CHAPTER XIV. SOME OTHER MAMMALS.

48. THE CAT AND DOG.

1. =The external characters of the cat.=—Carefully and gently examine a cat, and make notes of the following characters:

(_a_) _Hair._—What is the covering of the body like? Is the hair like that of a rabbit, _i.e._ fur (p. 216)? Are the whiskers very noticeable? On what parts of the head do they grow? Are the fur and large whiskers in any way connected with the animal’s habits?

(_b_) _Eyes._—Look at a cat’s eyes in a bright light. Is the pupil (p. 212) round or slit-like? Keep the cat in the dark for a few minutes and then look again at the pupil of the eye; has it changed in form? Is the change of any advantage to the cat?

(_c_) _Teeth._—Gently open the cat’s mouth and examine the teeth. Notice the sharp, pointed teeth behind the incisors (p. 219); they are called the _canine_ teeth. Has a rabbit any canine teeth? Why does a cat, and not a rabbit, need such teeth? Feel the remaining teeth with your finger; are they flat like those of a rabbit, or sharp-edged? How are the characters of the teeth associated with the kind of food? Watch a cat eating; does it chew its food or swallow it “in lumps”?

(_d_) _Tongue._—Pass your finger-end over the cat’s tongue; is it rough or smooth? In which direction of motion of the finger does the tongue feel roughest? Would the roughness be of any help to the animal in licking meat from bones?

(_e_) _The limbs._—Measure the legs. Are the fore and hind limbs of equal length, slightly unequal, or very unequal? How do they compare in this respect with the limbs of the rabbit? Make out the main bones by feeling through the skin, and especially notice where the ankle-joint is. Examine the toes and notice how, when you gently squeeze them just behind the ends, the sharp _claws_ protrude, and go back into a kind of sheath when the pressure is removed. Can the animal put out its claws and draw them back at will?

2. =The habits of the cat.=—(_a_) _Food._—What kind of food does the cat prefer, animal or vegetable? Does it bolt its food greedily, or does it eat deliberately and daintily? Have you ever known cats to hunt other animals? Do they hunt singly, or do several cats join together to hunt? How do they approach the prey; do they try to run it down by speed, or do they creep up slyly and then spring? What is the use of the claws? How does a cat drink?

(_b_) _Locomotion._—Watch a cat moving slowly; does it walk or hop? Try to find out the order in which it puts its feet down. How does it run? Is it nimble or clumsy? Does the cat walk with the whole sole of its foot on the ground, or does it walk “on its toes”?

(_c_) _Likes and dislikes._—Do you consider a cat sociable, _i.e._ fond, in general, of the society of other cats? Do cats, as a rule, show much appreciation of the difference between right and wrong? Are they as affectionate as dogs? Have you ever heard of any cat trying to remain in a house after the family had removed to another house? Are cats fonder of warm or of cool places in a house? Do they like getting wet? Do they pay much attention to personal cleanliness? How do they wash themselves? Do you think the tongue is used as a comb? How? Can you know whether a cat is pleased or angry (i) by the appearance and movements of the tail, (ii) by the sounds which it makes?

(_d_) _Intelligence._—Write accounts of cases of great intelligence which you have known cats to show.

(_e_) _Voice._—How do you describe a cat’s voice? How does the voice vary according to the animal’s mood?

(_f_) _Play._—How does a cat play?

3. =Kittens.=—(_a_) _Appearance._—Are kittens helpless or active when they are born? Is there any very marked difference between the proportions of the body and limbs and those of a full-grown cat? At what age is a cat full-grown?

(_b_) _Play._—How does a kitten play? How does it pretend to “stalk” a small object, such as a ball of wool? In the same way that a full-grown cat stalks a mouse? Why does the kitten adopt this method before it has any experience of hunting?

(_c_) _Education._—Watch a cat with its kittens, and describe any actions which seem like education. Have you ever seen a cat teach its kittens to fight? Have you ever seen it punish a kitten for disobeying a call?

4. =The external characters of the dog.=—Examine a dog in the same way, and compare it point by point with the cat as regards the following characters:

(_a_) _Hair._—Notice that the dog is covered, not with fur, but with rough hair, and that the whiskers are not very large. How are these differences associated with differences in habit?

(_b_) _Eyes._—Notice that the pupil is always round, although it is smaller in a strong light than in a weak one.

(_c_) _Teeth._—Compare the teeth with those of the cat, and notice that they are of similar form—with strong interlocking canines and a sharp-edged tooth on each side of the upper jaw which clips against a similar tooth in the lower jaw—but that the cat’s teeth are more pointed.

