coloured eggs, if such a nest is to be found. If not, another convenient nest is selected. It is said that the male sometimes renders assistance by distracting the attention of the rightful owners in the meantime. In most cases the owners of the nest, apparently unaware of the trick, sit upon the strange egg with the rest, and in due course the young birds are hatched. The young cuckoo, whilst still blind and naked, wriggles itself under its foster brothers and hoists them over the edge of the nest. Far from resenting the crime, the duped parents now devote their energies to feeding the murderer, and continue their attentions until after it is fully fledged (about a fortnight after hatching) and perhaps several times their combined size.

The small size of the cuckoo’s egg—about one-fourth of what might be expected from so large a bird—and its general similarity in colour to their own eggs, both aid in deceiving the victimised birds in the first instance, and the disproportionate size of their supposed offspring shortly after hatching apparently does not arouse their suspicions. It is believed that any particular female cuckoo lays only eggs of one type and deposits them, as far as possible, in nests of the mimicked species—the species, probably, by which she herself was reared. During the summer, therefore, she visits one such nest after another, until she has disposed of all her eggs. Further, it is supposed that her offspring inherit her tendency to lay eggs of the particular colour, and therefore to prey in their turn upon the species of their foster-parents. In this country, the meadow pipit, pied wagtail, robin, and reed-warbler are perhaps the most usual victims of the cuckoo’s parasitism, but the nests of other species (Fig. 211) are not uncommonly selected.

The old cuckoos depart about the end of July, apparently leaving the young ones to find their way south alone.

58. THE DUCK.

1. =Tame ducks.=—Closely observe ducks, both on land and when they are swimming. Where is the heaviest part of the body? Are the legs attached in front of, directly below, or behind the centre of gravity? Is the position of the legs an advantage or a disadvantage (i) in walking, (ii) in swimming? How does the foot differ from the feet of the birds previously mentioned? Between which toes is the web stretched? How are the toes held when the bird lifts its foot in walking? Does it walk gracefully? How does it swim? Are the legs moved together or alternately in swimming? Notice how the web folds up when the foot is moved forwards, and spreads out for the back-stroke. What does the duck eat? How is the food obtained? Why are a duck’s feathers so little wetted by the water? Watch, and describe exactly, how the bird preens its feathers.

How can you distinguish the male (drake) from the female duck, (i) by appearance, (ii) by the voice? Do the colours of the drake’s plumage differ at different periods of the year? What relation have the changes of plumage to the moulting-season? What differences can you observe in the methods of moulting of ducks and fowls? Is there any time of the year when (i) ducks, (ii) fowls are unable to fly? Why? When and where do ducks lay their eggs? Describe the appearance of the eggs. Are young ducks helpless or precocious (p. 296), naked or clothed, at hatching? Can they feed themselves? Can they swim?

Examine a dead duck. Notice the thick covering of down-feathers next the skin. What is its use? Examine and draw a foot, and see how the web folds between the toes. Observe the soft, sensitive skin on the outside of the beak; what do you suppose is its use? Notice the shape of the beak. Open it to see the horny plates fringing its inner edge, and notice how these, with other plates on the thick, fleshy tongue, form a strainer.

=The duck.=—The birds of the duck order—which includes also the geese and swans—differ in many important respects from all our previous types, and it is interesting to observe how perfectly these differences are adapted to the manner of life. On land, the ungainly waddle, which is entailed by the insertion of the hind limbs so far back on the body (Fig. 212), shows that the duck is not in an entirely congenial element; in the water the bird is a model of graceful movement, perfectly balanced, progressing smoothly by alternate strokes of its webbed feet, and altering its course to any desired direction with the utmost ease. The duck feeds largely upon the small animals which abound in the water of ponds, and in the mud of the sides, and the beak is beautifully fitted for the duties it has to perform. It is covered on the outside by a soft and highly sensitive skin, which enables the bird to detect with certainty the presence of its prey in the mud; the inner edge of the beak is provided with horny plates which, with similar plates situated on the edge of the thick, fleshy tongue, form a very efficient strainer, by means of which the useless water and thin mud can be forced out at the sides of the mouth and separated from the worms, etc., which were taken into the mouth at the same time. A thick coat of down-feathers, which lies next the skin and contains a great deal of entangled air, forms a non-conducting layer which prevents the undue escape of the heat of the body, and saves the bird from becoming chilled when in the water. Ducks are, moreover, careful to keep their feathers well oiled, and may often be seen preening themselves—applying the bill alternately to the oil-gland on the tail and to the feathers. The completeness with which water flows off a duck’s back is proverbial.