(_d_) _Tongue._—Notice that the dog’s tongue is much smoother than the cat’s.

(_e_) _Limbs._—Examine and measure the limbs, comparing them with those of the cat, rabbit, and man. Notice that the claws are blunter than the cat’s, and that they cannot be withdrawn into sheaths. How many toes are there on the feet?

5. =The habits of the dog.=—(_a_) _Food._—Does the dog prefer animal or vegetable food? Watch a dog gnawing a bone, and observe the use of the clipping teeth. Does a dog eat greedily or deliberately? Does it chew its food or swallow it in lumps? Do dogs hunt singly or in packs? Do they stalk the prey stealthily, as cats do, or do they try to run it down by speed? Whenever possible watch a pack of hounds; upon what sense—hearing, sight, or smell—do the hounds rely most? How does a dog drink?

(_b_) _Locomotion._—Does a slowly-moving dog hop or walk? Try to find out the order in which it puts its feet down. How does it run? Does a dog walk flat-footed or on its toes?

(_c_) _Likes and dislikes._—Do you consider dogs sociable or otherwise? Do they seem to know the difference between right and wrong? Are dogs affectionate? Are they more attached to the people or to the houses to which they are accustomed? What can you learn of a dog’s feelings, by the movements of its tail? Write accounts of instances, which you know to be true, illustrating its likes and dislikes. What expression of the human face seems to you most like the snarl of an angry dog? What are the resemblances?

(_d_) _Intelligence._—Write accounts of evidence of intelligence, or reasoning power, which you have observed in dogs.

(_e_) _Voice._—What is the ordinary voice of the dog? What other sounds do dogs make, and what do they mean?

(_f_) _Play._—How do dogs play? Do you think dogs have any sense of humour, or are able to appreciate a joke for the joke’s sake? Have you ever seen any expression resembling a smile on a dog’s face?

6. =Puppies.=—(_a_) _Appearance._—Are puppies blind and helpless when they are born, or are they active? How soon can they see? Are the proportions of the body and limbs markedly different from those of the full-grown dog? At what age is a dog full-grown?

(_b_) _Play._—Does a puppy play in the same manner as a kitten? What differences have you noticed? Have these differences any connection with the methods of catching the prey of the adult animals?

(_c_) _Education._—Have you ever seen a puppy being taught to do anything by its mother? Write full accounts of such cases.

7. =Different breeds of dogs.=—Make notes of your observations of as many different breeds of dogs as possible, _e.g._ collies, terriers, retriever, fox-hound, pointer, spaniel, etc., and describe the resemblances and differences in size, form, habits, intelligence, etc.

=The external characters of the cat and dog.=—The cat and the dog are so commonly kept as pets that they are perhaps more easily examined than any other animals. In addition, they are so closely related and yet exhibit so many differences that they afford a valuable exercise in the methods of =comparison and contrast= which are at the foundation of all successful work in Nature-Study. Several differences are at once apparent on even a casual inspection. The body of the =cat= (Fig. 169) is covered with soft, smooth _fur_, and its head is provided with long, sensitive whiskers. In both of these respects it resembles the rabbit and other mammals which are in the habit of creeping along narrow and dark passages. It is commonly said that cats can see in the dark. Although this is not altogether true—for no animal can see in total darkness—the cat’s eyes have the power of adapting themselves remarkably to the intensity of the light. In a dim light, the curtain, or iris, which surrounds the pupil (the dark, central window through which light enters the eye) is drawn back so as to admit as much light as possible; whereas in a very bright light the curtain is so nearly closed that the pupil is merely a narrow, vertical slit. On the other hand, the =dog= (Fig. 170), which is not fond of dark passages, has its body clothed with _rough hair_, instead of fur; and its whiskers are not nearly so long as those of the cat. Again, although the iris of a dog’s eye alters in size to regulate the amount of light entering the eye, the pupil is always round, and the change of size is much less marked than in the cat. Another very noticeable difference is in the =claws= at the ends of the toes, corresponding to the nails at the ends of our own fingers and toes. In the cat these are sickle-shaped and extremely sharp, and are kept drawn completely back into sheaths when they are not required. The dog’s claws are blunt, and cannot be retracted. Both the dog and the cat rest the weight of the body upon the toes—not upon the sole of the foot—when walking or running.

There is also a very marked difference in the =tongues= of the two animals. The tongue of the cat is rough, with small points directed backwards. These points are of great help in licking the flesh from bones; and they also serve as a comb when the cat—which is fastidious about the cleanliness of its fur—“washes” itself. The tongue of the dog is smooth and moist.