During the greater part of the year the brilliant plumage of the drake forms a striking contrast to the sober brown and grey feathers of the female. Another point of difference is that in the male the four middle tail-feathers are curled upwards. From July to October, however, before the moult takes place, the two sexes are very similar in appearance. Birds of the duck order moult in a somewhat different manner from most other birds, in that all the quill-feathers are shed at once, instead of in pairs. Until the new feathers develop, flight is of course out of the question, and the birds remain as secluded as possible in the meantime.

The eggs are white and greasy-looking; they are laid in a rough, open-topped nest, lined with down, which is placed on the ground. The wild duck covers up the eggs when she leaves the nest. The young are active immediately after hatching. It has been noticed that the eggs of precocious birds are generally larger, in proportion to the size of the parent, than those of birds which are naked and helpless at hatching—the larger store of egg-food allowing a more complete development of the young bird in the shell. Further, the nests of precocious birds are, as a rule, less elaborately constructed.

59. TWO COMMON HAWKS.

1. =The sparrow-hawk.=—Watch for sparrow-hawks near farms. Notice the general resemblance of the bird to the cuckoo, but distinguish them by the short head and beak of the hawk. Observe the _bluish-grey_ colouration of the upper parts. Describe the flight of the hawk and, if possible, its method of catching its prey.

2. =The kestrel or windhover.=—Distinguish the kestrel from the sparrow-hawk (i) by the _reddish_ colour of its upper parts, and (ii) by its habit of hovering in mid-air. Have you ever known the kestrel to prey upon small birds? Upon what does it feed?

=The sparrow hawk and kestrel.=—These two birds are the only British hawks which the average nature-student is likely to see during a country walk; and as one of them is given to preying on young game-birds, chickens, etc., while the other as generally confines itself to animals which are universally regarded as vermin, it is important to be able to distinguish them at sight.

The =sparrow-hawk= (Fig. 213) attains a length of 13 inches; the female is slightly larger than the male. The upper parts of the body are _bluish-grey_ in colour; the lower parts are buffish white, and crossed with brown bars. The head is short and round; the bill is hooked and sharp, as in birds of prey generally, and the toes are armed with sharp claws. The bird is often to be seen near farms, lurking behind hedges and waiting for an opportunity of dashing upon chickens or other small birds and carrying them off.

The =kestrel=, which in size and shape much resembles the sparrow-hawk, is really a species of falcon (Fig. 179). It is unrivalled among common British birds in its power of remaining poised in one position in mid-air by that rapid motion of the wings which is called hovering, a power which has earned for it the name of “windhover.” The kestrel, though in reality one of the farmer’s best friends, from its wholesale destruction of field-mice, voles, and many injurious insects, is often ignorantly confused with the sparrow-hawk. The _reddish_ hue of the plumage of the kestrel’s upper parts, together with the hovering habit, ought to render such a mistake impossible to observant eyes, and to secure the bird from a persecution which may reasonably be directed against the sparrow-hawk.

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XVII.

1. Extend the foregoing methods of study to the following passerine birds:—Starling, finches, wagtails, pipits, nuthatch, tits, warblers, wrens, and flycatchers, and make notes of the observations.

2. Try to discover reasons for grouping (_a_) woodpeckers, nightjars, and kingfishers with swifts and cuckoos; (_b_) pheasants and grouse with fowls.

3. Compare geese and swans with ducks, and make notes of as many points of resemblance and difference as possible.

4. Compare and contrast owls with hawks.

5. Arrange the above birds in lists according to (_a_) food, and the characters of the beak; (_b_) characters of feet and arrangement of toes; (_c_) nests (open-topped, covered, built in holes or tunnels); (_d_) colour and number of eggs; (_e_) condition of young at time of hatching.

6. How many birds do you know which (_a_) spend only the summer, (_b_) spend only the winter, (_c_) stay all the year, in this country? State, in each instance, upon what food the bird most depends.

FOOTNOTES:

[21] _Our Bird Friends_ (Cassell).

[22] _The Natural History of Selborne._

[23] _The Natural History of Selborne._

[24] A delightful account is given in the story of “Silverspot” (Thompson-Seton’s _Wild Animals I Have Known_).

[25] Latin, _passer_, a sparrow.