=The inherited habits of the cat and dog.=—Very obvious differences are also to be seen in the habits of the two animals, and these would be somewhat difficult to explain if we confined our attention to the domesticated animals only, which live under artificial conditions. When, however, we consider the wild relatives of the cat and dog, many of the differences become full of significance. The wild animals of the cat family, almost without exception, are either solitary or live in pairs; whereas the wild dogs (wolves, jackals, etc.) live in packs. The habits which these respective methods of life entailed have become so firmly implanted in the nature of the race that even now, after thousands of generations of domestication, they may be traced. Such inherited habits, which are not dependent upon, or may be at variance with, present conditions of life, are called =instincts=.

We will first see how the ancestral custom of living in organised packs has left its impress upon the instincts of the domesticated dog. The first essential to the success of any community of animals—whether these are bees or rooks, wolves or men—is that all the creatures composing it shall conform to certain rules, which have for their object the good of the community and not merely that of the individual. Acts which promote the wellbeing of the society as a whole are good, and are directly or indirectly rewarded. Acts which tend to injure the society as such are bad, and inevitably bring punishment either to the individual offender or, what is worse, to his pack. A distinction between right and wrong is thus established which would be impossible to any animal living so solitary a life that its acts affected only itself. In this manner were aroused the social instinct, the love of praise and the dread of shame, the lifelong attachment to early friends, and almost all the other qualities which have so endeared the dog to mankind; because these qualities resulted naturally from the ancestral pack-life. Left to itself, the dog loses its nerve, for it is by nature unfitted for a solitary life. What more woe-begone animal is ever seen than a lost dog?

Contrast the cat in these respects. It is at heart an outlaw, like its wild ancestors: recognising, in general, no motives but those of its own ease and gratification. Its social instinct is almost absent; and though it sometimes displays affection to people who pet it, the cat is, as a rule, more attached to places than to persons. It retains, too, the independence and versatility which are developed by a solitary life. A lost cat can usually take care of itself and find sufficient food; and cases are not uncommon of cats leaving comfortable homes and choosing to live wild lives in the woods.

Ancestral methods of =hunting= also account largely for certain differences in the domestic cat and dog. The solitary ancestral cats, like the lions and tigers of to-day, sprang suddenly upon the prey at the end of silent, stealthy stalking. How firmly this method has become fixed in the character of the race may be seen still in the manner in which a cat stalks a mouse or a small bird, or even, in play, a dead leaf. At the final spring the sharp, sickle-shaped claws are used to hold down the victim. The solitary hunter is able to devour its capture at leisure, and the domestic cat is still distinguished by its dainty and deliberate manner of feeding.

The wild dogs hunt in a quite different manner. The whole pack joins in the chase, the trail being followed by the sense of smell. There is no attempt at concealment, no stealthy stalking; but an open reliance upon speed, endurance, and numbers, rather than upon cunning. If one dog loses the scent another picks it up and gives the signal. Mutual help is thus the secret of success in hunting. But this is at an end when the prey is killed. The victim is torn to pieces and devoured greedily, each animal eating as rapidly as possible, for in most cases there is not enough to satisfy them all. And the well-fed domestic dog still betrays the ancestral necessity for hurried eating in the manner of bolting his food.

=Methods of expressing feeling.=—Animals express their feelings in various ways—by the voice, by the face, by the tail, and by the general attitude of the body. Perhaps no animal’s feelings are more readily recognised by man than the dog’s. “It is a remarkable fact,” says Darwin,[13] “that the dog, since being domesticated, has learnt to bark in at least four or five distinct tones. Although barking is a new art, no doubt the wild parent-species of the dog expressed their feelings by cries of various kinds. With the domesticated dog we have the bark of eagerness, as in the chase; that of anger, as well as growling; the yelp or howl of despair, as when shut up; the baying at night; the bark of joy, as when starting on a walk with his master; and the very distinct one of demand or supplication, as when wishing for a door or window to be opened.” The movements of the tail are also full of meaning, and capable of expressing several different moods. It seems likely that in a dog the movements of the tail were originally of use chiefly to signal to the rest of the pack. The use of the movements of a cat’s tail is not very clear, although these also differ according to the animal’s feelings.

=Carnivores.=—Dogs and cats, with several other mammals, which are mostly flesh-eaters, are called =Carnivores=. They have never fewer than four distinct toes on each foot, and the claws (nails) are often capable of being withdrawn into sheaths. The teeth (Fig. 171) are characterised by the large, interlocking canines, which are conical, curved, and pointed; and by one of the cheek teeth on each side having a sharp, cutting edge which bites against the similar tooth of the other jaw, almost in the manner of the blades of scissors. The seals and walruses, however, which are carnivores adapted to living in water, have no such clipping teeth.

49. THE BAT.

1. =Habits.=—At what time of the year have you seen bats flying about? Do they fly in broad daylight, or only in the evening? How can you distinguish a bat’s flight from that of a bird? Have you ever heard a bat squeak? Upon what does it feed? Are flying insects plentiful in winter? Have you ever seen a bat drink? How does it drink? What does the bat do in winter? Try to find a sleeping bat in winter in a barn, a hollow tree, or a belfry. What is its position?

2. =Appearance.=—Examine a sleeping bat or a stuffed specimen. What is its body covered with, hair or feathers? Is it a bird or a mammal? Is the hair soft and furry? How large are the ears? Are the whiskers large or small? What are the wings like? Can you see any fingers? How many fingers are there? Do any of the fingers bear claws? Do the fingers support the wings? Which are longer, the fore limbs or the hind limbs? Do the toes of the hind limbs bear claws? What is their use? If possible, put a live bat on the ground; does it walk easily? Apart from the wings, what animal does the bat seem most to resemble? Do you know of any other flying mammal?

=The Bat= (Figs. 172 and 184_a_).—On summer evenings in most country districts of Britain bats may be seen flitting about catching insects. The flight is peculiar, and somewhat suggestive of that of a butterfly, so that even in the dusk the animal may be distinguished easily from a small bird. “Bats drink on the wing like swallows, by sipping the surface as they play over pools and streams. They love to frequent waters, not only for the sake of drinking, but on account of insects, which are found over them in the greatest plenty.”[14]

The voice of the bat is a shrill squeak, of so high a pitch that many people cannot hear it at all. The animal is probably quite blind, but it has keen powers of scent and hearing, and in avoiding obstacles seems to be greatly aided by patches of specially sensitive skin on the face, and by delicate whiskers. During the day it lurks in dark corners of barns, church-towers, hollow trees, etc., hanging head downward by the hooked claws of its hind feet.

On close examination the body of the bat is seen to be covered with soft =fur=, a character which at once proclaims the animal to be not a bird—as it has been incorrectly considered—but a =mammal=. The fur is often of a bright chestnut colour. The ears are large and practically devoid of hair, and are so thin as to be almost transparent. The wings are thin folds of skin, which are attached in front to the long arms, are supported by the greatly elongated fingers, and reach to the hind limbs. Another membrane passes between the hind limbs, and in common species is also supported by the tail. The thumb is free, and bears a claw which is of some assistance in climbing. The hind limbs are small.

The structure of the bat is obviously but little adapted to walking, and the animal moves about very awkwardly when on the ground, although it can rise on the wing again without much difficulty.

The bat is rarely to be seen abroad after the middle of November, for as the cold weather approaches and insects become scarce, it suspends itself by its hind claws in some dark and sheltered corner, and goes to sleep for the winter, reappearing in early spring.

50. HOOFED MAMMALS.

1. =The external characters of the sheep.=—(_a_) _Wool._—How does the covering of a sheep’s body differ from the fur of a cat or rabbit, and from the hair of the dog? Examine a lock of “raw” wool; is it at all greasy? Dip it in water; is it much wetted? Are the fibres easily entangled together? Why is woollen clothing so warm?

(_b_) _Teeth._—Obtain a sheep’s head from the butcher, and examine the teeth. Notice the absence of incisors and canines in the upper jaw, and of canines in the lower jaw. Observe the thickened pad on the surface of the upper jaw, against which the lower incisors bite. Are the cheek teeth flat, or sharp-edged like the cheek teeth of carnivores? Watch a sheep feeding, and notice how it bites the grass. How is the lower jaw moved during the chewing of the cud?

(_c_) _Horns._—Which sheep have the largest horns, the males (rams) or the females (ewes)? If you can find a cast horn notice whether it is hollow or solid. What is the use of horns?

(_d_) _Limbs._—Is there any marked difference in the lengths of fore and hind limbs? Notice the _hoofs_ which cover those parts of the feet touching the ground. How many hoofs are there on each foot?

2. =The habits of the sheep.=—Are sheep solitary or do they live in flocks? What kind of ground do they seem to prefer, flat or hilly? Are sheep on a hillside easily seen from a distance? Why not? Are sheep nimble or clumsy? Can they run very fast? Would a flock of sheep be safer from, say, wolves on a rocky hillside or on an open plain? In a grazing flock of sheep notice whether most of the animals have their heads turned in the same direction. Has the direction any relation to the direction of the wind? Can you explain this?

In a running flock of sheep does any one animal act as leader? Is the leader a ram or a ewe? Is it a lamb or an old animal? Do the rest of the flock imitate the actions of the leader, and, for example, leap over a wall at the same place in single file? Have you ever noticed that if one animal jumps at a certain place, all the following sheep jump at the same place? Have you ever seen sheep fighting? Were the combatants rams or ewes? How did they fight?

What is the voice of a sheep like?

3. =Lambs.=—(_a_) _Appearance._—At what time of the year are lambs born? Are they helpless or active? Have they long legs? What advantage to the lamb is length of limb?

(_b_) _Play._—Watch lambs playing. Do they show a preference for any eminence, _e.g._ a rock, in the neighbourhood? What is the meaning of this preference? How do lambs fight? Have you ever seen a ewe stamp with her fore-feet when anyone approached her lamb? At what age is a sheep full grown?

=The sheep.=—The sheep (Fig. 173) differs in several important respects from any of the animals previously mentioned. It is of course a mammal, for it suckles its young, and its body is covered by hair; but the hair is of that warm fleecy kind which is called =wool=. The fibres of wool are seen under the microscope to be rough and scaly. For this reason they can be spun into loosely-textured threads which entangle a great deal of air; woollen garments are thus very bad conductors of heat. The wool upon the sheep’s body is slightly greasy, from a substance which is given off by the skin and protects the animal from rain. The toes of the sheep are not armed with ordinary nails or claws, but claws are represented by horny masses called =hoofs=, which encase the ends of the toes, and upon which the whole weight of the body is thrown. The sheep, especially the male (ram), is often provided with weapons in the form of hollow =horns=, which grow upon its forehead.

=Method of feeding.=—The sheep is a strict vegetarian, living largely upon grass. It grips the grass between its lower incisor teeth and a hard pad on the upper jaw; there are no incisor teeth in the upper jaw. Neither upper nor lower jaw bears canine teeth; and the cheek teeth, which are used for chewing the food, have their crowns ridged lengthwise. The arrangement of the teeth of the sheep is shown in Fig. 174. During grazing, however, the food is not at once chewed, but is simply mixed with a large quantity of saliva and swallowed, the chewing-process being performed at a later period. It is obviously a great advantage to an animal, which in the wild state is liable at any moment to be attacked by enemies, to be able to stow away its food quickly, and afterwards masticate it at leisure. This is rendered possible, in oxen, sheep, goats, deer, and the few other animals which chew the cud, by the peculiar form of stomach shown in Fig. 175. The hastily swallowed food is passed into the large paunch _b_ and into the compartment _c_. When the animal finds an opportunity of “ruminating” or chewing the cud, the food is returned to the mouth in small quantities at a time, and is there finely divided by the cheek teeth. In this condition it is again swallowed, and makes its way at once into the compartment _d_, where it is strained between leaf-like folds and then passed into the last chamber _e_, and thence to the intestines, to undergo the final processes of digestion.

=Ruminants.=—Animals which, like the sheep, oxen, goats, deer, etc., ruminate or chew the cud in this manner, are called =ruminants=. In all ruminants the weight of the body is supported by the tips of the third and fourth toes of the feet, the remaining toes either having completely disappeared or remaining very small (Fig. 176). The tips of the toes are encased in horny hoofs, which represent greatly enlarged claws or nails. The ruminants therefore belong to what may be called the =even-toed hoofed mammals=. Pigs are also even-toed hoofed mammals, but they are not ruminants, because, having simple stomachs, they do not chew the cud.

=Other hoofed mammals.=—In the horse and donkey the reduction of the number of toes has gone still further; for these animals have now only the third or middle toe of each foot left (Fig. 177); and because it has to carry the whole weight of the body, it has become very large and stout; its tip is encased in a hoof.

The =hoofed mammals= are therefore divided into two groups:

(1) the _odd-toed_, including the horse and ass (they have simple stomachs, and therefore do not chew the cud); and

(2) the _even-toed_, including (_a_) ruminants like the sheep, etc., and (_b_) such non-ruminants as the pigs and their relatives.

=The inherited habits of the sheep.=—As in the cases of the dog and cat, so in the sheep, the true explanation of several curious habits is to be found in the manner of life of the wild ancestors; for it must be remembered that domestication, however kindly an animal may take to it, is an artificial condition of life. Wild sheep live in flocks, as a rule in cold and mountainous districts; and some organisation is necessary if they are not to be at the mercy of savage carnivores. An old and experienced ram is generally in charge of the flock, and in case of alarm he leads the way to a more inaccessible position. The rest of the flock follow in single file, closely imitating his every movement, leaping without hesitation—and therefore saving valuable time—wherever he has leapt. The survival of this instinct in domestic sheep may be observed whenever a flock is travelling along the road. Even young lambs still display a decided preference for rocks, hillocks, and other elevated positions. Wild sheep, being so liable to sudden interruption when grazing, are enabled by their compound stomachs to swallow food quickly and postpone the chewing process to a more favourable opportunity. Sentinels usually keep watch, and warn the flock of approaching enemies by stamping their hoofs on the ground, an action which may still be seen whenever a ewe fears danger to her lambs.

=The play and education of the young.=—The young of mammals are usually under the care of the mother for education and protection until they are nearly adult; and it is generally found that the longest infancy (in proportion to the natural life of the animal) occurs in the most intelligent races. The importance of the play and education period is very great, for it not only gives the young animal an opportunity of training its natural faculties in comparative safety, by exercise of various kinds and by games with companions of its own age and strength; but it allows the mother to impart, by direct instruction, some of the experience which she has personally gained during her life. The extent of this maternal education is greater than has been generally supposed; and every opportunity should be taken of observing and recording cases of it.[15]

The play of young animals also in many cases gives important clues to lost ancestral habits, which are not now to be seen in adult life. The inherited tendency of animals to repeat, during their own development, the history of their race is very great; some striking cases of this will be considered in later chapters.

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIV.

1. Make a list of cases which you have observed of protective colouration in mammals, specifying (_a_) the colour of the animal, (_b_) the colour of its surroundings.

2. Describe any cases which you have observed of mammals having differently-coloured coats in summer and winter. Of what use is the change in colour?

3. Make a list of the mammals you know from observation to walk (_a_) flat-footed, (_b_) on their toes, (_c_) on the tips of their toes.

4. Make a list of the mammals which habitually hop, walk, fly, and swim respectively; and find out, by observation if possible, how the structure is adapted to the method of life.

5. Study the habits of the mole, and try to discover by what modifications it is enabled to burrow so rapidly.

6. What is the difference in the ways in which cows and horses get up and lie down?

7. For what purposes do the following mammals use their tails—cows, squirrels, rabbits? What mammals do you know which are without tails?

8. Observe and describe the differences—apart from speed—between walking, trotting, and galloping, in the case of the horse.

9. Describe how you have tamed any wild animal. Why is it easier to tame a young animal than an old one?

10. Describe cases of mammals showing antipathy to certain colours. How do you explain the dislike?

11. Which domestic mammals are (_a_) most shy, (_b_) most inquisitive, (_c_) most gentle, (_d_) most suspicious, (_e_) most intelligent?

12. Of what shape is the pupil of the eye in a dog, a cat, and a sheep? Does the shape of the pupil change from time to time in any of these animals? (1898)

13. Describe the fore-foot of a cat, a dog, and a sheep. The bones of the foot need not be described in detail. Draw a footprint of each animal (fore-foot), and show how each part of the print is produced. (1898)

14. Give a short account of the life of a bat. When and where does it seek its food? How does it pass the winter? (1898)

15. Give illustrations (from your own experience if possible) of the curiosity of dogs and cats. Show that their curiosity is necessary to their welfare. (1901)

16. Mention animals which are nocturnal (only coming forth at night), animals which burrow in the ground, animals which are solitary, and animals which are social. (1901)

17. How are young cats treated by their mother when they are helpless, when they first run about freely, and when they are able to get their own food? (1903)

18. Mention some of the peculiarities which serve in most cases to distinguish the hind limb of a quadruped from the fore limb. (1905)

19. The habits of an animal can be inferred from its teeth. To what extent is this statement true of (_a_) the cat, (_b_) the rabbit? (King’s Scholarship, 1905)

FOOTNOTES:

[13] _The Descent of Man._ Cheap edition, 1s. (Murray).

[14] Gilbert White, _The Natural History of Selborne_.

[15] See Lloyd Morgan’s _Habit and Instinct_ (Arnold), Thompson-Seton’s _Wild Animals I have known_ (Nutt), and Long’s _School of the Woods_ (Ginn).